List of Tables Vi List of Figures

con
nt
te
s
List of tables vi
List of figures viii
Abbreviations x
Acknowledgements xii
Introduction xiv
1 the customer and fashion consumption 1
2 marketing research and information for fashion 21
3 fashion marketing segmentation, targeting and positioning (STP) 51
4 marketing mix: the fashion product 86
5 marketing mix: pricing in fashion 124
6 marketing mix: promotion and marketing communications 156
7 marketing mix: place – channels of distribution and service 204
8 branding in fashion and luxury 245
9 new approaches to fashion marketing 272
10 strategic and tactical planning in fashion marketing 289
Glossary 324
References 351
Index 354
97814039_19021_01_Plm.indd 5 24/10/08 2:44:41 pm

chapter 1
the sto
cu mer
a nd fashion consumption
Effective fashion marketing is about using customer insight to excite.

Steven Sharp – Marketing, Store Design and e-Commerce Director, Marks & Spencer
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss a range of issues that are central to the
focus of all marketing activity – the customer. The customer should be the first
consideration for any marketer and is the embodiment of demand for all fashion
products and/or services. The majority of books on marketing theory refer to
customers within the parameters of segmentation or consumer behaviour.
However, it is our belief that there is sufficient to say about customers to justify a
discrete chapter that augments a separate section on segmentation in chapter 3.
A fundamental concept of marketing is that a business should make what
it can sell, as opposed to attempting to sell what it has made. The assumption
in the first part of this statement is that a business identifies a gap in the
market based on customer demand and then provides products to satisfy it.
The statement also alludes to different commercial approaches to business,
one of which is marketing-led and another which is product-led. A marketing-
led approach, also known as a customer-centric approach, has the customer at
the centre of marketing activity, whereas a product-led approach focuses on
developing products to sell.
Arguably the balance of power has now shifted more towards consumers
and away from businesses. Today’s consumer is well-informed about brands,
products and prices, and has a sophisticated and continually evolving set of
complex needs and wants which can be satisfied by a range of competing
alternatives. The shift in power has also resulted in many consumers feeling
that they ‘own’ or have a strong emotional attachment to a brand. For example,
in 2005, Marks and Spencer rebranded around the slogan ‘Your M&S’.
This acknowledged research which reflected the strong views and personal
associations that so many of their customers have with the brand. A number of
97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 1 24/10/08 2:48:00 pm

marketers argue that brands now belong to consumers and are no longer the sole
preserve of their parent company. Fashion adds a further complex dimension
to understanding consumers and predicting their wants and behaviours since it
changes so quickly.
Customer and consumer

The two words ‘customer’ and ‘consumer’ are often interchangeable but do not
always refer to the same thing. The term ‘consumer’ is normally used to refer
to someone who personally consumes a product or service and is, therefore,
the end-user of that product or service. The consumer may or may not have
bought the product himself/herself (for example it may have been a present),
but will be the person experiencing its benefits. In fashion the most obvious
category of consumer is someone who buys, then wears, the fashion products
sold by brands. An individual who wears an item of fashion clothing is said to be
consuming that fashion product according to economic and business theory.
Goods sold by brands (in the widest sense of the word) are normally referred
to as consumer goods and the vast range of goods and services that a household
would use fall into this category. The term ‘consumer’ is used in various ways to
distinguish the individual from a business customer, such as a fashion retailer
buying fabric from a textile manufacturer. The Consumer Prices Index (CPI)
is a government measure of inflation that is calculated each month. It takes
a sample of goods and services that a typical (consumer) household might
buy, including food, heating, household goods and travel costs. The clear
assumption therefore is that a consumer is the individual who uses the product
or service for its intended end purpose. The terms ‘business-to-business’ (B2B)
and ‘business-to-consumer’ (B2C) also draw a distinction between business
customers and end-user consumers.
The term ‘customer’ is broader and refers to an individual or organisation
who or which buys a product or service from a business or other organisation.
As such, a customer may be either an end-user consumer or a B2B customer.
In fashion there are many B2B customers as any brands selling products to
consumers will themselves be customers of other businesses with whom they
trade in a supply chain. For example the fashion brand Gap is a customer of the
merchandise- identification (tags and labels) business Shore-to-Shore. Shore-
to-Shore sells a range of merchandise-identification products including RFID
(radio-frequency identification) and barcode tickets, woven brand labels and
garment care labels which are important to Gap’s fashion products (Gap being
their customer but obviously not the end-user consumer of the product).
It is important to distinguish between the term ‘consumer’, who is the end-
user of a product and the word ‘customer’, which may refer to a business. This
is because the consumer will possess attitudes and opinions based on his/her
experience of the benefits delivered by the fashion brand and its products.
Marketers need to understand the difference between the two terms, as each
refers to a separate commercial scenario and each requires a fundamentally
mastering fashion marketing
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different marketing approach. Much research exists on purchase decision-
making and other related behaviours (during and after purchase) which
specifically relate to the consumer.
Brands may also need to articulate the benefits of fashion products to their
consumers in a more detailed and sophisticated way than other businesses in
the supply chain that also contribute to that product, such as the label and RFID
supplier. Some businesses in a fashion supply chain are not as focused on final
product benefits of the fashion product which the consumer buys and uses. This
is because they manufacture and sell component parts that combine to deliver
the end product, for example fabric, trims, services and transportation. Their
customer is in fact the brand (retailer or other). The complexity of the fashion
supply chain varies widely depending upon the size, product type and market
level of a business – each business must be certain to whom it is addressing any
marketing activity or marketing communication. Every fashion consumer and
customer has a unique set of needs, wants and demands. Failure to understand
these requirements will automatically lead to wasted marketing effort.
Categories of fashion customer
1 Business to consumer (B2C)

In the context of fashion, B2C refers to the commercial relationship that exists
between a fashion brand and the end-user consumer of the products supplied by
that brand. In this case the consumer is a customer of a fashion brand retailing
any fashion products and services. Brands retail their products and services to
consumers through a variety of channels, including their own directly operated
stores (including concessions), mail order and transactional websites.
2 Business to business (B2B)
B2B refers to the commercial relationship that exists between businesses in a
fashion supply chain. Some typical examples include:
x a textile supplier selling fabric to a clothing manufacturer;
x a contract manufacturer selling fashion clothing and related products to
fashion buyers for their stores;

x a PR agency selling its services to a fashion brand;
x a trend-prediction company selling its service to a fashion brand.
Readers should note, though, that the term ‘customer’ can apply in both a B2B
context and B2C context. In addition, there is now another category, referred to
as Consumer to Consumer (C to C), which has emerged from internet auction-
based trading.
The fashion context

To a large extent, the fashion industry is product-led or design-led, depending
on the type and market positioning of a fashion business. Many middle-market
the customer and fashion consumption
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and niche fashion brands (including retailers) rely on differentiation in fashion
design, styling and image to justify their market and price positioning. This
approach effectively means that brands dictate fashion choices to consumers
each season.
Further, since fashion is disposable and most fashion products do not
endure much beyond a few seasons, consumers frequently start each season
with a ‘blank canvas’. In fact most consumers do not know what product they
are going to end up buying. When shopping for fashion products, consumers
will generally have an idea of the type of product they want (e.g. coat, pair of
jeans, top) and a selection of brands, but will rarely have an accurate idea of the
exact version they will select. This is because the wide choice available to them
and the impact of point of sale (POS) marketing has a significant influence on
decisions at the point of sale.
This uncertainty in the selection process is different for many non-fashion
products, such as food and household items, where consumers’ decisions
are far more reliable and predictable. The uncertainty and the last-minute or
impulse decision-making that are inherent to fashion shopping make it difficult
for brands to plan with any degree of certainty how consumers will behave and
respond to new seasons’ ranges.
Practising marketers and those studying the subject of fashion marketing can
benefit from an understanding of how consumers make purchasing decisions.
The field of consumer buying behaviour is well established and contains a
variety of useful concepts and models, which explain different aspects of
consumers’ purchasing. The following is a selection of those that the authors
believe to be most useful. Readers should remember, though, that all generic
theory and models require critical evaluation before being applied to fashion.
Consumer behaviour
It is generally accepted in marketing literature that a consumer’s purchase
decision is the result of an array of internal and external influences. Influences
internal to a consumer are those relating to personality, motivation, perception
and self-image. They are specific to the individual. External influences are
much broader in range and include the macro environment in which the
consumer lives, as well as specific group influences such as peers, family and
other reference groups.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A key internal stimulus for behaviour is need. Abraham Maslow (1943) famously
classified human needs into a hierarchy of different categories (see figure 1.1).
His belief was that people satisfy their basic needs first, the most basic being
associated with sustaining one’s physiology. They include hunger, thirst and
health. The hierarchy is based on the premise that people satisfy their basic
needs before those higher up the hierarchy. For example, Maslow might argue
that a consumer would ensure that his/her hunger is satisfied before worrying
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Self-actualisation needs
Esteem needs
Social needs/need to belong
Safety needs
Physiological needs
figure 1.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (adapted)
about social or esteem needs. In a general sense this is true, although there are
Jackson Figure 1.1
plenty of examples in fashion of consumers prioritising spending on fashion
clothing and accessories over a healthy diet.
At an extreme level some individuals suffering from poor self-esteem may also
suffer eating disorders, which could see them spending more money on trying
to resolve their esteem issues through fitting in with a group or addressing a
status problem at the expense of eating and their health. Consequently a fashion
context may require marketers to re-evaluate the hierarchy and its application
to some consumers’ behaviour.
The theory is that individuals are motivated to satisfy their needs in order
of priority. At the basic level of physiological need, people are concerned with
satisfying the basic drives of thirst, hunger and, to more varying degrees, sex.
Modern lifestyles are such that an individual may well satisfy multiple needs
simultaneously. For example, a young person may conspicuously consume an
isotonic sports drink (physiological and safety needs) from a branded container
(social and status needs) following a sports competition. In this example the
isotonic drink helps protect the person by including essential salts and sugars.
The brand is on show to reinforce social membership among like-minded peers
and provides the individual with a degree of status according to the brand.
In most cases fashion clothing and accessories are going to be addressing the
top three levels of social needs, esteem needs and self-actualisation needs. Social
and self-esteem needs are fairly obviously linked to the use by consumers of
brands that conspicuously display group/tribe membership, status and identity.
However, some designer and luxury brands also attempt to satisfy consumers’
self-actualisation needs through the communication of a set of attitudes, beliefs
and brand values that are esoteric and appeal to a consumer’s perceived spiritual
well-being. This is often achieved through conveying messages about inner-
directed simplicity, serenity, independence from the mainstream, and a sense
of a confident individual ‘having arrived’ at peace with himself/herself. Such
needs may collectively be grouped under marketing terms such as ‘well-being’,
which is an enhanced state achieved through the use of exotic and culturally
97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 5 24/10/08 2:48:05 pm

