“WET H2S CRACKING PROBLEM IN OIL REFINERY PROCESSES – MATERIAL SELECTION

AND OPERATION CONTROL ISSUES

DP Ghosh
Haldia Refinery
Indian Oil Corporation Limited
Purba Medinipur , Haldia - 721606
West Bengal, India

ABSTRACT

Operating an Oil refinery today means searching for methods to reduce risk to personnel and
plant equipment. There are so many deterioration processes active on refinery equipment /
piping etc. But this paper will concentrate on material selection and operational control issues
related to “Wet H2S Cracking” in refinery process environment. This paper will also address
operational control like wash water injection, corrosion inhibitor dosing and APS dosing for
substantial reduction of “Wet H2S” related damages in operating equipment / piping.
Inspection methods (WFMT etc) & its priorities, intervals and extent of inspection are also
covered in the papers.

Keywords: Wet H2S, SSC, HIC, Blistering and WFMPI

INTRODUCTION

The “Wet H2S cracking” problem in oil industry was first recognized in the 1970’s and guidance
on material requirements to avoid SSC was published at that time by NACE as MR0175. In
earlier days, it was hoped that the blistering and hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) observed in
many refinery process vessel were isolated occurrences. The findings of NACE international
task group T-8-16 survey during 1990 i.e cracking of existing carbon steel pressure vessel in wet
H2S process environment had also raised significant concern in the petroleum refining industry.
And the survey in 1988-1990 had revealed cracking incident in “Wet H2S “ environment varied

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from a low of 18 to 19 % in Crude units and Coker fractionation units to a high of 45 % in Fluid
Catalytic Cracking (FCC) Light ends units. High cracking incident was also reported in other
process units include FCC fractionation (41%), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) (41%).

Presently, a better appreciation of the consequences of wet H2S damages has been ascertained
because handling of H2S rich process streams in oil industry has a safety consequence also and
its mitigation methods are getting prime importance and selection of wet H2S cracking
resistance material for various process units like FCCU, DHDS, COKER continues to be the
thrust areas in future The safety issue is inescapable and can only be addressed by ensuring the
proper facilities like proper material, suitable inspection frequency and timely replacement and
this a also link up with economic consideration.

OVERVIEW OF WET H2S DAMAGES

The “Wet H2S Cracking” problem in Oil refinery and Gas plant covers a range of damage
mechanisms that can occur due to the effects of aqueous hydrogen charging in "Wet H2S"
process environments (refinery or gas plant). Types of damage that can occur as a result of
aqueous hydrogen charging include sulfide stress cracking (SSC) of hard weldments and
microstructures, hydrogen blistering, hydrogen Induced cracking (HIC) and stress-oriented
hydrogen induced cracking (SOHIC). Carbonate cracking is also a related mechanism, which is of
concern in high pH streams containing significant levels of sulfide and carbonate ions.

The key characteristic of Wet H2S cracking mechanisms involve charging of the steel with
hydrogen at relatively low temperatures, most often as the result of corrosion process, which
evolves hydrogen. The role of the H2S is to “poison” the hydrogen recombination reaction that
would ordinarily occur and force the hydrogen atom to enter the metal structure rather than
bubble off from the corroding surface. Wet H2S cracking occurs under acidic conditions like
present in oil field applications. It also occurs in refinery applications where the pH is around 6
or higher due to presence of ammonia. Chloride may also present in some refinery streams,
which generally increase corrosion. Cyanides may also present in some streams, which increase
corrosion rates by reducing the protectiveness of iron sulfide corrosion products and also act as
a strong hydrogen recombination “poison”.

REFINERY PROCESS UNITS AND ITS SECTIONS / EQUIPMENTS HAVING POTENTIAL

FOR “WET H2S DAMAGES”

Blistering, HIC, SOHIC and SSC damage can occur throughout the refinery wherever there is a
wet H2S environment. In Fluidized catalytic cracking unit (FCCU), Fractionator tower,
fractionator’s overhead drums, absorber column, stripper column, WGC interstage coolers,
separators and knockout drums and connected heat exchangers are prone to Wet H2S cracking
problem. Debutaniser tower of FCCU is also vulnerable for SSC, blistering and HIC problem.

