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Heat Transfer Engineering

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Effect of Inclination Angle and Filling Ratio on Thermal

Performance of a Two-Phase Closed Thermosyphon
under Normal Operating Conditions
a

S. H. Noie , M. R. Sarmasti Emami & M. Khoshnoodi

a

Chemical Engineering Department, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran

Chemical Engineering Department, Sistan and Baluchestan University of Zahedan, Iran

Version of record first published: 06 Mar 2007.

To cite this article: S. H. Noie , M. R. Sarmasti Emami & M. Khoshnoodi (2007): Effect of Inclination Angle and Filling Ratio on
Thermal Performance of a Two-Phase Closed Thermosyphon under Normal Operating Conditions, Heat Transfer Engineering,
28:4, 365-371
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01457630601122997

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Heat Transfer Engineering, 28(4):365371, 2007

C Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Copyright 
ISSN: 0145-7632 print / 1521-0537 online
DOI: 10.1080/01457630601122997

Effect of Inclination Angle and Filling

Ratio on Thermal Performance of a
Two-Phase Closed Thermosyphon
under Normal Operating Conditions
S. H. NOIE
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Chemical Engineering Department, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran

M. R. SARMASTI EMAMI and M. KHOSHNOODI

Chemical Engineering Department, Sistan and Baluchestan University of Zahedan, Iran

In this paper, the effect of the inclination angle on the thermal performance of a two-phase closed thermosyphon with different
filling ratios has been investigated experimentally under normal operating conditions. A series of experiments were carried
out for inclination angle range of 5 90 and filling ratios of 15%, 22%, and 30%. A copper thermosyphon with an outside
diameter of 16 mm, an inside diameter of 14.5 mm, and a length of 1000 mm was employed. Distilled water was used as
the working fluid. The results show that the two-phase closed thermosyphon has the highest thermal performance in the
inclination angle range of 15 60 . A good agreement was observed between the experimental results of this study and those
available in the open literature. The interesting phenomenon of geyser boiling occurred in our experiments for filling ratios
equal or greater than 30%. The geyser boiling puts no limitation on thermal performance of thermosyphon, but it should be
avoided because it damages the condenser end cap due to the slug striking.

INTRODUCTION
Two-phase closed thermosyphons, also known as wickless
heat pipes, are a class of heat pipes in which there is no wick
inside the pipe. It consists of an evacuated-closed pipe filled with
a certain amount of a suitable pure working fluid. The two-phase
closed thermosyphon has three main sections: the evaporator,
adiabatic, and condenser. When heat is added to the evaporator
section, the working fluid inside the pipe vaporizes and carries
heat from the heat source to the condenser section, where heat is
transferred to the heat sink. The condensate working fluid returns
to the evaporator section by gravity force; hence, the condenser
section of the pipe must be located above the evaporator section.
Due to the large latent heat transfer associated with the phase
change processes, a large quantity of heat can be transferred from
the evaporator section to the condenser section with a relatively
small temperature difference.
Address correspondence to Professor S. H. Noie, Chemical Engineering
Department, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, P.O. Box 91779489441111, Iran. E-mail: noie@um.ac.ir

An important advantage of the two-phase closed thermosyphon is that its critical heat flux is 1.21.5 times greater
than the heat pipe [1].
Thermosyphons have many applications, such as waste heat
recovery, food industries, power generation, air conditioning
systems, water heater solar collectors, medicine, human body
temperature control, and de-icing the roads [27].
Thermal performance of the thermosyphon is affected by
many factors, such as the type of working fluid, filling ratio
(ratio of volume of working fluid to volume of evaporator section), aspect ratio (ratio of evaporator section length to inside
diameter of pipe), inclination angle (from horizontal axis), operating pressure (or corresponding saturation temperature), and
length of various sections of the pipe.
Based on the available literature, the effect of inclination
angle on the thermal performance of thermosyphons has been
studied experimentally for a selected filling ratio. In the present
investigation, the above effect has been studied for three filling
ratios of 15%, 22%, and 30%, and results were compared with
available data. These filling ratios were chosen in order to avoid
the dry-out and geyser boiling phenomena in the experiments.