interesting potions, treatments and esoteric value systems. In such cases a
consumer is often investing a great deal of faith and belief in the marketing
message and image of a product or service compared with its content.
Further influences on behaviour which are internal to the consumer include
personality and other psychological factors involving motivation, learning,
perception and beliefs and attitudes.
Personality
Personality is a unique combination of psychological traits which combine to
direct an individual’s response to stimuli. Typically the stimuli that marketers
are concerned with are products, brands, prices, communications, distribution
channels and the customer interface. The response sought by marketers is
ultimately sales, although securing consumers’ attention, interest, enquiries
and trials (of products) are also important steps leading to a sale. Interest in
consumers’ personalities arises as brands endeavour to design and manufacture
products, prices, communications and shopping environments that are
consistent with target consumers’ personalities. Consequently, a young (in
terms of attitude) fashion retailer brand aims to reflect the personality of ‘young
at heart’ and trend-aware fashion consumers within a wide (demographic)
age spectrum. The distinction between Gucci and Yves Saint Laurent luxury
fashion brands in the late 1990s was articulated by Tom Ford’s summary
statements of the target consumer profiles rock chick for Gucci and film star
for YSL. Since then Gucci has evolved under different management and more
recently summarised the same two brands as Gucci – seductive, powerful,
accomplished; Yves Saint Laurent – contemporary chic.
Motivation
Motivation refers to the reason for an action. In the context of fashion
consumption, motivation is the drive to be fashionable each season. Human
motivation can be determined by both physiological and psychological needs.
In a consumer society, needs inevitably turn into wants as consumers avail
themselves of a wide choice of products and services to satisfy a particular need.
Consumers normally end up ‘wanting’ a particular brand for the augmented
benefits that a product often provides, such as brand image and status. Some
argue that the process of purchasing or shopping has itself become an addictive
experience for many consumers. The old saying ‘It is better to travel hopefully
than to arrive’ suggests that the journey is often more exciting for some than the
destination reached. This is true for many shopaholics for whom the process and
experience of shopping and spending money is more pleasurable than owning
the products purchased. Consumers who are motivated are ready to act.
Perception
To perceive something is to grasp it with the mind and to place a degree of
interpretation upon it. The way in which consumers respond to marketing
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very much depends on how they perceive the marketing mix of the product in
question. People living in developed consumer societies are bombarded with a
mass of general marketing messages every waking hour. Such an onslaught of
information requires individuals to screen out most of the information in order
to remain sane. Shock tactics may help some brands to cut through the noise
of competitors’ marketing and grab consumers’ attention. For example, FCUK’s
ambiguous brand name and Puma’s limited edition Bonnie and Clyde sneakers
(generating controversial PR) both succeeded in creating some of the world’s
most memorable marketing campaigns.
However, effective targeting, based on current and reliable research, enables
marketers to use language, imagery and cultural references to influence
customers’ perceptions. In this way marketers hope to overcome the selective
way in which individuals receive and interpret information.
Learning
In human development there is a continuing debate about the relative impact
of nature versus nurture. However in terms of consumer preference, brands
are learned. Individuals’ actions result in experiences from which they learn.
Learning may also occur from the vicarious experiences of reference group
figures that have an influence on an individual. The learning process has been
modelled in a simple way below.
Drive refers to a need, problem or other internal stimulus that motivates a
person to act in a particular way, for example a child who wants to be part of
a social group of peers. Stimulus refers to an object that is the focus of the
drive. In the example a pair of sneakers may be regarded by a child as a vehicle
for demonstrating shared values and common ground with peers. Cue is an
indicator guiding when, where and how the individual will act. In the example
a specific sneaker brand will be a cue that the child and his/her peers may
associate with identity and status. If the response from the group of peers to
the brand is positive, then there will be reinforcement of the sneaker brand’s
value as a tool to solve that particular problem.
Drive
Stimuli
Cue
Response
Reinforcement
figure 1.2 the learning process
Jackson Figure 1.2 the customer and fashion consumption
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Self-concept/self-image
In many developed societies where social structures have become more
fragmented and less cohesive, greater attention is placed on the self. Trend
experts and cool-hunters reference significantly changed consumer attitudes
towards being single, as marriage plays a less influential role in society than it
has in the past. Weddings in the UK in 2007 were at an all-time low. Notions
of personal freedom and me-focused lifestyles and brands help micro-segment
the increasingly large number of individuals who are unmarried.
Self-concept (also referred to by marketers as self-image) is used to
understand individuals’ motivations, preferences and actions. Theory tells us
that individuals have different self-images in different situations. Consumers
are likely to buy products that support their self-image. The actual self-image
is how the person really sees himself/herself. For example, an individual may
consider himself/herself to be trendy, a free spirit and environmentally ‘green’,
all of which may guide the purchasing behaviour of products. People also
have an ‘ideal self-image’ (how they would like to see themselves, for example
as successful) and a ‘social self-image’ (how they think others see them).
Individuals may need to compromise their self-image in some situations to
conform to recognised and required types. For example, working environments
often impose a dress code and promotion may require individuals to project
an image through their appearance, which is consistent with what they believe
others to regard as successful.
Group theory
Theory concerning group influence on consumers’ buying behaviour states that
consumers refer to individuals from various groups to assist in the formation
of attitudes, opinions and behaviours relating to the selection and purchase of
products and brands. Marketers tend to categorise consumers into membership
and reference groups, according to the level of contact and influence of the group
on the individual. The interest in groups is concerned with the extent to which
marketers can use the influence of group members in marketing to an individual.
The family is considered to be a very significant influence on an individual
member in the selection of products and brands. Marketers are concerned with
the roles and influence of the wife, husband and children on the selection and
purchase of many fast-moving consumer goods (FMCGs). Many people still
cling to the brands they used when growing up after having left the family unit
and established their own household. However, the notion of what the family
is has changed significantly since the 1950s. Attitudes to marriage and divorce,
greater economic wealth, birth rates and increased life expectancy have
contributed to many more single-person households. In many single-person
households, family may refer not to a biological connection but to a group of
close friends. Other groups including friends and work colleagues can also
act as important influencers on awareness of, advocacy for and motivation to
purchase products and brands.
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Diffusions of innovation
Rogers’s 1962 model (see figure 1.3) is still used today as a broad guide to
classifying individuals’ propensity to adopt new products (Rogers, 2003).
The model has five simple classifications that are spread across a bell curve,
illustrating the array of tendencies across a population:
x innovators;
x early adopters;
x early majority;
x late majority;
x laggards.
As with any generic model there are difficulties in application to a specialist area.
For example, fashion is a phenomenon which is open to broad interpretation
across a range of products from new technologies such as iPods/iPhones to
simple T-shirts. The term ‘innovator’ may refer to the first few individuals to
own an iPhone when applied to the consumption of technologies such as mobile
phones/personal digital assistants (PDAs). The user has no involvement in the
creation of the new product but is a conspicuous user of it. However, a fashion
innovator refers to an individual who creates and conspicuously displays a style
that later becomes fashionable. The two scenarios are different in terms of
creativity, originality and influence. In many cases innovators will move away
from, adapt or evolve a style to suit themselves.
categories of innovativeness
Early Early Late

adopters majority majority Laggards
13.5% 34% 34% 16%
Innovators
2.5%
figure 1.3 categories of innovativeness
Knowing your customer

The term ‘customer insight’ refers to a deep level of understanding about
customers’ needs and wants. Market research studies are important sources of
information about how consumers behave (in terms of their shopping activities)
and their
Jackson Figure values,
1.3 attitudes, lifestyles and opinions. However, fashion brands
lose potentially valuable information on a daily basis as consumers exit shops
97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 9 24/10/08 2:48:10 pm

without buying anything. Although some of this can be explained as consumers
browsing, other causes inevitably relate to product or pricing problems. Product
problems may be concerned with inappropriate designs, quality, poor fit and
the lack of available sizes or product styles. Similarly, price points may be too
high or price architectures inappropriate or confusing. A customer who spends
time in a retail outlet and does not buy represents a potential missed sale and
lost marketing opportunity. Common approaches to resolving stock problems
normally involve the merchandising function in a fashion business. However,
brands may also gain crucial insights into the causes of overstocking and
poor sales by talking directly to their customers. Sometimes this may take the
form of ad hoc qualitative research or quantitative surveys, although the best
information is obtained from a continuous dialogue with regular customers
who are known to staff in stores. In reality missed sales form an important part
of the total sales equation: actual sales + missed sales = potential sales.
Consumer profiling
Chapter 3 explains consumer profiling as part of the segmentation and targeting
process in fashion marketing. However, readers need to be aware that fashion
brands should, as a matter of course, create profiles, or pen portraits, of their
customers in order to help create a focus for marketing activity. A pen portrait
is a written description of the typical customer of a fashion brand and includes
the following details:
x demographics – a typical name, e.g. a stereotypical association with
Shaz = low, Clarissa = high (recognising the important association of
names with social groups), age, disposable income, family life stage,
education, job;
x lifestyle – weekly activities relating to work and social lives;
x attitudes, interests and opinions – about contemporary life and popular
culture;
x fashion adoption level – innovator, leader, follower, laggard;
x user occasions – situations when consumers have a need for a particular
product.
Although this is an effective way of narrowing a target market and helps
marketers to visualise a typical person, it is still only a written description
that is devoid of any sense of life. The authors recommend using photographic
images of actual consumers, to add a real visualisation that can supplement
the written pen-portrait description. A photographic gallery of consumers can
provide real insights into who a brand’s consumers really are. Such visual data
can also be analysed to identify other brands that the consumer is ‘wearing’
(such as clothing, accessories, shopping bags, baby buggies, key fobs, jewellery
and mobile phones).
Interestingly, Gobé (2001) makes the point that the consumer is often viewed
as the enemy in the aggressive marketing strategies and tactics employed and the
language adopted to ‘target’ consumers and ‘decode’ their language. Consumers
10 mastering fashion marketing
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should be seen as real people. A further note of caution is that over-reliance
by a brand on a narrowly defined target customer, who cannot possibly reflect
the full spectrum of their consumers, may overlook the important individuals
within micro-markets.
Generation gaps?
Each generation is different from the previous one. The distinctions used to be
clear. Young people tended to be rebellious and older people more conservative.
However, segmentation by generation type reveals marketing opportunities for
fashion businesses, as the once-young generations become older and attempt
to retain aspects of their youth. This enables marketers to segment consumers
by attitude instead of age.
Generation categories
Baby boomers, Generation X (Gen-X) and Generation Y (Gen-Y) are further
classifications of consumers that differentiate the characteristics specific to each
generation. Although the terms more commonly apply to markets in the US,
the characteristics defining each generation translate into most Westernised
societies:
x Baby boomers: Born 1946–64, they are motivated by achievement
and performance, interested in image and status and have experienced
significant social change. They are now generally one of the wealthiest
consumer segments.
x Gen-X: born 1965–76, they have grown up in a reshaped society
(multicultural, different family structures), are focused on self and others
with shared values (tribes) and are creative and independent.
x Gen-Y: born 1977–94, they are experiencing a much faster society in which
multi-media communications and technology are central. They are more
commercially aware at a younger age, but have a low level of interest in
politics and religion.
Baby boomers are considered to be marketing literate, but are also influenced
by marketing and advertising. They are redefining attitudes and behaviours
at milestone ages and life stages, as their youthful mindset is different from
previous generations of the same age. This segment may be the last to enjoy
generous pensions and to benefit from the high appreciation in the value
of the homes that they own. Gen-X consumers are believed to be cynical
of marketing and much more individual in their fashion styling. Gen-Y
consumers have been referred to as ‘prosumers’, reflecting their autonomy
over purchasing decisions. They are ‘marketing-smart’, do not respond
well to conventional brand communications and have a wide choice of
products and brands available to them. Other more colloquial generational
references include the ‘Pepsi generation’ that refers to a particular market
creating youth lifestyle, and Trendwatching’s Generation C (meaning
the customer and fashion consumption 11
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content) (Gen-C) that refers to the large numbers of people contributing
to user-generated content on various websites. This phenomenon is most
commonly associated with social networking and is examined in more
detail in chapter 9.
Views from current marketing research into those with whom people have
most or least in common indicates that individuals have least in common with
family members and neighbours and most in common with close friends and
others with whom they share interests. These categories are likely to cut across
classes and income levels. Today a womenswear fashion consumer is as likely
to be wearing an item of clothing from the supermarket brand George as she is
to own a Tiffany bracelet or a Burberry scarf. In a new culture of democratised
fashion and accessible luxury, the demands of aspirational consumers are fully
met by aspirational brands.
Social grade
Social grades, or socio-economic groups, are still used by market researchers
to classify consumers into segments, but play a minor role in modern fashion
segmentation. This is because mass-market fashion is no longer a homogenous
market, but a highly fragmented one, in which consumers’ tastes are more
likely to be driven by niche reference groups and fashion ‘tribes’ than by
social class. Furthermore, ‘value retailers’, such as Primark, and supermarket
fashion (dubbed ‘consumer couture’), from Tesco and Asda, have helped shift
consumers’ opinions about the credibility of such fashion products. There
is no longer a stigma associated with owning value fashion products and, if
anything, there is an inverted snobbery from many fashionistas and opinion
leaders about wearing low-priced fashion. The success of charity-shop retailing
and the recent big trend in vintage and retro fashion, much of which could
be bought from charity shops and second-hand stalls, has helped to reinforce
the ‘low price is cool’ message. It is interesting to note that, despite the recent
upsurge in enthusiasm about the sustainability of fashion, low-priced value
fashion still has a major following.
Marketers have recognised the importance of identifying and grouping
table 1.1 common acronyms for target customer groups
Yuppies Young Urban Professionals

Dinkies Double Income No Kids Yet
Sinkies Single Income No Kids Yet
Bobos Burnt-Out But Opulent People
Woopies Well-Off Older People
Jollies Jet-Setting Oldsters With Lots Of Loot
Glams Greying Leisure-Affluent Middle-Aged People
Wags Wives and Girlfriends (of footballers)
Mads Mums and Dads (of footballers)
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segments of consumers for many years. The communication of specific types
through the media helps give some groups a personality which people can
recognise and with which individuals relate. Table 1.1 includes some of the
better known acronyms for target customer groups.
Frequently marketers will use acronyms, buzz words or other memorable
terminology to identify new or significant consumer groups. ‘Prada and
Primark’ is a simple illustration of how brand names may be put together to
describe a particular shopper – in this case a consumer who mixes expensive
and cheap fashion products and is personally wealthy but likes to find bargains.
In addition to the names that are in fact acronyms, other important fashion
consumer groups of the late 1990s and this millennium include:
x ladette: female equivalent of lads;
x metrosexual male: stylish urban man ‘in touch’ with his feminine side;
x tweeny: style and fashion conscious pre-teen (normally girl but also boy).
Marketing researchers often create their own typologies to describe meaningful

groups of target consumers. This may involve the application of one or more
demographic or lifestyle characteristics to define a group. For example, age
and family status add further information to develop gradations in profiling
consumers.
For example, a leading UK high-street retailer brand uses the following
interpretation of life stages for internal classification of its consumers. The
gradations in family life stages help it understand the direction, shopping
priorities and habits of its customers:
x carefree;
x kids are us;
x family ties;
x freedom finders;
x golden years.
Similarly, table 1.2 shows the typologies used in a large TGI Europa and BMRB
survey (23, 874 British adults aged 15+) conducted in 2004 (Mintel 2004).
table 1.2 fashion consumer typologies
Big spenders ‘I spend a lot on clothes’