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Presence of cyanides in FCCU overhead section will increase probability and severity of Wet
H2S damages.

Entire vapor recovery section of delayed coking unit is vulnerable for potential Wet H2S
damage and presence of cyanides will significantly increase the probability and severity of
blistering, HIC damage.

Sour water stripper overhead systems are especially prone to Wet H2S corrosion problem and
this will increase if cyanides are also present like sour water of FCCU. Amine regenerators over
head systems are also prone to Wet H2S damage and cyanide has also similar effect. In hydro
processing units increasing concentration of ammonium bisulfide increases the potential for
blistering, HIC. Acid gas rich amine flash drum is also vulnerable for severe hydrogen
blistering.

Hydrogen absorption of carbon steels equipments due to result of wet ammonium bisulfide
(NH4HS) corrosion in effluent condensers of hydro processing / hydro cracking units in
refineries and in stripper column over head systems of hydro treating units are well known and
thus blistering and HIC is also likely in the same sections.

Carbonate cracking may be prevalent in the main fractionators overhead and wet gas
compression system of Fluidized catalytic cracking units, sour water strippers and delayed
coking unit.

Failure of CS weld in HCO recycle circuit of RFCCU was observed at stresses considerably below
the yield of hard metal due to sulfide stress cracking while processing wild naphtha of DHDS.
The wild naphtha was having H2S content around 20,000-ppm wt and operating temperature was
40 degree C and operating pressure was at 5.0 Kg/ Cm2g pressure. The line originally was not
PWHT and hardness was above 200 BHN.

DESCRIPTION OF SSC DAMAGE

Sulfide stress cracking (SSC) is a form of cracking that involves hydrogen embrittlement of the
metal by atomic hydrogen that is produced by the corrosion reaction of wet H2S with the metal.
SSC is typically intergranular with little branching, and some times may contain some
transgranular portions. SSC is more likely to occur in high strength (high- hardness) materials
or in hard weld deposits or hard heat- affected zones (HAZs) of welds in lower- strength
material.

Environment severity leading to SSC

Susceptibility to SSC is very much dependant on the degree of hydrogen charging in the
material, which is primarily associated with the process environmental parameters like pH and
sulfide content of the water. The lowest hydrogen flux in steels typically results from corrosion

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in near natural pH solutions (pH 5.5-7.5). The hydrogen flux resulting from wet sulfide corrosion
increases both as the pH increases and as the pH decreases from this near neutral range.
Corrosion at the lower (more acidic) pH values is caused by higher concentrations of dissolved
H2S in the water whereas corrosion at the higher (more alkaline) pH values is caused by higher
concentrations of the bisulfide ion in the water.

The sulfide content of the water is generally related to the H2S partial pressure in the gas
phase associated with the water. In acidic sulfide environments, SSC is likely to occur when the
H2S partial pressure exceeds 0.0003 MPa absolute or 3 mbara (0.05 psia). This corresponds to
approximately 1-3 ppm of H2S dissolved in the water. The likelihood of SSC increases with
increasing sulfide application in the water. At sulfide to concentrations greater than 1,000 ppm
the likelihood of SSC is considered to be high. Presence of significant levels of cyanides (>20
ppm) in the water at pH values above 7.5 increases the hydrogen charging of the steel and can
produce a high likelihood of SSC at lower sulfide concentrations.