365

366

S. H. NOIE ET AL.

Because one of the applications of inclined thermosyphons

is the heat transfer determination of solar water heaters, the collected data at low heat input would assist the performance prediction near sunrise and sunset and also under cloudy conditions.

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REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORKS

Negishi and Sawada [8] experimentally studied the heat transfer performance of an inclined two-phase closed thermosyphon.
They used water and ethanol as working fluids, and found that
highest heat transfer rates are obtained when the filling ratio
(FR) is between 25% and 60% for water and 40% and 75% for
ethanol. The inclination angle should be between 20 and 40
for water, and more than 5 for ethanol. Amornkitbumrung et al.
[9] studied the effect of the inclination angle on the heat transfer
rate of a two-phase closed thermosyphon, using a copper-water
thermosyphon. They concluded that the highest heat transfer
rate occurred at 22.5 , with a filling ratio of 30%. Payakaruk
et al. [10] investigated the heat transfer characteristics of copper thermosyphons with 7.5, 11.1, and 25.4 mm inner diameter.
They used water, ethanol, R-22, R-123, and R-134a as working
fluids. They found that the optimum inclination angle for water
is between 40 and 70 . Terdtoon et al. [11] investigated the
effect of the aspect ratio and Bond number on the heat transfer
characteristics of an inclined two-phase closed thermosyphon
experimentally. They realized that the optimum inclination angle for water is between 70 and 80 from a horizontal axis.
Wang and Ma [12] studied condensation heat transfer inside
vertical and inclined thermosyphons. They found that the inclination angle of a thermosyphon has a notable influence on
the condensation coefficient, and the optimum inclination angle
varies with liquid filling from 20 to 50 . Shiraishi et al. [13]
investigated the effect of the aspect ratio and filling ratio on the
critical heat transfer rate of an inclined thermosyphon experimentally. They found that Q c,i /Q c,90 can be correlated well with
modified Kutateladze number (K) with an accuracy of 10%.
However, due to both the differences in the operating conditions and diverse values of the optimum inclination angle in the
previous works as well as insufficient research on the effect of
the inclination angle for different filling ratios on a two-phase
closed thermosyphon (especially for water as a working fluid at
low input heat), in this study, the effects of the above parameters
have been investigated experimentally.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE
In order to study the thermal performance of the two-phase
closed thermosyphon, an experimental setup has been designed.
The schematic of the experimental test rig is shown in Figure 1.
The thermosyphon consists of a 1000 mm long 16 mm
OD 14.5 mm ID copper tube. The length of the evaporator
section is 410 mm, the adiabatic section is 180 mm, and the
condenser section is 410 mm. Water was used as a working
heat transfer engineering

Figure 1 The experimental test rig.

fluid. A 410 mm-long water jacket surrounds the condenser section, and cooling water flows through the annular passage of
the jacket. The water inlet and outlet temperatures of the jacket
were measured by two digital thermometers, TESTO. A constant head tank was placed two meters above the top of the
thermosyphon and connected to the cooling section via a plastic
pipe. The flow rate of cooling water was measured by a rotameter. The electric heater of the evaporator section was made of a
nickel-chrome (Ni-Cr) wire with a nominal power of 1000 W.
The electric heater was covered by an electrical insulating tape
and rock wool insulation of 32 mm thick. In order to reduce heat
loss to the surroundings, other sections of the thermosyphon
were covered by rock wool as well.
Temperature distribution along the external surface of the
thermosyphon was measured by seven Ni-Cr thermocouples mechanically attached to the surface of the pipe. Thermocouples
were glued by a highly conductive epoxy in the midline between the upper and lower sides of the pipe. In order to reduce
the effect of convection from the cooling water flowing through
the jacket, the thermocouples were mounted on the surface of
the condenser passing through the jacket using small tubes. The
small tubes were welded on the surface of thermosyphon. After
attaching the thermocouples, the insides of the small tubes were
filled by araldite. In addition, low cooling flow rates of water
were used. All seven thermocouples were connected to a datalogger, which was in turn connected to a personal computer for
displaying data.
Three digital thermometers, TESTO, were attached to the
surface of insulation of all three sections to measure the temperatures at the same axial locations. The measured temperatures of insulated surface were used to calculate the heat loss by
convection from the thermosyphon. The operating pressure was
measured by a pressure gauge connected to the upper part of the
thermosyphon.
The accuracy of the measurements was approximately 1 C
for temperatures of the external surface pipe, 0.1 C for inlet
and outlet water, 4% for water flow rate, and 2% for pressure
measurement.
Before charging the pipe, it was cleaned thoroughly to remove
any grease or oil from the inner surface. Then, a mechanical
vol. 28 no. 4 2007