Label seekers ‘A designer label improves a person’s image’
Stylish ‘I have a very good sense of style’
Fashion-conscious ‘I like to keep up with the latest fashions’
Well-dressed ‘It is important to me to look well dressed’
Shopaholics ‘I really enjoy shopping for clothes’
Practical ‘I buy clothes for comfort, not style’
Sporty ‘I do some form of sport or exercise at least once a week’
Individualists ‘I like to stand out in a crowd’
source: Clothing Retailing Europe, Mintel (October 2006).
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Chavs
In 2004 the phenomenon of the Chav as a category of conspicuous consumer
became the focus of considerable media attention in the UK. The attention
broadened to include the international media as luxury fashion brands
Burberry and Prada became associated with a Chav subculture. The popular
media portrayal of a Chav is one of a young, white, underachieving, poorly
educated and brand-obsessed individual. There are various explanations of
how the word Chav originated, some based on acronyms and others linked to
specific subcultures. Some commentators, including journalist and popular
culture commentator Julie Burchill, point out that the derisory focus on Chavs
is little more than a middle-class attack on a working-class sub-group. There is
no doubt that discussion of the precise derivation of the word is sport for the
media, but this is less relevant to business than the impact Chavs have had on
fashion branding. Both Burberry, and to a lesser extent, Prada are believed to
have suffered in the UK market as a result of the Chav association. Burberry has
a particular problem with subculture associations because of the prominence
of its highly recognisable trademark check, which featured on many of its
‘low-entry-price’ products. Lower-priced products, which typically include
accessories such as bags, scarves and caps, enable aspirational consumers, who
would not normally be able to afford to buy into a brand, to do so. Premium
and luxury fashion companies are often victims of their own success, having
created a highly desirable consumer brand whilst attracting a new but different
market. To some extent a trade-off exists for a brand like Burberry between
huge sales growth and brand dilution as less relevant consumers buy into their
products. Burberry has achieved growth and a rejuvenated brand positioning
but at the ‘expense’ of a link to Chavs and other problematic subgroups.
The downside of such success is the lack of control over those who buy and
associate themselves with the brand. However, Rose Marie Bravo, former CEO
of Burberry, is reported to have viewed the Chav issue as a trend that would
pass and not influence the brand’s strategy or affect its long-term survival.
The identification of Chav culture with the bling cultural phenomenon
has enabled the media to characterise trashy celebrity behaviour, lifestyles
and appearance as ‘Chav-like’. This has broadened the scope of Chav cultural
references and fuelled interest in the subject. Celebrities who have been
associated with the Chav phenomenon range from minor national celebrities to
global stars including Britney Spears. The media reporting of Britney Spears’s
second wedding in 2004 focused on aspects of the event that were perceived to
be deliberately ‘trashy’. This included the fact that the bride, groom and guests
all wore white shell suits, bearing the slogan ‘Pimps’, and enjoyed a wedding
breakfast consisting of cheeseburgers.
More recently Chav symbolism has been linked with the wearing of fashion
garments and accessories that conspicuously display price tags. Price tags are
left on the products following purchase in order to display the high price and
even sometimes the price reduction. One can speculate as to the motivation
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behind a perceived need to demonstrate what appears to be savvy shopping
and the owner’s affluent purchasing behaviour.
Burberry has also suffered a negative impact on its brand positioning from
its adoption by football hooligans. Organised hooliganism in football is often
associated with particular brands of clothing that have a strong English heritage,
including Aquascutum, Hackett, Stone Island and Burberry.
The next generation

A big issue for all businesses to consider in the near future is how the next
generation of consumers will differ from those of the past. Marketers need to
consider how future consumers may differ, especially in respect of the media
they interact with, the channels used to shop and the means of payment available
to them. There is much debate about the development of technology and its
impact on commercial activity. For example, the print media (newspapers and
magazines) are already under pressure from online substitutes or equivalents
and are internationally seeing circulation and readership numbers fall. Certainly,
audience figures for the main five TV channels in the UK are dropping, as satellite
and cable channels have taken audience shares away. However, many younger
consumers are defaulting to computer- and web-based media for news and
entertainment. Computer games, increasingly accessed and played communally
online, specialist sites such as www.sneakerfreaker.com and blogs are simple
examples of digital activities that compete with conventional media and
entertainment for young adults’ time and attention. Charles and Maurice Saatchi
have made a distinction in society between those who are fully engaged with new
technologies and media and those who are not, dubbing people as either digital
natives or digital immigrants. These issues are explored more fully in chapter 9.
The customer is king (?)

This is a popular saying which, along with ‘the customer is always right’, is a
reminder to businesses that the priority is to satisfy customers’ needs in
order to retain their business. Clearly neither statement is to be taken literally
but should reflect a customer-centric attitude within an organisation. This
means genuinely believing that the customer is the most important asset to
an organisation and acting accordingly through proper attention to research,
quality, service delivery and staff training. In fact, it is probably more accurate
to say that those fashion companies which possess up-to-date customer
information and insights are the kings. This is because insights into customers’
attitudes and opinions can help direct and target marketing activity more
effectively than the slavish adoption of a general mantra. Fashion businesses
need to see their customers as real living people with whom they can connect,
rather than a brief marketing-loaded description on a piece of paper that is
formed from detached market research data. A key question that any senior
fashion manager might ask himself/herself is, ‘How often do I meet, talk with
and listen to my customers?’
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Not all customers are kings. Most markets are no longer homogenous and
comprise individuals with different sets of values, attitudes and beliefs. This
means that businesses can no longer afford to take a generalised, ‘rose-tinted’
view of their customers. The reality for mass-market fashion businesses is that
customers are fickle and will switch to an alternative brand that offers what
they perceive to be a superior package of benefits. Ironically, the introduction
of so-called ‘loyalty’ schemes by supermarkets in the 1990s provided customers
with incentives to shop around at competing retailers to take advantage of the
different offers operating on different occasions. Many modern consumers have
learnt to hold back spending near the end of a season, in order to benefit from
the mid-season or end-of-season sales and secure a bargain. Reaction against
unreasonable and overly demanding customers is the principal theme of the
US website, www.customerssuck.com.
There is a shift away from regarding all customers as desirable clients and
a move towards the selective relationship management of customers who
represent greater profit potential. This is especially true in the financial services
sector. Fashion-brand store cards and other means of transactional data
collection can provide fashion brands with similar discriminating perspectives.
Cherry-picking and targeting more affluent customers is standard marketing
practice by fashion marketers.
Very selected targeting has resulted in the emergence of the ‘smart’ customer.
Government legislation has clarified consumers’ rights; individuals are more
aware of those rights through greater access to information and the reporting
of bad practice by consumer watchdogs and a variety of broadcast and print
media. There is also a feeling in the UK that large businesses are fair game for
the various guerrilla shopping tactics that customers might employ in reaction
to the perception of Rip-off Britain.
Some major factors influencing fashion consumers

Macro trends are the broader trends which are external to a fashion brand but
which impact on its business, markets and consumers. The following trends
refer to the UK market although many are common to Western societies. Such
trends are likely to impact on the mindsets of fashion consumers in terms of
their values, perceptions, motivations and capabilities. Western fashion markets
are extremely competitive and quite different from ten years ago. Some of the
factors that have combined to change consumers are described below.
Wider availability of and access to fashion products

Shopping habits have changed over the last ten years and so have the
ways in which consumers access fashion products. Many high streets, the
traditional location for shopping, are congested, with local authorities
restricting access by private cars. Shopping centres/malls and out-of-town
retail parks have provided consumers with wider choice and simpler access.
This access to a broader choice of retailers’ stores and branded products
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has broadened consumers’ awareness and purchasing of fashion brands and
their products.
Additionally, e-commerce has recovered as a credible alternative to ‘bricks-
and-mortar’ shopping since its emergence in the late 1990s and the subsequent
dotcom crash in 2000. The latter knocked confidence in online shopping as
many online brands collapsed or severely curtailed their activities. Boo.com
is often cited as an online fashion business that failed owing to its inability to
fulfil the orders it received from customers.
Since 2002 many retailers have invested in their online provision following
the greater adoption of broadband by consumers and increased confidence
in e-commerce generally. Hugely successful online retailers such as Amazon.
com and the auction site eBay have contributed to making shopping online a
mainstream activity. The success of Net-A-Porter.com in winning best fashion
‘shop’ at the 2004 British Fashion Awards is indicative of the enthusiasm for
and potential of online shopping.
New entrants from Europe and America in particular have increased choice
and sophistication in the fashion offered to consumers, for example fast
fashion – Zara and H&M. The diversification of supermarkets into fashion,
following the success of ASDA’s George brand, presents a serious challenge to
both clothing retailers and fashion brands. Increased usage of the Internet by
consumers experienced in using eBay and shopping on Amazon is encouraging
more fashion brands to revisit e-commerce as a credible distribution channel.
Consumers are now spending more time each week interrogating the Internet
than watching television – browsing and interrogating the Internet for fun is
now an important leisure pastime.
Implications
Fashion brands must be aware that the accessibility of fashion products is a
discriminating factor for some consumers in the selection of where and how
to shop.
Each new generation of consumers is progressively more IT-competent. The
Internet is likely to be the principal method of shopping for many Gen-Y and
Gen-C consumers in the future.
Access to a wider range of media

The UK market has seen a large growth in all kinds of media, including a raft of new
consumer magazines. Interest in celebrities has generated demand for magazines
such as Now and Closer to rival Heat, OK! and Hello! Changed magazine formats
such as the handbag size Glamour and Teen Vogue and the first weekly glossy
magazine Grazia add to the wide choice available to consumers. The Internet,
satellite and cable TV, terrestrial TV freeview channels, and numerous niche
commercial radio stations provide consumers with choice on how they access
entertainment and the news. For some, online media has already replaced traditional
broadcast media as their major source of entertainment and daily information.
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Implication
Advertisers face a complex problem in targeting consumers and communicating
their messages effectively across so many niche media.
Demographic and social changes

There are a number of demographic and social changes that have had an impact
on fashion consumption:
x An ageing population: In common with many European countries and
America, the UK population is ageing. However, people are staying younger
for longer in the sense that their values, attitudes and lifestyles are more
youthful than those of previous generations at the same age. Women in
their 40s and 50s are now the focus of great media and marketing interest,
as opposed to being ‘on the shelf ’. The advertising campaign by soap brand
Dove challenged the notion that being 40 is much different from being 20
and the slogan ‘look the age you feel inside’ is typical of the messages being
communicated by many cosmetics brands. The successful US television
series Desperate Housewives promises to do for the fortysomething woman
what Sex in the City did for the thirtysomething segment. The term ‘yummy
mummy’ has been coined to reference a mother whose outlook, attitude
and appearance are youthful, having shed the burdens of child-rearing. The
American equivalent is the term ‘MILF’.
x The increasing numbers of individuals over thirty years of age who have
never married: The trend towards a single life is increasing and has
implications for the consumption of fashion. User occasions are likely to be
different for single individuals than for those who are married.
x The 30% (approximately) of UK households who are ‘singles’ who have
actively chosen to live alone.
x The increasing numbers of women in employment with the trend
continuing over the next ten years.
x The increased wealth and disposable income (in real terms) for the asset-
owning population.
x The increasing numbers of part-time workers.
x The increasingly diverse ethnic mix.
UK fashion consumption
Consumer spending on clothing in the UK amounted to £35.5 billion (€51.5
billion) in 2003 (Mintel). Tables 1.3 and 1.4 show where consumers are
choosing to shop for women’s clothing and accessories in the UK. Data are
drawn from FashionTrak. FashionTrak is a market research division of Taylor
Nelson Sofres (TNS) (see chapter 2 for further details) which specialises in
the fashion market. Market shares are recorded by sales expenditure (i.e.
the retail value of products sold) and unit volume (the numbers of products
sold).
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table 1.3 retail share – women’s clothing and accessories (% expenditure)
Category 2002 2004 2005 2006

Clothing multiples 30.5 32.1 33.4 33.6
Clothing independents 8.6 8.5 9.1 8.3
General stores 20.2 19.5 18.3 17.6
Department stores 9.7 9.3 9.1 9.2
Mail order 9.0 8.4 7.7 7.2
Discounters/cash & carry 10.0 10.4 10.6 11.6
Sports shops 3.1 2.7 2.9 2.6
Supermarkets 4.2 4.9 5.1 6.0
Market stalls 1.2 1.1 0.9 1.0
source: WF (March 2006)
table 1.4 retail share – women’s clothing and accessories (% volume in units)
Category 2002 2004 2005 2006