Susceptible material parameters for SSC

Susceptibility to SSC is related to two materials parameters- hardness and tensile stress level.
The hardness of the base metal is its strength level. Materials with a high hardness are more
susceptible to SSC is generally considered a concern for materials with a tensile strength that
exceeds 620 MPa (90 ksi). Therefore, SSC is highly likely to occur in the low- alloy steel and
other more highly alloyed materials whose tensile strengths exceed this level. SSC of the
typical carbon steel base metals used for pressure vessels and piping in wet H2S service in
oilfield, gas and refining facilities is not a concern because of their low hardness levels.
However, weld deposits and heat affected zones (HAZs) in welded carbon steel may contain
local areas of high hardness due to the presence of non- tempered martensite and high residual
stresses associated with the welding that could increase susceptibility to SSC.

Guidance on environmental conditions leading to SSC of Carbon Steels

Sulfide stress cracking (SSC) is especially dangerous because of the speed of cracking if
susceptible steel is exposed to a H2S- containing environment whilst under some level of tensile
stress; potentially causing a crack within hours. This was recognized in the 1970's and the
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) in the USA (Materials Recommendation,
MR0175) published the first document giving guidance on materials requirements to avoid SSC
at that time. That document defined a specific environmental condition, which was termed "sour
service” within which there is a risk of SSC of materials that are susceptible. Sour conditions
were defined from the total pressure of the system and the concentration of H2S in the gas
phase.
In the mid 1990's the European Federation of Corrosion (EFC) published two European
documents. EFC publication 16 was concerned with carbon and low alloy steels and EFC
publication 17 was concerned with corrosion resistant alloys. EFC 16 defined sour service in
terms of the partial pressure of H2S and the pH of the environment.

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Most recently (2003), the above-mentioned two approaches were combined in a new ISO
standard, drawing together the American and European work in an ISO standard, ISO 15156.
This allows the user to select the definition of sour service based on the NACE approach
(considering only the partial pressure of H2S), or the EFC approach (considering the partial
pressure of H2S and the pH of the environment).

Guidance on environmental conditions leading to SCC of Stainless Steels

Early versions of MR 0175 probably did not give any guidance on the conditions within which
stainless steels could be safely used in sour service as they originally concentrated on carbon
steels. However, later versions incorporated advice on a range of materials including 300- series
stainless steels. The following text quotes section 3.5.1 from the 1995 version of MR 0175:

“Austenitic stainless steels with chemical compositions as specified in accordance with the
standards listed in Table 1, either cast or wrought, are acceptable at a hardness of 22 HRC
maximum in the annealed condition, provided they are free of cold work designed to
enhance their mechanical properties".

However, it is now recognized that stainless steels have a risk of chloride stress cracking in
sour environments, which contain chloride ions. The exact combinations of conditions, which are
most likely to result in cracking, are not fully defined for every combination of chloride ion
concentration, partial pressure, pH and temperature. However, the new ISO 15156 document
has fixed some guidelines for solution annealed (i.e. without cold work) 300 series stainless
steels at a maximum hardness of 22HRC.

This states two separate limiting conditions, one for low chloride ion concentration and one for
unlimited chloride ion concentration as quoted below.

Temperature Partial pressure Chloride Comments

0
C of H2S (psi) concentration
(ppm)
60 15 Any Any combination of chloride ion and
in- situ pH are allowed
60 50 50 Any pH found in normal producing
environments is acceptable

Specifically for instrument tubing and associated compression fittings the document states in
Table A.4 that S31600 (AISI 316) stainless steel has been used to date without environmental
restriction and so no limits are set on its use in sour service. A comment is added that "some
combinations" of temperature, in- situ pH, partial pressure of H2S and chloride ion
concentration may not be acceptable.

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 DESCRIPTION OF BLISTERING / HIC / SOHIC

Hydrogen blisters are subsurface planar cavities that from in a metal as a result of excessive
internal hydrogen pressure resulting from corrosion in wet H2S environments. The blisters
usually from parallel to the surface and are typically located within the one- third of the wall
thickness nearest the process- exposed surface. Hydrogen blister form at exactly one- half of
the wall thickness when the hydrogen collects in a mid- wall lamination present from plate
manufacture. Blisters located near the surface in low- strength metals usually produce visible
surface bulges.