S. H. NOIE ET AL.

vacuum pump was used for the elimination of the noncondensable gases from the thermosyphon. The thermosyphon
was vacuumed down to 0.001 mm Hg. Finally, the pipe was
charged with the distilled water to make it ready for the experiment.
A series of experiments were performed for inclination angle
range of 5 to 90 , keeping FR at 15%, 22%, and 30%.
CALCULATION OF INPUT AND OUTPUT HEAT
TRANSFER RATE
The following calculations were carried out to determine the
input and output heat transfer of the thermosyphon. The actual
input heat to the evaporator section was obtained from Eq. (1).
Q in = VI Q loss

(1)

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where Q loss is sum of heat losses from the thermosyphon by

radiation and free convection to the surroundings.
Q loss = Q rad. + Q conv.
Radiation heat transfer rate was evaluated from Eq. (3):

 4
4
Q rad. = A Tins.
Tair

(2)

(3)

where = 0.087 and = 5.669 108 W/m2 K4 .

Heat transfer rate by free convection was calculated from
Eq. (4):
Q conv. = h conv. A(Tins. Tair )

(4)

Free convection heat transfer coefficient on a vertical cylinder

was evaluated from Eq. (5) [14]:
2

h conv. L t
0.387Ra 1/6
Nu =
(5)
= 0.825 + 


9/16 8/27

0.492

1+
Pr

The sum of heat losses (Qloss ) was calculated by substituting the

experimental data in Eqs. (25) and found to be about 3% of
input power to the evaporator section. From this amount, about
0.4% was due to convection loss and the rest was due to radiation
loss.
The transmitted heat from the condenser section is equal to
the heat transferred to the cooling water flowing through the
jacket and was calculated from Eq. (6).
p,w (To,w Ti,w )
Q out = mc

367

The condenser temperature, Tc,m , was taken as the arithmetic

mean of surface temperatures of the condenser section. As Lee
and Bedression [15] showed that Tv = Ta , when L e /L c = 1, Ta
was used here instead of Tv in the present calculations. This assumption has also been made by many other researchers [1013].
The saturation vapor temperature (Tv ) was obtained by measuring the operating pressure. The saturation vapor temperature was
very close to the adiabatic temperature (Ta ), which confirms the
above assumption.

CALCULATION OF HEAT TRANSFER LIMITS

Although heat pipes are very efficient heat transfer devices,
there are various parameters that put limitations and constraints
on the steady and transient operation of heat pipes. These limitations determine the maximum heat transfer rate, which must be
examined for each working fluid. The type of limitation that restricts the operation of the heat pipe is determined by the one that
has the lowest value of heat transfer rate at a specific heat pipe
working temperature. Physical phenomena that might limit heat
transport in two-phase closed thermosyphons are due to sonic,
flooding (or entrainment), dry-out, and boiling. For FR >20%,
the critical limits are flooding and boiling limits, whereas for
FR < 20%, the critical limits are mainly dry-out and boiling [7].
As 15% FR 30% in the present work, all of the limits should
be examined.
Sonic limit was computed using expressions reported by
Dunn and Reay [16]:

Rv Tv
Q c,90 = v h fg Av
(8)
2( + 1)
where Q c,90 is the heat transfer rate limits at a vertical position.
The boiling limit was evaluated based on a correlation proposed by Gorbis & Savchenkov [17]:


2
Q c,90
= C 2 0.4 + 0.006Di g(l v )/
Q c,
where Q c, is the critical heat transfer for pool boiling,

Q c, = 0.142Ae v [g(l v )]1/4

C = 0.538

Experimental condensation heat transfer coefficient was evaluated from the following equation (see [7]):
hc =

Q out
Ac (Tv Tc,m )

(7)

heat transfer engineering

(10)

and C is

(6)

CALCULATION OF CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER

COEFFICIENT

(9)

C = 3.54

 D 0.44
i

Lc
 D 0.44
i

Lc

 D 0.55
i

Le
 D 0.55
i

Le

(F.R)0.13

(F.R)0.37

FR 0.35
(11)
FR > 0.35

The flooding limit was evaluated based on a correlation proposed

by Faghri [7]:
2

1/4
Q c,90 = Kh fg Across [g(l v )]1/4 1/4
+ l
(12)
v
vol. 28 no. 4 2007

368

S. H. NOIE ET AL.
Table 1 Heat transfer limits

where

K =

l
v

0.14
tanh2 (Bo)1/4

Finally, the dry-out limit was computed based on an improved

Cohen and Baylay model [18]:



Q c,90
g(l v ) 1/4
v h f g
2v

= Acr oss

gl2

4

Dc /De

3l L e g2v (l v )

Vt / Dc



2/3 
[(4L c /5) + L ac ] + De /Dc
L ae + 3L e /4

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 3
Ve /Vt Vl /Ve v /l


1 v /l

Filling ratio limit

(13)

Sonic
Flooding
Boiling
Dry-out

22%, 30%

15%

2880 W
1160 W
118 W

2880 W

90 W
80 W

The lowest limit among the four constraints defines the maximum heat transport limitation of the thermosyphon. Because
the input heat (50 W) is lower than all of the heat transfer limits,
the thermosyphon operates without any problem.

3
Effect of Inclination Angle on Condensation
Heat Transfer Coefficient

(14)

The above correlations are used for the vertical position of

the thermosyphon. For the inclined thermosyphon, the following
correlation [13] was used for the calculation of the heat transfer
limitations:


2
(v /l )1/2 + 0.05
Q c,i /Q c,90 = 1 + 0.13
1 (15)
(v /l ) + 0.05
where Q c,i is the heat transfer rate limits at inclined position.

In order to determine the effect of the inclination angle and

filling ratio on the condensation heat transfer coefficient inside
the condenser section, the experimental results using Eq. (7) are
plotted in Figure 2. It shows the variations of condensation heat
transfer coefficient for filling ratios 15%, 22%, and 30% with
respect to inclination angle.
It can be seen that:

the condensation heat transfer coefficient is increased as the

filling ratio increases.
the maximum condensation heat transfer coefficient takes
place at  = 30 for FR = 22% and 30% and at  = 45 for
FR = 15%.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The effect of the inclination angle in the range of 5 
90 on thermal performance of a two-phase closed thermosyphon with different filling ratios has been investigated experimentally. There are two limits for the filling ratio. The lower
limit is because of the dry-out phenomenon, which is usually
around <15% [1], and the upper limit is due to geyser boiling
(around 30%). Therefore, in order to avoid these phenomena,
the experiments were carried out for 15 FR 30%. Several
tests were performed, and the results were compared with a previous work [8]. The experimental results are presented in the
following sections.

Effect of Inclination Angle on Output Heat Transfer Rate

In this section, the effect of the inclination angle and filling
ratio on output heat transfer rate from the condenser section is
examined. Figure 3 shows the variation of output heat transfer
rate versus inclination angle for filling ratios 15%, 22%, and
30%.