Clothing multiples 19.0 20.2 20.4 19.8
Clothing independents 4.3 4.2 4.2 4.1
General stores 20.6 19.3 18.1 17.8
Department stores 5.7 5.2 5.2 5.0
Mail order 6.3 5.7 5.3 4.9
Discounters/cash & carry 21.0 21.6 22.1 22.7
Sports shops 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.0
Supermarkets 13.7 15.4 17.2 18.3
Market stalls 2.6 2.4 1.9 1.9
The clothing multiples category includes all Arcadia retailer brands and
other retailer brands such as Next, Monsoon, River Island, H&M, Zara,
Gap and New Look. Arcadia Group alone represents 8.1% of the market by
expenditure and 5.0% by volume within the clothing multiples category in
2006. The general stores category includes BhS and Marks & Spencer (M&S).
M&S alone accounted for 13.5% of the market by expenditure and 12.7% by
volume in 2006.
This data indicates that although the value of M&S clothing sales is falling, the
numbers of units sold is increasing, implying a change to its price positioning.
table 1.5 M&S womenswear market shares 2004 – 2006
2004 2005 2006

Expenditure 14.5 13.8 13.5
Volume 12.8 12.3 12.7
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It is most likely the result of a strategy to target entry-level price points at very
competitive levels across key product categories.
Clothing multiples account for approximately a third of womenswear
clothing and accessories expenditure, but only one fifth of unit sales. By
contrast, the combined expenditure on women’s clothing and accessories
through discounters/cash & carry and supermarkets is 15.5%. However their
combined unit volume is over 39% of the market with supermarkets, including
ASDA (George) and Tesco, showing the greatest increases in unit volume.
The clothing multiples face strong competition from supermarket brands
and discount retailers. As fashion continues to reflect a more casual attitude
to dress, consumers are able to buy simply made, low-priced and disposable
commodity fashion from supermarkets. The type of distribution channel
appears to be having an effect on the type of fashion being bought.
Conclusions
Fashion businesses face a variety of challenges in marketing products and brands
to consumers. Markets are no longer homogenous in the way they used to be
but are fragmented as consumers react to wider choice, cheaper prices, faster-
changing fashions, accessible luxury, changing lifestyles, more information and
different methods of shopping. Add to this radical changes in communications
and entertainment technologies and it is easy to understand how difficult it is
for brands to keep up with changing consumer demands. Many non-fashion
industries ranging from financial services to luxury goods look towards fashion
in order to gain insights into how to be competitive in fast-changing markets.
Fast fashion has contributed to a ‘wear-now’ demand for the latest fashion
styles, which are communicated through various media following fashion shows
and celebrity endorsement of products and brands. The 1990s represented a
decade of growth and expansion for many global fashion brands. However, the
anti-globalisation backlash against large corporations and some fashion brands
such as Gap, Levi’s and Nike reflects a trend for individualism and niche brands.
In fashion there is a move away from the trend of following particular lifestyles
towards ‘self-affirmation’ and being different. It is all the more vital, then, that
any definition of marketing adopted by businesses has the word ‘customer’ as
a focus.
Ultimately customers are a brand’s biggest asset. Ironically the trend towards
greater consumer influence may mean that ‘Marketing managers are not in
charge anymore. Consumers are’ (Wipperfürth, 2006).
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inde
x
Abercrombie & Fitch 304–5 and PR 185
Academy Awards (Oscars) 192 pre-testing 174
access to fashion products 16–17 print 190
accessories 56, 90–1, 102, 126, 266, 315 single-way 274
Accessorize 76 testing 174–5
accompanied shopping 47 Advertising Standards Authority 301
achievers Fig. 3.2 affiliate marketing 277
ACID (Anti Copying In Design) 104 Afro culture 52
ACORN (A Classification Of Residential age factors 55, Fig. 3.2
Neighbourhoods) 31, 59 age groups
acronyms for target consumer and catalogue shopping 172
groups 13, Table 1.1 cinema and 165
action-oriented fashion consumers Fig. fashion magazines and 164
3.2 agencies
actualisers Fig. 3.2 advertising 170–1, 177, 186
Adidas 97, 98, 260 PR 188, 193, 246
Samba 98 press-cutting 186
Stan Smith 99 Agent Provocateur, ‘Dreams of Miss X’
TRX Comp 98 campaign 283
adoption level 9, 10 agents 127
advertising 48, 85, 88, 156, 157, 158, import 211
161–4 manufacturer’s 211
agencies 23–4, 170–1, 177, 258 Allder, Josiah 82
baby boomers and 11 Allders 49, 82–3, 216
and brand identity 248 Amazon 17, 225, 258
and brand image 258 ambience 275
budget 175–6, 189, 269 ambient advertising 169, 172, 248
continuous and burst 170–1 American Apparel 282
defined 160 Anderson, Chris, The Long Tail 262
diminishing role of 272, 275–6, 287 Andersson, Paulo Melim 269
effectiveness of 273 Angeloni, Umberto 268–9, 270
evaluating 173–4 animals, exploitation of 198
expenditure on 163–4, 175–6, 177–8 Ann Summers 58, 172
M&S and 83 anorexia xv
management of 176–7 Ansoff, I. 291
market 176–8 Ansoff ’s product/market matrix 313–15,
post-testing 174 Fig. 10.5
354
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anti-branding 266 Barbour 247
Anya Hindmarch 277–8 bargaining power, of suppliers, business
Apple 278, 279 and consumer buyers 303
Apple Mac 247 Barney’s (department store) 295
Aquascutum 15 BBC (British Broadcasting
Arcadia Group 19, 31, 37, 71, 82, 110, Corporation) 166, 187
132, 150, 169, 187, 215, 266, 291, 295, BCG see Boston Consulting Group
309, 317 (BCG)
location review (‘Operation Town beauty products 254
Print’) 216–17 Bebo 280
target segmentation 75, Table 3.5 Beckham, David 68, 164, 197
architects 205 Beckham, Victoria 191
Armani, Giorgio 93, 254–5 believers Fig. 3.2
Armani (company) see Giorgio Armani benefits wanted Fig. 3.2
Armstrong, G. and Kotler, P. 198 Benetton 174, 208
Army & Navy Stores 49 best-selling lines 152
Arnault, Bernard 270, 295–6 BhS 19, 75, 106, 220, 309
artificial intelligence 186 as British Home Stores 259
Asda 131, 265, 305 own-label merchandise 317
George brand 12, 17, 20, 52, 78, 147, Tammy brand 317
218, 221, 256, 263, 265, 297 bikini 105
low-priced jeans 219 black-and-white publications 171
Asian communities 301 BlackBerry 276
ASOS (As Seen On Screen) 222, 249 Bleriot, Louis 228
aspirational consumers/brands 12, 14 bling subculture 14, 27, 118, 255, 298
atmospherics, store 228 blogs 15, 273, 277, 280
attitudes, interests and opinions 10, 25, ‘Blue Cross Day’ sales 140
30 blueprinting 239–40, Fig. 7.4
audio branding 250–1 BMRB 13
audio-visual media (AV) 248, 251 Boden 128
audit 310 body mass index (BMI) 191
opportunities and threats 307 The Body Shop 187, 208, 258
Austin Reed 52, 210 BOGOFs (buy one get one free) 181–2
Australia 144 Le Bon Marché 220
avatar marketing 281, 282 boo.com 17, 224
awards ceremonies 28, 70–1, 164–5, Boots 252
185, 192, Table 6.1 Borden, Neil 86
Boston Consulting Group (BCG) growth-
babies 95 share matrix 291, 305–7, Fig. 10.3
baby boomers 11, 52, 276 using for marketing planning 306–7
Babylon Zoo 251 Bottega Veneta 256
badge-wearing 270–1 boutique operations 177, 195
BAFTA awards 192 boutiques 207
bags 117 ‘boys’ toys’ 102
Bailey, Laura 85 brand
Baker, Ted 252 definitions 245–6, 247, 290
Balenciaga 268 experience 259–60
Balenciaga, Cristobal 93 extensions 253–5
banded packs 289 identity 248, 255, 294, 317
Banks, Jeff 147 image 258, 260
bar codes 100 levels of understanding 256
bar-code tickets 2, 33 management 193
strategic marketing for fashion organisations 355
97814039_19021_14_Ind.indd 355 30/10/08 10:31:28 am

brand Bravo, Rose-Marie 14
message 261 ‘bricks-and-mortar’ shopping 17, 222,
positioning 251–3 225, 279
values 258 bridal wear 222
what constitutes 255–6 Brioni Group 268, 270
brand asset evaluator 257 Brit Awards 192
brand equity 260 Britain see United Kingdom
brand hijacking 287–8 British Fashion Awards 17, 192, 225
brand loyalty 261–2 British Fashion Council 214
measuring 262 British Rates and Data (BRAD) 166, 170,
brand management 193 177, 207
brand-building 162 British Telecom 169
brand-switching 261 British Textile Colour Group 58
brandalism 267 broadband 17, 167, 279
branding 245–71 broadsheets 162
benefits of 260–1 brochures 202
by range 317 Buffett, Warren 323
consultancy 257 ‘Buggins’s turn’ 296
corporate 317 buildings 202
defined 247 Bulgari 263
management of 317 Burberry (brand) 12, 14, 15, 63, 96, 161,
physical applications 248 163, 190, 208, 247, 250, 288, 298
product-focused 247 Burchill, Julie 14
in virtual world 282 Burton Group 82, 132, 150, 222, 266,
brands 2, 3 295
attrition 112 Burton Menswear 75–6, 102, 107,
awareness and beliefs 25, 30 216–17, 309, 317
bogus 258–9 Burton, Montague 309
categories of 263–4, Table 8.1 business cards, company 202
colours used 248, 250 business development, stages of 291
defined 205, 245–6, 247 business objective issues 71–2
defunct 266, Table 8.4 business plans 321
dilution 88, 287 business-to-business (B2B) 2, 3, 33,
fashion 263 69–70, 138, 162, 163, 180, 245, 246,
grocery 289 276, 280, 320
labels 2, see also fascias branding 246
limiting consumer choice 122 sales promotion techniques 183
logos 27, 118 business-to-consumer (B2C) 2, 3, 162,
manifestations of 248–9 163, 180, 183, 246–7, 280, 320
measuring performance 257 branding 246
models 256–7 buyers 304
names 118, 249–50, 317 buying offices, retailers’ 213
new manufacturers’ 115 buying ratios 95–6
new non-clothing 115 buzz marketing 285
personality 68 buzz words 13
promotion of 157
symbols 250 C&A 106, 216
typeface 248 CACI 31
wording 250 calendar, fashion 186, 192–3
Branson, Richard 254 Calvin Klein (CK) 37, 189, 247
bras, range 100 Cambodia 56, 74
Bravissimo Lingerie 172, 222 Cannes Film Festival 278
97814039_19021_14_Ind.indd 356 30/10/08 10:31:28 am