Cracks can occur from one blister to the next. Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC) is defined as
stepwise internal cracking that connects adjacent hydrogen blisters on different planes in the
metal, or to the metal surface. No externally applied stress is needed for the formation of HIC.
The driving force for the cracking is high stresses at the circumference of the hydrogen
blisters caused by build – up of internal pressure in the blisters. Interactions between these
high stress fields tend to cause cracks to develop that link blisters on different planes in the
steel. The build- up of pressure in the blisters is related to the hydrogen permeation flux in the
steel.

Environment severity leading to HIC / SOHIC

If there is no water present in the equipments / piping not only normal operating condition but
also start up, shutdown, process upsets then the equipments / piping is considered not
susceptible to hydrogen blistering and HIC / SOHIC. To determine the environment severity of
blistering and HIC/ SOHIC, H2S level in water phase and pH of water phase needs to be
ascertained. Moreover, presence of cyanide in the operating condition (lice presence in overhead
of RFCCU) also plays some significant role in HIC/SOHIC. All carbon steel equipments those are
exposed to even trace of H2S may potentially suffer HIC/SOHIC.

Carbon steels are susceptible to hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC). This can occur when carbon
steel is exposed to hydrogen sulfide; the risk of HIC should be considered when the partial
pressure of H2S > 3.5 mbar.

HIC can theoretically occur at lower levels of H2S, though as the partial pressure decreases the
rate of accumulation of hydrogen damage decreases. The 3.5 mbar level is set as a practical
level below which significant HIC damage would not be expected to accumulate during a normal
service life. At higher levels of H2S, the rate of hydrogen entry is expected to increase
(although there is not a linear relationship between the amount of H2S in the environment and
the amount of hydrogen which enters the steel). What can be stated is that the likelihood of
HIC damage becomes greater at higher levels of H2S.

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Susceptible material parameters for HIC / SOHIC

Hydrogen blisters most often occur in rolled plate steels, especially those with a bonded
microstructure resulting from elongated sulfide inclusions or voids. Susceptibility to hydrogen
blistering, and therefore HIC is primarily related to the quality of the plate steel, i.e., the
number, size and shape of the discontinuities.

Stress- oriented hydrogen- induced cracking (SOHIC) involves HIC that connects arrays of
small hydrogen blisters that are stacked in a through- wall orientation. The through-wall
orientation of the cracking results from residual or applied tensile stress in the plate. SOHIC
usually occurs in the base metal adjacent to the weld HAZ, where local stresses are highest due
to the additive effect of residual stress from welding and applied stress from internal pressure.

Although HIC and SOHIC are much more prevalent in pressure vessel steel plate fabrications,
they have occurred in steel piping in severe hydrogen charging services. HIC and SOHIC in
piping systems is more likely to involve pipe / piping components manufactured from rolled and
welded plate steel than in seamless pipe, where only a very limited number of instances have
been reported.

DESCRIPTION OF CARBONATE CRACKING DAMAGE

Carbonate cracking (also know as carbonate stress corrosion cracking or carbonate SSC) refers
to cracking of a steel under the combined action of tensile stress and corrosion in the presence
of an alkaline sour water- containing moderate to high concentrations of carbonate ion.
Carbonate cracking is predominantly intergranular in nature, and typically occurs in as- welded
carbon steel fabrications as a network of a very fine (spider- web like) cracks. Carbonate
cracking typically propagates parallel to welds in adjacent base metal. Carbonate cracking has
been most prevalent In the main fractionators overhead and wet gas compression system of
fluidized catalytic cracking units, sour water strippers, and delayed cracking unit.