Heat Transfer Limits

The values of Q c,i /Q c,90 were calculated using Eq. (15).
Due to the low operating temperature of the inclined two-phase
closed thermosyphon, the value of Q c,i /Q c,90 was varied in
the range of 1.13 to 1.15 for 5  90 . As the variation of
Q c,i /Q c,90 is very low, the heat transfer limits were calculated
for three filling ratios, 15%, 22%, and 30%, using Eqs. (8), (9),
(12), and (14). The results are listed in Table 1.
heat transfer engineering

Figure 2 Variation of the condensation heat transfer coefficient versus the

inclination angle.

vol. 28 no. 4 2007

S. H. NOIE ET AL.

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Figure 3 Output heat transfer rate for three filling ratio with respect to the
inclination angle.

It can be seen that the maximum output heat transfer rate takes
place in the range of 15  60 for all three filling ratios and
heat transfer rate increases with increasing filling ratio.

Comparison of Results
As explained earlier, the experimental results of this work
can be compared with those of Negishi and Sawada [8]. Figure
4 shows the variation of the heat transfer ratio of inclined to
vertical thermosyphon (Q i /Q 90 ) versus the inclination angle for
a filling ratio of 15%. As shown in Figure 4, a good agreement
(around 2% on average) was observed between the results of the
two studies.

Geyser Boiling
An interesting phenomenon happened during the experiments
for FR 30%. During a specific period, shock occurred and
the thermosyphon vibrated vigorously. At this moment, the out-

369

Figure 5 Variation of the outlet jacket water temperature and the adiabatic
temperature.

let water temperature from the condenser section had a sudden

change for a very short time and then returned to its normal
condition. After a short time, the phenomenon repeated. This
phenomenon has been called geyser boiling [19, 20].
Figure 5 shows a typical situation for the variation of the outlet
jacket water temperature and adiabatic temperature against time
over a period of 20 minutes in order to reach the steady-state
condition. The inclination angle of the thermosyphon was 75 .
A qualitative assessment of the geyser boiling process can be
deduced from Figure 5. In the initial stage, the quiescent singlephase liquid water in the evaporator gradually heats up and is set
into motion by thermal buoyancy. As the wall gets hot enough
to initiate the bubble nucleation, a single bubble emerges at
the most active nucleation site. This bubble grows quickly to
a very large size, comparable to the tube diameter. The output
water stays at a low temperature, except when some liquid is
pushed up by the growing bubble from the evaporator to the
condenser. An abrupt rise in the outlet temperature of cooling
water occurs when the hot liquid reaches the condenser section
from the evaporator section. The following drop in the outlet
water temperature and adiabatic section temperature is due to
the fall back of the liquid to the evaporator.
The geyser boiling is not a limitation to heat transfer, but it
should be avoided because it damages the container wall due to
the slug of liquid striking the condenser end cap.

CONCLUSIONS
The effect of the inclination angle and liquid filling ratio on
thermal performance of thermosyphon has been investigated under normal operating conditions experimentally. Based on these
results, the following conclusions have been reached:
Figure 4 Comparison of the results of this study with those of Negishi and
Sawada [8] for FR = 15%.

heat transfer engineering

The condensation heat transfer coefficient is increased as filling ratio increases.

vol. 28 no. 4 2007

370

S. H. NOIE ET AL.

The maximum condensation heat transfer coefficient for

FR = 22% and FR = 30% takes place at  = 30 , and at
 = 45 for FR = 15%.
The maximum output heat transfer rate for all three filling
ratios occurs between 15 and 60 .
The heat transfer rate increases with increasing filling ratios.
An interesting phenomenon of geyser boiling happened during the experiments for filling ratios equal or greater than 30%.
The geyser boiling does not put any limitation on thermal performance of thermosyphon, but it should be avoided because
it damages the condenser end cap due to the slug striking.