carbon emissions 298, 303 city by city information 36
cards, used in guerrilla marketing 199, city-centre sites 308–9
285 The Clash 251
care labels 2, 117 class-to-mass 286
Caribbean communities 301 classification systems 31
cars classifications, of products 92–3
listening to radio in 168 Clements, Alison 253
prices 137, 142 climate 60–2, Fig. 3.2
and social networks 281 Clinomyn (toothpaste) xv
Casa (homeware) 255 Closer 17, 164, 192
cash & carry 208, 218 Clothes Show Live 160
cash cows (quadrant in BCG clothing multiples 19–20
matrix) 305, 306 Club21 254
cash flow 309 cluster samples 38
casual dress 55–6, 96–9, 113 co-branding 251
catalogue sales 128, 172, 218, 222, 244 co-operative buying 280
CATI (consumer-aided telephone co-ordination, garment and colour 201
interviewing) 44, 46 coats, winter 110
catwalks 36 Coca-Cola 170
Cavalli, Rolf 251 codes, voluntary 301
CAWI 46 Cohen, Jack 147, 153
CDs 279 Cole, Lily 190
celebrities 70–1, 89, 164, 185, 187, 191– Colgate-Palmolive 265
2, 198, 222, 315, Table 6.2 coloured publications 171
brands 254 colours 58–9, 112, 202, 229, 248, 250,
cellphones see mobile phones 292
census of population (UK) 30 Comité 214
chain sampling 26 communication
La Chambre Syndicale 214 layered approach 274–5, Fig. 9.1–2
Chanel 87, 93, 189, 248, 283 new approaches to 273
double C logo 248 PR 196
Tokyo store 205 communications see marketing
Chanel, Gabrielle 88, 93, 249, 251, 263 communications
charity shops 116, 147, 217 company results 186
chavs 14–15, 161, 288 competitions 183
cherry-pick marketing 69 competitive advantage 297
children competitive price analysis 135
labour of 157 competitive shopping 48
marketing to xv, 7, 302 competitors 24, 29, 79–80, 109, 297,
products for 93, 95 310, Fig. 3.3
China 55, 56, 63, 74 communication 157
as exporter of clothing 81, 131, 145, expenditure level 176
146, 148, 153, 213 global 243
Chloe 269, 278, 300 increase in 81, 126
choice, consumer 51 pricing policies 134–5, 136, 137, 149,
Christian Dior 87, 91, 189, 283 150
Chuck Taylor All Star shoes 97, 98 computer games 15, 277, 278
Church’s shoes 294 see also Internet
cinema computer-based media 15
advertising in 165–6, 171, 195 computers 276–7, 278
young people and 170 home 72
Ciro Citterio 49, 216 laptops 278
citizen marketing 287 PCs 278
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concentrated marketing 76 of garment 128–9
concessions (shops in shops) 3, 114–15, manufacturing 127, 131
205, 207, 222–4 of selling operation 127
conferences, business 195 cost leadership 297
conferencing, computer-mediated 40 cost price (CP) 125, 297, 308
confusion, in market 176 lowering 150–1
confusion marketing 153–4 movement of 152–3, Fig. 5.3
conglomerates 304 uplifts on 129–30, 131, 136, Table 5.2
Conran, Jasper 264 Cotton Traders 167, 172
consolidation agents 212 counterfeiting 258–9, 270
consultancy, customised 103 country of origin 118–19, 122–3
Consumer Prices Index (CPI) 2 coupons 289
consumers cover mounts 182
balance of power moving to 288 creative display 200
behaviour, influences on 4–9 creativity 275, 284
and brand message 261 creator-manager partnerships 295–6,
couture 12 Table 10.2
emotional links to brands 287 credence qualities 236–7
failure in perceptions 84–5, 103, 132– credit cards 68, 128, 141, 153, 172, 279
3 credit drapers 222
fickleness of 16, 57, 76, 77 cross trainers 93
increasing canniness of 140, 144, 154, CSR (corporate social
157 responsibility) 258, 293
inertia 286 cue 7
innumeracy of 140 cultural influences 198
next generation 15 cultural subgroups 301–2
and PR agencies 246 culture
spending patterns 146–7, Fig. 5.2 defined 198
see also customers differences 315
Contessa 277 currencies 127
contingency plans 307 customer closeness 26
continuous market data 27, 32, 79 customer conversion rate 230
continuous panels 27, 44–5, 47 measuring 231–2
continuum of fashion 90, Fig. 4.2 customer flow 230–1
contract-clothing manufacturers 246 measuring 231
control stage, of marketing activity 322– customer interface 234
3 customer purchase data 177, 179, 182
convenience samples 39 customer satisfaction levels 34
Converse All Star shoes 97 customer service 233–6
cool hunters 8 customer-centric (marketing-led)
copying of designs 104–5 approach 1, 15–16
copyright 302 customer-to-customer (C2C) 124, 245,
infringement of 300 278, 280, 281
corporate advertising 280 customers 1–20
corporate branding 317 attitudes 88
corporate identity 157, 160, 202 categories of 3
corporate planning 321 and consumers 2–3
corporate social responsibility engagement with brand 256
(CSR) 121, 303, Table 4.8 expectations of 238–9, 302, 319
corporate strategy 296 identification of 24
cosmetics 90–1, 92, 181–2, 254 knowing your 9–15
cost loyalty of 246
as concept 125 profiles of 67
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customers (continued) designer brands 57, 92–3, 104
as research focus 25–6 designers 35, 36
retention of focus 263 British 190
‘smart’ 16 graduate 180
see also consumers high mark-downs 129
cut, make and trim (CMT) 33, 206 as owners 294–5
as retailers 104, 318
Dahl, Sophie 191 star 269, Table 8.7
Daily Mail 28 successful 269, Table 8.7
Daimler-Chrysler 37 Desperate Housewives 18
data analysis, poor 49 ‘detect and alert’ systems 111
data collection 45–6 developing nations, clothing manufacture
and analysis 29, 30, 40 in 145
methods 40–2, 42, 49 Diageo 187
process 42 Diane von Furstenberg 248
data mugging 23 dichotomous questions 43
data transmission, speed of 302 Dickens, Charles 63
databases Diet Coke 287
and direct marketing 179 differential advantage 77, 175
of fashion journalists 193 differentiated marketing 75–6, 83–4,
Davies, George 265 296
Davy, Chelsy 290 differentiation 297, 298, 320
DDB (agency) 253 diffusion labels 133
De Sole, Domenico 295 digital natives/immigrants 15
de-cluttering 228 digital technology 166, 275–7, 302
Dean, James 97 Dior, Christian 93
Debenhams 82, 187, 214, 250, 264, 309 direct and indirect forces 300–1
Designers at Debenhams 250 direct marketing 151, 156, 157, 160, 172,
decision-making 4, 24–5, 32, 33, 55, 178–9
122, 150 direct rating test 174
decoding 159 direct response advertising 151
deductions, wrong 49 directly operated store (DOS) 270,
demand 285–6
changes in 103 discount retailers 20, 59, 218, 221
elasticity of 126, Fig. 5.1 discounting 48, 62, 87–8, 106, 107, 125,
identifying xvi 131, 134
democratisation of luxury 126 business problems related to 140–1
demographics 10, 25, 48, 55–6, Fig. 3.2 categories of 290
changes in 18, 301 detrimental effects of 134, 140
department stores 147, 215, 218, 220, level of discount 181
226, 275 level of 139, 152
and concessions 115, 223–4 phased 141
window displays 228 product failures 106, 110
depth interviews 41–2 regulations on 154
design slow-moving lines 32, 129, 131
departments, in-house 104, 318 temporary and permanent 138–40
development 107 Disney Corporation 37, 210
and pricing 130–1 display
protection 104 quality of 227
store 275 range and depth 101
uniqueness of 77 schemes, brand-funded 183–4
design-led approach 3 techniques, rules of 201
design-to-stores supply chain 89 disposable income, increase in 18
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distinctive competences 299–300 encoding 158
distribution 314 Endless (web site) 225
channels 204, 205–7, 319, Fig. 7.1–3 entry-level products 126
options 207 environment, concern for 298, 302–3
outsourcing 212 epicentre stores 259
systems 240–2 EPOS (electronic point of sale) 31
distribution centres (DCs) 212, 240–2 error message (404 Not Found) 277
diversification 294, 298, 314, 315 Etam 49, 216, 317
DKNY 249 ethical issues 23, 121–2, 157, 303, Fig.
‘dog’ lines 110 3.2
dogs (quadrant in BCG matrix) 305, 306 Ethical Trading Initiative (ETI) 157, 303
Dolce & Gabbana 93 ethnic communities 301
Domesday Book 30 ethnicity 18, 51–2, 56, 57, 59
Donna Karan 269 ethnographic research 26
Dorothy Perkins 96, 132, 150, 214, 317 European Society for Opinion and
dot-com crash 17, 279 Marketing Research (ESOMAR) 23–4
Dove (soap brand) 18 Evans 150, 317
Drapers (formerly Drapers Record) 163, evening shirts 99
170 Evening Standard 162–3
Drapers Record 252 events marketing 188, 195, 275
dream factor 270 exchange rates 144
dream-keting 190 exclusivity 78
dress codes 8, 55, 56 exhibitions 160, 202
male 74, 96 exit surveys 231
‘dress-down Friday’ 55, 96 Experian 31
‘dress-up Tuesday’ 96 experiencers Fig. 3.2
drive 7 experiential marketing 275
drive time 216, Fig. 3.2 experiential retailing 259
droplifting 285 exploitation of labour 153, 157, 303
Dubai 286 extra for free 182–3
Dunhill 298
Dunlop, Green Flash shoes 97 fabrics 112, 116
Dunns Menswear 216 Fairtrade 121, 298
Dutti, Massimo 291 fibre content 117–18
DVDs 279 recycled 298
Dyson 247 face-to-face advertising 157
face-to-face surveys 23, 26, 40
e-commerce see Internet, shopping Facebook 280
e-mail 178, 279, 287 factored garments 206
unsolicited (spam) 178 factory shops 128
early adopters 9 Fairtrade 293, 298
early majority 9 fabrics and yarns 121–2
eBay 17, 225, 244, 277–8, 278–9 family 12
ecological fashion 293, 298 as influence 8
economic downturns 301 life stages of 13
economic forces 301 sizes and stages Fig. 3.2
economic support of fashion 300 family-run brands 296
education 55, 56, 63, 157, Fig. 3.2 fascias (retail brands) 75–6, 186, 202,
electrical goods 270 216–17, 227
electronic accessories 266 fashion
electronic cash terminals 32 defined 88
electronic media 166–7 followers of 27, 98
Elle 28, 189, 192 and style 88
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fashion brands 263 food
see also brands product development 289
fashion companies, categories 263–4, spending patterns 69
Table 8.1 football hooligans 15, 288
fashion market, changes in 247, 292, football supporters 63
297, 322–3 footwear 71
fashion marketing, as curriculum levels of purchasing 146, Fig. 5.2
subject 179–80 sizing 119, Table 4.7
Fashion Monitor 193 see also trainers
fashion names, demise of 49 Ford, Harrison 166
‘fashion ration’ 78, 134 Ford, Tom 6, 87, 295
fashion rationing 133–4 foreign product sourcing 299
‘Fashion Retailing 2006’ 32 formal clothing 96–7, 113
fashion shows 188–9, 195, 202 forms 202
‘fashion torture’ 78, 134 Forth, Ian 253
fashion weeks 27–8, 35, 36, 189 4 Ps 72, 86, 204
fashion-forecasting businesses 36, 103, 404 message 277
120 fragmentation
fashionability 80 of consumption habits 272
fashionaholics 57 of fashion market 51, 53, 93, 138, 272
FashionTrak 18 of media 72, 157, 173, 276
fast fashion xv, 17, 20, 27, 48, 88, 89, France 58, 59, 63, 120, 154, 156, 214,
109, 111, 124, 147–8, 150, 219, 290, 243, 300, 301
299, 302, 322 status of sales staff 320
fast-moving consumer goods franchising 207, 208–9, 211, 223, 263,
(FMCGs) 8, 26, 185, 270, 276, 270
289–90 free gifts 182
FCUK 7, 118 French Connection (FC) 118, 294
Fendi (LVMH Group) 251 branding and price 252–3
Ferry, Bryan 85, 164 FCUK campaign 184, 249, 252–3,
fickleness of fashion 291 294
field research 149 frequency, of advertising 169, 176
50 Cent 184 Friedman, Vanessa 190
50+ fashion market 52–3, 73, 82 frock coat 71
file-sharing 279 ‘front-room’ issues 206–7
film 159, 279 ‘fruggers’ 23
financial objectives, planning 310–11 FT (Financial Times) 239, 249
financial strengths 308–9 Fubu 249
Financial Times 190, 249 fulfilleds Fig. 3.2
fit 10 fulfilment 224
flagship stores 205, 206, 219–20, 275, fur, use of 121–2, 157, 198, 258
282, 313
virtual 225 gadgets, electronic 102, 115
flash mobs 199, 285 Galeotti, Sergio 254
flexibility 297 Galliano, John 296
flexible phasing of deliveries 236 games, computer 277, 278
flops 110 gangster rapper look 52
flyposting 168, 199, 284, 285 Gantt charts 322
FMCG see fast-moving consumer goods Gap (fashion brand) 2, 19, 20, 37, 71,
focus 297, 298 104, 120, 170, 225, 239, 264, 290
focus groups 40–1, Fig. 2.2 mission statement 294
focus strategy 298 gaps in market xv, 1, 239, 293
followership 198 garment-processing companies 212
97814039_19021_14_Ind.indd 361 30/10/08 10:31:32 am