Environment severity leading to carbonate cracking

The key parameters used to assess susceptibility of steel fabrications to carbonate cracking
are the pH of the sour water, the carbonate ion concentration of the sour water, and the level
of tensile stress. For example, with sour water pH above 9.0 and carbonate concentration above
100 ppm, carbonate cracking is highly likely to occur. There is a low threshold stress level for
carbonate cracking to occur. If there is no free water present, or if the water phase present
contains less than 50 ppm H2S, then the equipment/ piping considered is not susceptible to
cracking. If the equipment/ piping contains a water phase with 50 ppm or greater H2S at a pH of
7.6 or greater, than the equipment/ piping is considered susceptible for cracking.

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Susceptible material parameters for carbonate cracking

As- welded or as- bent carbon steel fabrications are susceptible to carbonate cracking because
of the level of residual stress remaining after fabrication. If the equipment/ piping is properly
stress relieved, then it is considered not susceptible to carbonate cracking.

PREVENTION / MITIGATION OF SULFIDE STRESS CRACKING

The prevention of sulfide stress cracking is mainly accomplished by appropriate materials

selection, e.g. in accordance with NACE MR0103 / ISO 15156. In addition, the weld hardness
should be controlled, in accordance with NACE RP0472 (e.g less than 200 BHN). This usually
involves appropriate controls in the welding procedures (e.g. preheat, weld heat input and PWHT
etc.). Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) is often used to reduce the likelihood of sulfide stress
cracking of steel even further. PWHT significantly reduces residual stresses and also tempers
(softens) weld deposits and HAZs. A postweld heat treatment of about 620o C (1150o F) for one
hour per 25 mm (1 inch) of thickness (one hour minimum) is considered to be effective for
carbon steel. Higher temperatures are required for low alloy steels in accordance with the
ASME sec VIII div 1.

Evaluation of risk of SSC

Inspection for SCC is to be considered in the process units those are having potential for SCC.
Generally, wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing of about 50 – 100 % of weldments is
considered to be a highly effective intrusive inspection method whereas shear wave ultrasonic
testing of 25- 100%of weldments, transverse and parallet to the weld is considered to be highly
effective non-intrusive inspection method.

PREVENTION / MITIGATION OF HYDROGEN BLISTERING AND HIC/SOHIC

The prevention of hydrogen blistering and HIC/SOHIC can, to a large extent, be accomplished
by appropriate materials selection. In this regard, the sulphur content of the steel is a key
material parameter. Reducing the sulphur content of the steel, combined with a proper
normalizing heat treatment for grain refinement, reduces the susceptibility of blistering and
HIC/ SOHIC. The limits of sulfur vary depending on whether equipment is cast, forged,
seamless or made from rolled plate steel.

The steel sulfur limits below which HIC does not occur are as follows (taken from Section 8 of
ISO 15156). Addition of calcium to the steel for sulfide inclusion shape control each generally
beneficial reducing the likelihood of HIC/ SOHIC. Since PWHT significantly reduces residual
stresses, this will be beneficial in reducing the likelihood of SOHIC. However, depending upon
the manufacturing route, HIC will be more or less severe; welded items being the most
susceptible. Seamless or cast steel are indicated to have only "MINOR” HIC risk.

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 Manufacturing Route Steel- Sulfur below which there is no HIC
Cast <0~025%
Forged <0.025%
Seamless <0.01 %
Rolled plate steel <0.003% or <0.005% + calcium treatment

Even continuously inhibited equipment may suffer HIC if made of susceptable material. But
Inhibitor dosing will reduce the rate of corrosion. The rate of HIC damage accumulation will be
lowered and this will have some impact upon the frequency of inspection for HIC. But inhibitor
may introduce some operational problems.