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NOMENCLATURE
A
Ac
Across
Ae
Av
Bo
C
cp
c p,w
cv
Dc
De
Di
FR
g
hc
h conv.
h fg
I
k
K
L ac
L ae
Lc
Le
Lt
m
Nu
Pr
Q c,i
Q c,90
Q c,
Q conv.
Qi
Q in
Q loss
Q out

lateral surface of pipe, m2

condenser lateral surface, m2
crosssectional area of pipe, m2
evaporator lateral surface, m2
crosssectional area 
of vapor, m2
Bond number (= Di g(l v )/)
defined by Eq. (11)
specific heat at constant pressure, J/kg. C
specific heat of water at constant pressure, J/kg. C
specific heat at constant volume, J/kg. C
condenser diameter, m
evaporator diameter, m
internal diameter of pipe, m
filling ratio, ratio of volume of working fluid to volume
of evaporator section, = Vl /Vt
gravitational acceleration, m/s2
condensation heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 . C
convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 . C
latent heat of vaporization, J/kg
current, A
thermal conductivity, W/m. C
modified Kutateladze number,
{= ( l )0.14 tanh2 (Bo)1/4 }
v
length of adiabatic section with diameter Dc , m
length of adiabatic section with diameter De , m
condenser length, m
evaporator length, m
total length of pipe, m
mass flow rate of water, kg/s
Nusselt number, = h conv. L t /k
Prandtl number, = /
heat transfer rate limits at inclined thermosyphon, W
heat transfer rate limits at vertical thermosyphon, W
critical heat transfer for pool boiling, W
convection heat transfer rate, W
heat transfer rate at inclined situation, W
input heat into the evaporator section, W
heat loss by radiation and convection, W
transmitted heat from the condenser section, W
heat transfer engineering

Q rad.
Q 90
Rv
Ra
Ta
Tair
Tc,m
Tf
Ti,w
Tins
To,w
Tv
V
Ve
Vl
Vt

radiation heat transfer rate, W

heat transfer rate at vertical situation, W
gas constant, J/kg.K
Rayleigh number, = g(Tins. Tair )L 3t /
temperature of adiabatic section, C
temperature of air, C
average temperature of wall of condenser section, C
film temperature, C
inlet water temperature of condenser, C
temperature on external surface of insulation, C
outlet water temperature of condenser, C
vapor temperature, C
voltage, V
evaporator volume, m3
liquid volume, m3
internal volume of pipe, m3

Greek Symbols

l
v

thermal diffusivity of air (= k/c p ), m2 /s

inverse of film temperature of air (= 1/T f ), K1
specific heat ratio of air ( = c p /cv )
dynamic viscosity of liquid, kg/m.s
dynamic viscosity of air, kg/m.s
kinematic viscosity of air (= /), m2 /s
density of air, kg/m3
density of liquid, kg/m3
density of vapor, kg/m3
Stefan Boltzmann constant in Eq. (3) (W/m2 .K4 ); surface tension (N/m) in other equations
emissive factor of insulator
inclination angle (measured against horizontal)

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S. H. Noie is a professor in the Chemical Engineering
Department, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.
He received his Ph.D. in 1988 from Aston University
in Birmingham, UK. His main research interests are
heat pipe and its applications, heat pipe heat exchangers, solar collectors, and waste heat recovery. He has
published more than 50 articles in well-recognized
journals, books, and proceedings.

M. R. Sarmasti Emami is a Ph.D. student at Sistan and Baluchestan University of Zahedan, Iran. He
received his masters degree and Licentiate degree
from Sistan and Baluchestan University of Zahedan,
Iran. Currently, he is working on two-phase close thermosyphons and their optimization.

M. Khoshnoodi is a professor of Chemical Engineering at Sistan and Baluchestan University of Zahedan,

Iran. He received his Ph.D. in 1978 from Imperial
College of Science and Technology, University of
London, UK. His main research interests are combustion, thermodynamics, and air pollution. He has
published more than 50 articles in well-recognized
journals, books, and proceedings.

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