garments green issues 121
carriers 117 Green, Philip 75, 110, 317
cost of production 128–9 grey imports 143
descriptors 93 grocery brands 289
sizing 119, Table 4.7 grocery retailers 265
subcategories 292 group theory 8
types 94–5, 99–100, Table 4.4, Table 5 group-buying 280
gay community 302 Gucci 6, 87, 91, 98, 189, 194, 254, 263,
Gaye, Marvin 251 268, 270, 283, 295, 302
gender 55, Fig. 3.2 Gucci, Aldo 125
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Gucci, Guccio 125
(GATT) 148, 300 guerrilla marketing xviii, 16, 30, 73, 151,
general stores (variety stores) 19, 220 168, 172, 187, 199–200, 267, 283–6
Generation C (Gen-C) 11–12, 17 communications techniques 284–5
generation categories 11–12 defined 199, 284
generation gaps 11 implications 286
Generation X (Gen-X) 11, 276 pop-up stores 285–6
Generation Y (Gen-Y) 11, 17, 199, 276 guerrilla stores 259
generic strategy 296, 297
genres, product 92–3, Table 4.2 H&M 17, 19, 78, 134, 164, 251, 252, 305
geo-demographic modelling 31, 59–60, Habbo Hotel 281
216 Hackett 15, 165
profiling systems 60 haggling 144
geographical factors 48, 291 hairdressing 237
colour acceptance 58–9 Halpern (PR agency) 246
price variations 135, 137–8 Halpern, Sir Ralph 82, 228, 295
geographical targeting 171 Hammett, Katherine 121
Germany 58, 120, 142 Harrods 117, 181, 223
Giannini, Frida 295 Harvey Nichols 84
gift offers 151 Hasley Group, luxury decoded panel 48
Giorgio Armani 37, 87, 91, 93, 189, HDTV 278
254–5, 263, 269, 282 ‘Heard it through the Grapevine’ 251
Armani Jeans 254 Heat 17, 164
Armani Junior 255 Heinz 247
flagship store 282 Hello 17, 164
giveaways 289 Helmut Lang 294
Givenchy 268 hemispheric issues 60, 62
Glamour 17 hemlines 99
glasses, optical 93, Table 4.3 Hermès 263
Global News Intelligence 186 heroin chic 191
globalisation 205, 297, 298, 302 Hip-Hop 98
backlash against 20 HMV 279
gloves 110 Hoerner, John 82
sizes 119 Hollingworth, Nick 52
Gobé, Marc 10, 283–4 Hollis PR Annual 193
going-rate pricing 136, 137 home ownership vs renting 145
Golden Globes 192 home products 266, 270
Goodyear 97 homogenisation of fashion 37, 301
Google 277 Hong Kong 213
Google News 186 Horne Bros 216
Grammy awards 192 hosiery 116, 117, 181, 182, 201
Grand Master Flash 98 House of Fraser 132, 214, 222, 309
Grazia 17 house types 31
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household goods 266, 270 International Standard ISO 3758 117
housing market 301 internationalisation of fashion 301
humour in advertising 174 Internet 157, 160, 167, 178, 198, 202,
Hutton 266 218, 276–82
advertising on 251
idea generation 105–7 brands 258
image, of PR agency 246 free information from 31
image-building 162, 166 and pre-shopping education 234
IMC (integrated market communications) shopping (e-commerce) 17, 32, 128,
258 171–2, 204, 222, 224–6, 244, 262,
implementation stage, of marketing 263, 279, 302
activity 322 trading 305
import agents 211 interviews
importance scale 43 biased 49
in-game branding 281 computer-aided personal 44
in-house live 44
advertising management 176–8 intranet, business 33
customer services 240 iPhone 72, 278
design departments 104, 318 iPod 72, 285
PR management 193, 194 Italy 58, 156, 214, 243, 300
wholesale departments 207 iTunes 279, 283, 315
in-store
displays 215 Jacobs, Marc 269, 296
promotions 25, 47, 170 Jaeger 309
incentives, personal or team 183 Japan 142, 159
incentivised personal selling 151 jargon 219–20
income factors 55, 63, Fig. 3.2 JB Sports 221
independent outlets 215, 218, 222 JD Sports 221
India 63, 131, 148, 153, 259 jeans 93, 96, 97, 107, 108, 125, 147,
Indiana Jones films 166 218–19
Inditex 243, 291 designer 132–3
individualism 20, 27 Levi 143
Industrial Revolution 51 low-priced 218–19
information sources, categories Table 2.1 sizing 119, 120
infrastructure, costs 275 Jeff & Co. 147
innovation 201, 261, 266, 275, 284, jersey-wear 93
Table 8.3 jewellery 91, 92
diffusions of 9, Fig. 1.3 Jil Sander 250, 269, 294
level of 25 Jimmy Choo 300
Institute of Public Relations (IPR) 184 jingles, advertising 249
Intactix 102 jobbers 212
Intel 250 John Lewis 121, 201, 222
intention-to-buy scale 43 John Lewis Partnership 149, 264
interactive entertainment 279 Johnson, G. and Scholes, K. 291
interactive marketing 171 joint ventures 254
Intercolour Group 58 Jordan 254
International Association for Textile Care journalists, fashion 36, 156, 164, 184–9,
Labelling (GINETEX) 117 192–8
international issues 120–2 judgement samples 39
international markets 294, 296, 305, 315
international price variations 138, 142– Kamen, Nick 251
3, Table 5.4 Kangol 247
possible causes 143–4 Kapferer, J.-N., models of brand 256
97814039_19021_14_Ind.indd 363 30/10/08 10:31:34 am

Karen Millen 132 marketing 266
Keds 97 retailing 254
Kellogg’s 247 Likert scale 43
Khmer Rouge 74 The Limited 297
Klein, Naomi, No Logo 198, 267 limited editions 134
‘knock-off ’ 104 list-broking agencies 179
Kookai 49, 208 Littlewoods 220
Koolhaas, Rem 205 livery, advertising 169
Kotler, P. et al. 74, 105, 158, 225 location
of consumers 25
La Senza 277, 297 of retailers 216–17
labels 201, 248 logical product adjacencies 48, 201, 229
branded 248 logistics, fashion 240–2
clear 200 logos 103, 117, 199, 202, 245, 246, 248
textile care 117 London 189, 226, 259
laboratory test 174 as fashion capital 56
labour manufacturers’ showrooms 208
cheap 153, 303 Stock Exchange 309
child 157 wholesaling areas 208
slave 303 London Fashion Week (LFW) 189–90,
Labour Behind the Label 303 192, 214, 264, 295
labour standards, international 157 London Lite 163
ladettes 13 The London Paper 163
Lady B 266 Long Tall Sally 79–80, Fig. 3.3
Lagerfeld, Karl 42, 296 longitudinal marketing research 76, 231,
laggards 9 232, 310
Lakeside Shopping Centre, Essex 60, Lonsdale brand 63
168 look books 187, 188, 276
Lane Crawford 37 L’Oréal 254, 281
Lanvin 249 Louis Vuitton 91, 159, 189, 247
last-minute styling 107 LV logo 249
late majority 9 see also LVMH
laundry-marking schemes 117, Fig. 4.8 low-priced fashion 12–13
Laura Ashley 187, 250, 253–4 low-quality products 116
layout, store 227, 229–33 loyalty, consumer 57, Fig. 3.2
lead-in price 141 loyalty cards 182
learning 7, Fig. 1.2 loyalty schemes 16, 30, 33
leather goods 91–2, 122–3, 268 luxury brands 57, 63, 78, 87, 90–2, 165,
Lee, Mark 295 188, 190, 194, 205, 208, 211, 254, 263,
legal statutes on sale and marketing 301 267–71
Lenoir, Noemie 85 and creator-manager
‘less is more’ 228, 230 partnerships 295–6, Table 10.2
letsbuyit.com 280 popular versions of 300
Levi’s 20, 57, 109, 143, 165, 225, 247, worn by reality TV participants 165
251, 252, 317 luxury goods 122–3, 126, 234, 267–8,
anti-fit jeans 266 Table 4.1
Levitt, Theodore xv, xvi-xvii, 291 demand for 126
‘Marketing Myopia’ 260 and marketing ‘message’ 158
model of brand 256 and 9/11 attacks 307
licensing 207, 210–11, 254, 263, 270 status of owner 159
lifestyle 10, 25, 64–7, 109, 120, 255, Fig. LVMH (Moet Hennessy Louis
3.2 Vuitton) 186, 251, 254, 268, 270,
groups 31 294, 295–6
97814039_19021_14_Ind.indd 364 30/10/08 10:31:35 am

Lynch, Dudley 299 fashion 163, 182, 189, 236
Lynch, Richard 291 hard-copy 273
production process and life 164
M&A (merger and acquisition) trade 163, 170
activity 296 mail, unsolicited 178
compared with US companies 297 mail order 128, 172, 218, 222, 244
M&S (Marks & Spencer) and geographical pricing 139
advertising 163–4 mailing preference schemes 178
Autograph 317 makers Fig. 3.2
Blue Harbour 75, 317 making factor 270
brand name 249, 250 male consumers, shopping
celebrity associations 16, 85 behaviour 317
city-centre retail sites 309 management consultancy services 237
consumers and 287 Mango 71, 163, 251, 290, 304
discount days 139, 149 manufacturers 24, 208, 225, 247
and Fairtrade label 122 Mao Zedong 56, 74
as family business 222 margin impact of cost and price
and franchising 209 movements 152–3, Fig. 5.3
French operations 120 Marino, Peter 205
house colours 248, 250 Mark One 147
lingerie and underwear 58, 262, 297 mark-down see discounting; pricing,
market share 19–20, 71, 215, 218, reductions
Table 5 mark-up 125, 308
marketing strategies 75, 83, 106, 112 market
as Marks & Spencer 259 development 314, 315
Simon Marks and 309 penetration 314, 315
negative publicity 161 size of 29
payments to suppliers 150 trends and opportunities 24
Per Una 75, 250, 290, 317 market research
and price competition 147 distinguished from marketing
rebranding 1–2 research 23
resurgence 220 limitations of 48–9
Stuart Rose and 125 Market Research Society (MRS) 23, 49
suppliers 118, 299 market share
use of initials 249, 250 and advertising budget 175–6
McCartney, Stella 293 maximisation 130
McDonald, Ian 252 market stalls 218
Macdonald, Julien 122 marketing
McDonald’s 208 objectives 311–12
McKinney, Henry Nelson 97 strategy 76–7, 312–16
Mackintosh 247 strengths 310
McPherson, Elle 191 as term xv-xvi, 289
McQueen, Alexander 98 marketing activity
macro marketing environment 300 budget 322
macro trends 16, 71 stages 321–3
macro-economic force changes 81 marketing communications 275
macro-marketing changes 81 evaluating 173–4
‘made-in’ 270 integrated (IMC) 161
Madonna 290 objectives 173, 311–13, 312–13, 319
magazines 72–3, 157, 187, 276 process 158–9, Fig. 6.1
celebrity 164, 192 techniques 157
colour 171 marketing mix (4 Ps) xvi, 7, 22, 24, 50,
consumer 17, 28 72, 79, 80–244
97814039_19021_14_Ind.indd 365 30/10/08 10:31:35 am

marketing mix (4 Ps) (continued) media-buying 177
elements of 316–20 medium- and long-term planning 71
expanded (7 Ps) 237–8 ‘meet and greet’ staff 239
implementation and memory boards 45
optimisation 316–20 men’s products 93
product element 316–17 menswear 95, 218
strategy 131, Fig. 10.1 expenditure on 55
tactical 314 formal suit 71, 96, 316
see also place; pricing; product; location in store 229
promotion shirts 99–100
Marketing Planning Pro 321 sportswear 221
marketing research 23–4 underwear 116
accredited bodies 23 women as purchasers of 55, 217
bogus 23 Mentos mints video 297
common sources of error in 49 Mercedes 251
limitations of 48–9 merchandise descriptors 100
misinterpretation of data 50 merchandise planners 136, 323
primary 23, 29–30, 35 merchandise planning, systems 32–3,
process 29, Fig. 2.1 100, 152, 323
secondary 30–1 message 158
stages in 29 Met Office 61
useful 49 meta-analysis 186
marketing services companies 246 Metro (newspaper) 162–3
Marks & Spencer see M&S metrosexual males 13
Marks, Simon 309 MFA see Multi-Fibre Arrangement
Marks, Stephen 252, 253, 294 microseasonal ranges xiv–xv
Marley, Bob 98 Microsoft 250
Maslow, Abraham, hierarchy of middle-market retailers 290
needs 4–6, Fig. 1.1 middlemen 127
mass market 290 cutting out 243
awareness 185 Milan 189, 190, 259, 269, 282
clothing share 146 milking existing designs 114, Fig. 4.7
consumers 126 Minogue, Kylie 278
fashion brands 268 Mintel 32, 35, 318
retailers 300 ‘European Cosmetics Market 2004’ 32
mass-to-class 286 Miss Selfridge 31, 73, 150, 291
massive multiplayer online role-playing mission (business purpose) 296
games (MMOPG) 281 mission statements 293–4
Matalan 136, 299 mixed fashion look (formal with
MDAs (mobile digital assistants) 276, casual) 96
278 MK1 290
media mobile phones (cellphones) 91, 93, 157,
coverage 23, 32, 187–8 266, 276, 278, 280
fragmentation of 72, 157, 173 listening to radio on 168
impact 169–70 SMS texts 168
major 177 and social networks 281
and message 159 tariffs 153
monitoring 186 Mobos 192
non-commercial 187 Mod look 109
printed 162–3 models, fashion 177, 190, 198
selection planning process 169–73 Modus 246
timing 170 monitoring 323
types of 170 longitudinal 310
97814039_19021_14_Ind.indd 366 30/10/08 10:31:36 am