Evaluation of risk of hydrogen blistering / HIC / SWC

Thus the recommended approach is to inspect equipment to detect the onset and early stages of
growth of cracking. With time passes, the HIC damage may gradually build up and crack linking
may arise, at which stage it may become necessary to replace equipment. The frequency of
inspection is determined by the anticipated rate of accumulation of HIC/ SWC damage and its
severity:

• The risk of HIC in forgings and castings is considered to be so low that these need not
be inspected for HIC.
• Seamless pipe is very resistant to HIC, and an inspection period of 6 years is considered
safe. It is also considered that inspection of seamless pipe need only commence once HIC
has been positively identified in welded pipe. That is, the welded pipe in the plant can be
used as a 'tell-tale" to indicate the increase in HIC risk.
• A 6- yearly inspection has been assigned to welded items (including vessels made from
plate steel) which are internally., coated and to welded items without internal coating,
but exposed to H2S partial pressures less than 0,05 psi.
• A 3- yearly inspection has been assigned to welded items (made from plate steel), which
are & exposed to H2S partial pressures greater than 0.06 psi.

The above inspection frequency guidance is used to consider the HIC inspection approach for all
items of equipment considered in the plants. By contrast, steels fully meet the limiting Sulfur
levels as they were purchased to HIC requirements. Thus, these carbon steels may not be
provide total resistant to HIC in actual refining condition and so periodical inspection is also to
be considered for HIC resistant steel.

However, blisters shall be inspected (dia, projection, min thickness, crack etc) and evaluated as
per API 579 guidelines for their acceptance / rejection in different level of assessment. If
Blisters are present to the extent that repairs are necessary then venting of entrapped
hydrogen is to be considered with appropriate caution and safety.

In the process section / equipments having potential for damages, inspection for HIC is to be
considered and generally, Wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing of 50- 100% of weldments,

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plus additional shear is considered to be a highly effective intrusive inspection method whereas
no non-intrusive method is considered to be highly effective.

PREVENTION / MITIGATION OF CARBONATE CRACKING

The prevention of carbonates cracking mainly accomplished by application of a post- fabrication

stress- relieving heat treatment (e.g. post weld heat treatment) for susceptible equipment and
piping. A heat treatment of about 620o C (1150o F) for one hour per 25 mm (1 inch) of thickness
(one hour minimum) each considered and effective stress- reliving heat treatment to prevent
carbonate cracking of carbon steel.

Evaluation of risk of carbonate cracking

Inspection for carbonate cracking is to be considered in the process units those are having
potential for same and generally, wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing of 100% of repair
welds and 50- 100% of other welds/ cold bends is considered to be a highly effective intrusive
inspection method. Evaluation of risk of carbonate cracking shall be reassessed in totality for
any major process chances like de-sulphurisation of FCCU feed. This de-sulphurodation will
reduce the H2S level in the overhead system of FCCU and will increase the pH level (relatively)
even may be upto 10 and thus requires Post weld heat treatment to avoid cracking in future.

OPERATION CONTROL ISSUES

Hydrogen blistering problem in Delayed cracking unit, fluid catalytic cracking unit and their gas
plants are due to presence of wet H2S, NH3 and cyanides. The most severe areas for blistering
and weld cracking are in compressor after coolers, high-pressure knockout pot and the
deethanizer. Some blistering and weld cracking may occur in the remainder of the equipment but
there is much less occurrence and usually less severe blisters in size and depth. However,
severity of problem in delayed cracking unit is less compared to catalytic cracking unit.

In most of the refinery it is common practice to water wash the susceptible section of the unit
in addition to water present from steam stripping, thus producing a wet environment, which
contains hydrogen sulfide, ammonia and cyanide. This environment has produce hydrogen
blistering and weld cracking. In these systems the ratio of hydrogen sulfide to ammonia controls
the pH of the system. At pHs between 5.5 to 7.5, lowest corrosion and hydrogen blistering will
occur. Corrosion at the lower pH values (more acidic) is caused by higher concentrations of
dissolved H2S in water. Corrosion at the higher pH values (more alkaline) is caused by higher
concentrations of the bisulfide ion in the water.

There are varieties of approaches like water washing, polysulfide addition, as well as the use of
organic filming inhibitors for prevention of both corrosion and hydrogen blistering in fluid
cracking units. But there is some debate over effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors for
preventing hydrogen blistering, as they do not prevent diffusion of hydrogen into the steel.

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Controlling of cyanides is the most important aspect for controlling blistering and HIC related
problem. By wash water injection, dilution of the amount of contaminants, among them cyanides
also, present in the water separated in plant. The generally accepted industry norms for
cyanides in the water solution is between 10- 20 ppm as because this limit allow the FeS layer to
formed on the steel and for the existing layer to remain intact. But there is some limitation;
dilution method for controlling cyanides problem is generally acceptable practice upto the level
of 1500 ppm nitrogen level in the crude oil.

Polysulfide injection along with wash water is producing protective layer and controlling
corrosion. But polysulfide being a very unstable, its supply chain system is highly complicated.
Some times it precipitates as free sulfur and causing dosage lines and pumps to clog up. On site
polysulfide generation systems by peroxide injection is found to be the most suitable method
for cyanide control.

Injection of filming inhibitor has been researched in laboratory but its efficacy in process plant
still in question technically as well as economically.
Treatment of overhead condensates of FCCU with carbohydrazide is also a suggested method
for prevention of blistering problem in FCCU. The amount of carbohydrazide used to treat
these overheads may vary from as little as 0.5 ppm, up to as much as 100-200 ppm.

CONCLUSIONS

For wet H2S system, low sulphur steel is to be used with qualified HIC resistant properties
(CSR, CLR, CTR). During fabrication, recommended weld hardness with PWHT shall be
maintained for SSC resistant steel. Wet H2S system is to be periodically re-inspected even if
made of HIC resistant steel because these steel may not be total resistant in actual refinery
operation. For any major operational changes, total system shall be critically reviewed with
respected to Carbonate cracking also.

References and Bibliography

1. ISO 15156/ NACE MR0175 Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries - Materials for Use in
H2S- Containing Environments in Oil and Gas Production. Published by ISO, Dec 2003
2. EFC16 "Guidelines On Materials Requirements For Carbon And Low Alloy Steels For H2S
Containing Environments In Oil And Gas Production", published by The Institute of
Materials, London 1995
3. EFC17 "Corrosion Resistant Alloys For Oil And Gas Production: Guidelines On General
Requirements and Test Methods For H2S Service.", published by The Institute of
Materials, London 1996
4. NACE MR 0103: Materials Resistant to Sulfide Stress Cracking in Corrosive Petroleum
Refining Environments (2003).

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5. “Sulfide Stress Cracking” in API Publication 581, Risk- Based Inspection Base Resource
Document, 1st Edition, May 2000.
6. “Hydrogen- Induced Cracking and Stress- Oriented Hydrogen Induced Cracking in
Hydrogen Sulfide Services (HIC/ SOHIC- H2S)” in API Publication 581, Risk- Based
Inspection Base Resource Document, 1st Edition, May 2000.
7. “Carbonate Cracking” in API Publication 581, Risk- Based Inspection Base Resource
Document, 1st Edition, May 2000.
8. NACE RP 0472: Methods and Controls to Prevent In- Service Environmental Cracking of
Carbon Steel Weldments in Corrosive Petroleum Refining Environments (2000).
9. NACE RP 0296: Guidelines for Detection, Repair, and Mitigation of Cracking of Existing
Petroleum Refinery Pressure Vessels in Wet H2S Environments (2004).
10. J. H. Kmetz and D.J. Truax, Carbonate Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon Steel in
Refinery FCC Main Fractionator Overhead Systems, NACE paper # 2006.
11. R.R. Petrie and E.M. Moore, Jr. Determining the Suitability of Existing Pipelines and
Producing Facilities for Wet South Service, Materials Performance 28, 6 (June 1989), pp.
59-65.
12. Singh, V, "Performance of Austenitic Stainless Steels in Wet Sour Gas - Parts 1 and 2
Materials Performance, August and September 2004

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