monopolies 132 news, fashion 36
Monsoon 19, 250 newspapers 276
Mont Blanc (brand) 298 advertising rates 177
mood boards 318 colour supplements 162
Mosaic 59, 71, 132 dailies 28, 72–3, 162–3
Moschino 123, 173 free 163
Moss, Kate 187, 190, 191, 264, 278, weekend 162–3
282–3, 295, 315 Next 19, 57, 71, 102, 121, 215, 263,
Mothercare 208 276
motivation 6 niche brands 20
Motorola 37 niche businesses 245
MP3 players 285 niche marketing 76, 298
multi-channel niche suppliers 262
media 278–9 Nicole Farhi 190
retailing 218, 219, 276 Nielsen, A. C. 176
Multi-Fibre Arrangement (MFA) 81, Nike 20, 93, 98, 165, 170, 221, 260
148, 243, 300 Air Jordan 99
multiple retailer brands 220 Air Max I 99
multiple-choice questions 43 Cortez 99
multiple-pack discount 181 ‘swoosh’ logo 103, 248
music Nike Town, London 219, 253
background 225–6 9/11 attacks 307
and brand association 249 no-frills retailing 136
and fashion 98 noise, media 159
used in advertising 249 non-financial objectives, planning 311–
MySpace 277, 280 12
mystery shopping surveys 34–5 non-probability sampling 38–9
non-purchase, reasons for 230–1
Naked Communications 274–5, Fig. Now 17, 164, 192
9.1–2 NPD (new product development) 318
Napster 279 NS-SEC (National Statistics Socio-
national costume 56, 94 Economic Classification) 63, Table
National Health Service 63 3.4
national price variations 138 NTL 278
National Readership Survey 62 Numis Securities 252
National Statistical Office 52–3
nationalities Fig. 3.2 Oasis 132
needs obesity problem 191
identification of xv, xvi, 4–5 objectives, marketing 130–1
and priorities 5 objectivity 9
neighbourhood research 31 observational research 47–8
nepotism 296 occupational factors 55, Fig. 3.2
net trading margin 136 O’Connor, Erin 85, 190
Net-A-Porter 17, 225 off-price retailers 221, 290
networking 280 offer coupons 44
new, quest for the 103 Office of Fair Trading 132
New Look (retail chain) 19, 120, 147 office workers, dress codes Fig. 3.2
New York 189, 190, 226, 259 OK 17, 164
Soho district 315 online
wholesaling area 208 games 281
New York Times 224 marketing 245
new-product development 105–6, Fig. shopping see Internet, shopping
4.3, Table 6 trend information 32
97814039_19021_14_Ind.indd 367 30/10/08 10:31:37 am

opportunities, for organisations (SWOT PEST (Political, Economic, Social and
analysis) 307 Technological) analysis 300–3, 307
optimum channel strategy 30 PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of
organisational strengths 309–10 Animals) 184, 198
out-house advertising management 177 ‘Peter Pan Marketing’ 52
out-of-town retailers 60, 102, 214, 216, Philo, Phoebe 269
299 photographic gallery (of consumers) 10
outdoor advertising 168–9, 172 photography 162, 164, 187
Outfit 150 as information source 47
over-50s see 50+ fashion market as marketing tool 36
overbranding 266–7 physical evidence (of service
overheads 129, 131, 136 quality) 238
own brands 263, 264–5 as element of marketing mix 320
own label 265–6, Table 8.2 Pilot 49
own-bought merchandise 224 Pinault, François-Henri 87
Oxford Street, London 82 Pink Pound 302
Piperlime 225
packaging 117, 160, 201, 248, 275 place (distribution channels) 204–44,
Paris 189, 190, 220, 226, 259, 269 234, 275
Sentier area 208 defined 204
part-time workers 18 as element of marketing mix 319
patenting 302 Planalytics 61
Paul Smith 190, 263 planning
pavement painting 284 defined 321
PDAs 276 hierarchy of 321–2, Fig. 10.6
peer groups 87 strategic and tactical 320–1
pen portraits 10, 67 planning meetings 311
penetration pricing 154 PlayStation PS3 278
pens 92 PLC (product life cycle) 76, 81, 105,
people (and quality of service) 238, 107–15, 272, 315–16, Figs 4.4–6
309 of brands 111–12, 291
as element of marketing mix 320 continuing, positive 113–15
People, Process and Physical long-term and short-term 110
evidence 86, 237–8 marketing and 110–11, 176
People Tree 293 modelling 317–18
policies 293, Table 10.1 of retailers 112
Pepsi generation 11 stages of 107–8
percentage trading margin 136 plimsolls 93, 97
perceptual mapping 79–81, Fig. 3.3 podcasts 160, 315
multi-attribute 80–1, Fig. 3–4 point of sale (POS) marketing 4, 160,
Perclers 36 204, 211, 227, 233, 245, 247, 259, 275
performance art 285 Pol Pot 56
performance parameters 308 Polet, Robert 302
perfumes 92, 254 Police sunglasses 164
celebrity 315 political parties 256
Perreault, W. D. Jr. et al. 26 politics
Perry, Fred 97 as force in fashion industry 300–1
personal selling 151, 156, 157, 160, internal 296
179–80, 233–4, 320 polluting practices 303
personal shoppers 234 polo shirts 99
personality 6, 255, Fig. 3.2 poor-selling lines 152
of consumers 6, 25, 67–8 pop-up stores 285–6
of entrepreneur 294–5 population, sampled 38
97814039_19021_14_Ind.indd 368 30/10/08 10:31:38 am

population projection (by age and downward movement 153
sex) Fig. 3.1 economic factors 135
Porter, Michael 291, 297 external factors 132–5
Porter’s Five Forces model 303–5, Fig. key factors 130–5
10.2 optimisation software 134
portfolio analysis 317 problems 10
portfolio test 174 and profitability 134
positioning and quality 116, 132–3
logical 201 reductions 32, 77–8, 87, 108–9, 124–
map 79–80, Fig. 3.3 5, 134, 290, 304
positioning and repositioning 131, 260, see also discounting
296 schedule 318–19
failure of 82–3 specific strategies 136–40
of products and services 77–85 strategies 125–30
post-analysis reviewing 41 Primark 12, 13, 112, 147, 148, 290, 299
post-event diagnosis 27 Prince (rock star) 249–50
postcodes 60, Fig. 3.2 principle-oriented fashion
posters 168–9, 172, 199 consumers Fig. 3.2
PPR 98 Principles 132
PR (public relations) 7 Pringle sweater 68, 197
Prada 14, 87, 91, 96, 189, 254, 268, 269, print media 15, 248
294 printed matter, and branding 248
Miu Miu 294 Privè 254
New York store 205 probability sampling 38–9
Prada, Miuccia 294 problem creation and solution xv
‘Prada and Primark’ phenomenon 13, problems and issues, defining 29
148 process management, as element of
pre-retailing 212 marketing mix 320
preferences, consumer 33 process (part of service offer) 238
premium offers 151 Procter & Gamble 37, 265
premium-driven promotion product 86–123, 275
techniques 182–3 attributes 317
press fashion calendar 28–9 augmented 89–90, Fig. 4.1
press information 32 benefits 89–90, 317
press packs 187, 188 branding 317
press releases 187, 194, 195, 196 customisation of 87
preview evenings 69 defined 87–8
price development 26, 81, 314–15, 317–18
architecture 141–2 differentiation 83
and cost see cost price as element of marketing mix 316–18
defined 124–5 evaluating quality of 238
as element of marketing mix 318–19 failure of 318
positioning 84 groupings 93–4, Table 4.3
sensitivity 134 integrity 270
skimming 137, 154 life see PLC (product life cycle)
tags, conspicuous 14–15, 229 migration 151
price-driven promotion techniques 181– optimisation Fig. 4.7
2 placement 165, 197
price-point policy 141–2 presentation 47, 225
pricing 124–55 problems 10
competitive 77–8, 148–9 rationing 133–4
confused 154 support services 317
and demand 133–4 unique attributes 250
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product acquisition/manufacturing quadruple-play 278
strengths 308 qualitative and quantitative data 35–7,
product and marketing plans 321 40–1, 44
product mix, decision-making on 102–3 quality 78, 115–16, 125, 245
Product, Place, Price and Promotion (4 gap 239
Ps) 72, 86, 275, 309 migration 116, 151
product service continuum 236–7 of PR agency service 246
product-led approach 1, 3 and pricing 130–1, 132–3
profiling, consumer 10–11, 67 of products 238
profit reduction in 116
maximisation 130 of sales staff 151, 233–4
percentage 136 of service 238–9, 246
retailer’s 129 question marks (quadrant in BCG
profit margins, improving 149–53 matrix) 305, 306
profit/retail price expectations 129–30 questionnaire fatigue 40
profitability 32, 127–8, 233 questionnaires
maintaining overall 140–1 poor design 49
and pricing 134, 149 predesigned 42–3
Promostyl 36, 103 questions, closed and open 43–5
promotion, promotional tools 131, 151, quick-fix policies 296
156–203, 203 quota samples 39, 45
of brands 157 quota system 148
as element of marketing mix 319 QVC 171, 222
in-store 25, 47, 170
word of mouth 157, 160, 168 race factors 57, Fig. 3.2
prosumers 11 Radice, Vittorio 215
protectionism 300 radio 167–8, 169, 171, 275
PRShots 167, 187, 276 commercial 17, 275
psycho-graphics 64–5 digital 275
public relations (PR) 7, 151, 156, 157, listening habits 72
158, 160, 184–98, 275, 289, 314 specialist stations 157
agencies 188, 193, 246 radio frequency tagging 100
communication 196 Radius 266
cost-benefits 186 RAJAR (Radio Joint Audience
defined 184–5 Research) 167
external organisations 195–8 Ralph Lauren 136, 189, 269
and fashion calendar 192–3 Randall, Geoffrey 247
how it works 187, 194–5 random samples, simple and
measuring 194 stratified 38
process 186–7 range branding 317
publics 184, 195 range and depth (display) 101
role in marketing 185 rating scale 43
tools 187 reach 169–70
see also fashion shows; trade fairs and readiness to purchase Fig. 3.2
shows ready-to-wear (RTW) 189, 192, 268, 295
publicity 160 recall test 174
negative 197, 200 receiver 159
Pucci 250 recognition test 174–5
Puma 97, 98 recycled fabric 298
Bonnie and Clyde sneakers 7, 98 Red (PR agency) 246
Clyde 99 La Redoute 178, 222
purchasing behaviour 56–8 Reebok 98, 184
purposive samples 39 reference group 255
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reinforcement 7 tags 33
related product needs 266 Richard Shops 216
relationship focus 263 Richemont 268
relationship marketing 262–3 mission statement 294
reliability 261 Richie, Nicole 191
of service 246 Rimmel 283
religion 56, 57, 120, 159, Fig. 3.2 Rimmel London 283
fundamentalist 56 River Island 19, 290, 309
research objectives Rocha, John 264
erroneous and unclear 49 Rogers, E. M. 9
reviewing 50 Rose, Stuart 112, 125, 161
research process, design of 30 routes, taken in stores 47–8
resource requirements and royalty 165
potential 71–2 Rubicon 132
response 7 Run DMC 98
response rates, low 40 runway shows 36, 37, 191, 257, 268
retail brands 75–6, 300
retail chains 71, 101, 214 Saab, Elie 93
expenditure in 218, Table 7.2 Saatchi, Charles and Maurice 15
retail environment, improvement Sainsbury’s 147, 222
in 226–7 pricing 135
retail formats 220–6 TU brand 52, 131, 218, 221, 249
retail outlets sales
conglomerated 132 annual 125, 176, 290
variable size and shape 101–2 bi-annual 162, 181, 224, 301
variation in 131 clearance 192
retail parks, out-of-town 16 electronic data 25–6, 322–3
Retail Pocket Book 163, 176 expenditure 18
retail selling price (RSP) 124–5 information on 29–35, 100
declining 142, 144–6, Table 5.3 internal data by store 31
and discounting 149 legal control over 301
and going-rate pricing 137 missed and actual 10
key determinants 127–8 patterns 109
and manufacturing costs 131 sales floor visits 34
movement of 152–3, Fig. 5.3 sales promotion 156, 157, 160, 172,
raising 149–50 180–4, 224, 314, 321
for supermarkets 129 third-party 183
retailer brands 246 use in UK 181–4
retailer own brands 263, 264–5 sales promotions 47, 166
retailer PLCs 112, 216 sales staff 226
retailer’s sub-brand 263 quality of 151, 233–4
retailing as source of information 34
choices 207 wearing brand products 248–9
grocery 265 sales tax 143
perspective on 214 sample collection 187
structure in UK 214–15 sample design, errors in 49
types in UK 215, Table 7.1 samples 193, 195
UK trends 217–18 selection of 30
retailment 275 size of 48
retro fashion 12 sampling 37–40
revival life cycle 110, Fig. 4.5 process, choosing 39–40
rewards and prizes 40, 44 SAP (software suppliers) 134
RFID (radio frequency identification) 2 scarves 110
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scatter-gun approach 274 shock tactics 7
search engine 225 shopaholics 6, 281
seasonal looks 28, 110, Fig. 3.2 shoplifters 33
seasons xiv–xv, 122, 192–3 ShopperTrak 231
and bottom-up strategy 292 shopping
fashion press and 28–9, 187 accompanied 26
and sales 16 advisers 69
Second Life (SL) 225, 282 behaviour 31
seeding techniques 168 by car 244
segmentation 1, 314 as entertainment 58, 215
accessibility issues 72–3 habits 25
criteria 25 online see Internet, shopping (e-
demographic Fig. 3.2 commerce)
geographic Fig. 3.2 physiology changes in customer 230
psycho-graphic Fig. 3.2 shopping centres and malls 16, 60, 61,
purchasing behaviour Fig. 3.2 102, 168, 216, 217, 299
segmentation, targeting and positioning shopping channels 167, 171, 222
(STP) 25, 51–65, 316 Shore-to-Shore 2
segments ‘Should I Stay or Should I Go?’ 251
outlook and attractiveness 70–1 signage 239
size and growth criteria 70 simplicity in displays 200
targeting 70–3, 74 single-person households 8, 18
selection bias 39–40 single-way advertising 274
self-actualisation needs 5–6 size zero models xv, 190–1, 198
self-concept/self-image, actual, ideal and sizing 10, 119, 191, 229, 292, 301, Table
social 8 4.7
self-esteem needs 5, 133 SKUs 32, 101
self-liquidating offers 289 Skype 279
self-service methods 226, 233 slow-selling lines 32, 129, 131, 135,
Selfridge, Gordon 226 138–9, 141
Selfridges 37, 82, 84, 112, 115, 117, 201, SMS (short message service,
215, 223, 228, 248, 250 texting) 285, 287
sell-through rates 316 sneakers see trainers
selling environment differentiation 83 snobbery, inverted 12
selling-price reductions 181 Snow, Ian 252
semantic differential 43 social grades (socio-economic
sender 158 groups) 12–13, 172, Fig. 3.2
sensors, electronic 231 and newspapers 162
service gap analysis 239 social impact games 281
service and personnel differentiation 84 social mobility 63
service-based businesses 235–6, Table social needs 5
7.3, Table 4 social networks 273, 279, 280–1, 287,
services 288
marketing 236–7 advertising on 281
quality of 238–9 society, changes in 18
settlement terms, extending 150 socio-cultural forces 301–2
7 Ps 237–8 socio-cultural shifts 55
Sex and the City 18, 170, 197 socio-economic segmentation 59, 62–4,
shipping agents 212 Table 3.3
shipping costs 145 Sock Shop 76
shirts socks 116, 117
collars 99 ‘Space Man’ 251
men’s 99–100 Spain 144
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spam 178 strategy
spatio-visual merchandising 102 corporate and business 291
Spears, Britney 14 defined 290–1
special offers 33 strategy-tactics flow model (Strat-Tact
special purchase stock 125 (ST) Model) 291–2, Fig. 10.1
speed street fashion 58
of change 297, 322–3 street furniture 285
importance of 302, 318 street surveys 45
speed to market 205, 213 street theatre 285
spending, consumer The Streets 98
attitude to Fig. 3.2 strike rate 152
on clothing 18–20, 68–9, Tables 1.3–5 strivers Fig. 3.2
factors in 301 The Strokes 98
patterns 68, 69, 72–3, 95, 146 strugglers Fig. 3.2
‘spiff ’ 183 style
sponsorship 165, 195, 280, 281 defined 88
sports shoes see trainers options 101
sports shops 221 PLCs 112
Sports World 221 style advisers 234
sportswear 56, 218, 221, 260, 297 stylehive 281
Sprite 281 styling advice 84
staff sub-brands 220, 263, 317
attributes 309 subscription services, online 36, 47, 193
motivation of 309–10 success factors, critical 299
selection 296 ‘suggers’ 23
turnover 309, 320 Superdrug 282
see also sales staff supermarkets
Starck, Philippe 293 brands 289
stars (quadrant in BCG matrix) 305, clothing brands 52, 57
306 as competitive outlets 132, 146, 214,
stationery 202 218–19, 221
statisticians 48 expenditure on clothing in 20
status needs 5 fashion 12, 17, 106
status-oriented fashion consumers Fig. food pricing 135
3.2 and geo-demographic profiling 60
Stella McCartney 78, 134, 251, 269 and in-store promotions 25
stereotypes, national 259 incentives to customers 16
stimulus 7 low overheads 129, 131, 146
stock, flexible phasing of deliveries 236 low-priced clothing 129
stock change 219 menswear in 55
stock control, systems 100, 111 quality and value of goods 130–1
stock keeping units (SKUs) 32, 101 sales promotions 289–90
Stone Island 15 suppliers 304
store foreign 299
cards 16, 25, 30, 31, 68, 128, 179 payments to 150–1
design 275 supply
fascias see fascias and demand 33, 125–6, 133–4
modernisation programmes 83–4 limitation 78
store groups, international 304 supply chain 33, 89, 127, 207, 308, 319,
straight price discounts 183 Table 5.1
strategic business units (SBUs) 291 ‘back room’ 206
strategic decisions 24–5? and customer service 234
strategic marketing 289–323 intermediaries 211–13
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supply chain (continued) local stations 166–7
management 320 reality shows 164–5, 185
and marketing 242–3 satellite and cable 15, 17
surfing, web 279 shopping 132, 222
surveys subscription 157
exit 231 viewing habits 72
planning and writing 42–3, 49 young people and 170
retrospective 69 see also shopping channels
survivability 283 Telewest 278
Swatch 102, 247 ‘Tennis Shoes’ 97
swatches, fabric 37 terminal stock 87–8, 124, 135
swimwear 110 terminology 247, 290, 312
SWOT analysis tool 307–10, Fig. 10.4 Tesco 12, 20, 131, 143, 147, 153, 218–19,
symbols 250 265
systems, proprietary 32–3 Cherokee brand 218
Florence & Fred brand 52, 218, 221,
T-shirts 97 263, 278
tabloids 162 TGI 45
tactical price promotion 139 TGI Europa 13
tagging, merchandise 100 think tanks 36
tailored look 58, 96, 110 threats, to organisations (SWOT
tailoring, men’s, chains 75 analysis) 307
targeting 70–3, 74, 171, 177 Tie Rack 76, 298
tariffs, removal of 300 ties, men’s 76
Tatler 193 Tiffany (brand) 12
tattoos, brand 249 till capacity 231, 232
Taylor Nelson Sofres (TNS) 18, 65, Fig. timeframes, in planning 321
3.2 TK/TJ Maxx 221, 290
TBD 128 toddlers 95
teachers, socio-economic status 63 Tokyo, Ginza district 270
technologies Tommy Hilfiger 248
improved 145–6 Tony Awards 192
new 9, 15, 32, 68–9, 132, 157, 166–7, Topman 164, 217
273, 302 Topshop 31, 73, 125, 252
Teddy boy look 109 advertising 164
Teen Vogue 17 and Arcadia Group 132, 150, 291, 295
telephone calls as fashion brand 264
unsolicited 178 as fast-fashion business 27, 107, 109,
via Internet 279 219
telephone marketing 178 and Kate Moss 278, 283
telephone preference schemes 178 KM range 283, 315
telephone surveys 23, 40 own brand 263
computer-aided (CATI) 44, 46 range of lines 135
quantitative 45 service to customers 84
television 165, 195 Unique collection 264, 295
advertising 166–7, 170, 171, 177, 178 top-down and bottom-up strategies 292
commercial 166–7, 275 totalitarian states, clothing in 74
digital 302 tourism 307
flat-screen 278 town v. country Fig. 3.2
freeview channels 17 trade fairs and shows 27–8, 35, 36, 151,
HD 278 156, 195, 202
high-definition 222 see also fashion shows
interactive 171 trade shows 195, 202
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trading periods, key 232 retailing structure in 214–15
trading standards officers 154 ‘Rip-Off Britain’ economy 144
TRAID (Textile Recycling for Aid and status of sales staff 151, 320
International Development) 293 student debt in 145
trainers (sneakers) 71, 93, 96, 97–9 supply chain in 243
training, marketing xvi trading conditions 132
transactional data collection 16 United States of America 96
transgenerational products 98 casual fashion ideal 56
transport fashion magazines in 163
advertising on 169, 172, 248 Gold Rush 109
and branding 248 Internet retailing in 225
travelling habits xiv, 302 low fashion prices in 138, 142, 144
trend books 37 marketing in 315
trend prediction services 36–7, 103, mission statements in 293
235, 237, 298 status of sales staff 320
trend scouts 36 television and radio in 132
Trend Union 36 Top Shop brand in 295
trends 27, 35 weather extremes 61
development 156 unstructured questions 44
reviews of 36 user occasions 10, 28, Fig. 3.2
revival 110 user-generated content 12, 273, 277,
Trendwatching 11 280
trial samples 182 USP (unique selling proposition)
trial store format 47 237
triple-play 278
tweenies 13 Valentino 270
28–day rule 154 VALs system 65–7, Fig. 3.2
Twiggy 85, 164 value positioning 84
‘two-fors’ (two for the price of one) value retailers 12, 220–1, 290
181–2 vanity sizing 119–20
typefaces 248 vehicle fleets 242
typologies, consumer 13, Table 1.2 vehicle liveries 202
vehicles, innovative 285
UDS (United Drapery Stores) 82 Verdict 32
undercutting 143 Versace 269
underwear 58, 181, 182, 201 vertical integration 315
men’s 116 video 159, 165, 287
packaging 117 Viktor & Rolf 78, 251
women’s 100 vintage fashion 12
undifferentiated marketing 74–5 viral marketing 168, 199, 274–5, 278–9,
unemployment levels 301 285, 287, 288
uni-casting 275 Virgin 254, 278, 283
uniforms 202 virtual communities 277
Unilever 265 virtual shopping 276
uniqueness of design 77 virtual social space 281
unit volume 18, 20 visual displays 234
United Kingdom visual medium, fashion as 47
climate 60 visual merchandising 151, 156, 157, 160,
consumer spending and debt 145 200–1, 227–33, 275, 314
expenditure on advertising 163–4 creativity in 228–9
fashion magazines in 163 in-store, rules of 228–9
male dress codes in 74 scope 227
retail prices in 142–3, 144 visual networking site 282
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visual references 47 women
Vivienne Westwood 190 and brand loyalty 57
Vogue 42, 131, 163, 177–8, 189, 192 in employment 18
volatility, market 176 older 18
wages, low 157 products for 93
as purchasers of menswear 55, 217
Wal-Mart 265, 297, 305 and sizing 120
Wallis 73, 150 spending patterns 68, 95, 301
Warehouse 73, 132, 263, 290 tailored look 110
warehouses see distribution centres underwear 100
(DCs) Women’s Wear Daily (WWD) 163
watchdogs, consumer 16 word association 44
watches 91, 92, 102 word of mouth 197, 198–200, 278,
wealth, increase in 18, 301 284, 285, 287
weather 60–2, 109 promotion by 157, 160, 168, 262
effect on demand for products 291 World Trade Organisation
forecasting organisations 61 (WTO) 300
forecasts 292 Worldpanel Fashion (WF) xvii
weather pattern recognition 61 Worth, Charles Frederick 118
web-based media 15 Worth Global Style Network
websites 222, 273, 275 (WGSN) xvii, 32, 35, 36–7, 46–
and affiliate marketing 277 7, 103, 120, 202, 276, 298
affiliated 167 ‘Trend Flash’ service 24–5
company 276 www.customerssuck.com 16
of fashion magazines 236 www.sneakerfreaker.com 15
measuring effectiveness of 277
welfare state 63 Xbox 278
well-being, sense of 5–6
WF (Worldpanel Fashion) 32, 44, 46–7, Young & Rubicam 73
69, Table 8.1 Youngblood, Edison 97
continuous research programme 27, youth
45–6 advertising to 170
WGSN see Worth Global Style Network culture 35, 52, 73
(WGSN) dressing styles 57, Table 3.1
Whistles 132 spending patterns 68, 72–3, 301
wholesalers 127 YouTube 277, 280, 283, 315
wholesaling 207–8, 263 yummy-mummy 18
wi-fi 276 Yves Saint-Laurent 6, 87, 268
wikis 273
Williamson, Matthew 190 Zappos.com 225
window displays 170, 186, 215, 228, 229, Zara xv, 17, 19, 27, 37, 71, 78, 89, 98,
230, 233, 257 143, 219, 243, 251, 252, 290, 291,
Windsor, Duchess of 165 304, 317
Windsor, Duke of 68, 165 Zeithaml, Valerie 236
wines and spirits 92 zip codes 59
Wipperfürth, Alex 287–8 Zune 279
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con

1 the customer and fashion consumption 1

2 marketing research and information for fashion 21

3 fashion marketing segmentation, targeting and positioning (STP) 51

4 marketing mix: the fashion product 86

5 marketing mix: pricing in fashion 124

6 marketing mix: promotion and marketing communications 156

7 marketing mix: place – channels of distribution and service 204

8 branding in fashion and luxury 245

9 new approaches to fashion marketing 272

10 strategic and tactical planning in fashion marketing 289

97814039_19021_01_Plm.indd 5 24/10/08 2:44:41 pm

Effective fashion marketing is about using customer insight to excite.

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 1 24/10/08 2:48:00 pm

Customer and consumer

 mastering fashion marketing

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 2 24/10/08 2:48:01 pm

Categories of fashion customer

1 Business to consumer (B2C)

fashion buyers for their stores;

x a trend-prediction company selling its service to a fashion brand.

The fashion context

the customer and fashion consumption 

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 3 24/10/08 2:48:01 pm

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

 mastering fashion marketing

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 4 24/10/08 2:48:02 pm

figure 1.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (adapted)

the customer and fashion consumption 

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 5 24/10/08 2:48:05 pm

 mastering fashion marketing

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 6 24/10/08 2:48:06 pm

figure 1.2 the learning process

Jackson Figure 1.2 the customer and fashion consumption 

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 7 24/10/08 2:48:08 pm

 mastering fashion marketing

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 8 24/10/08 2:48:08 pm

Early Early Late

figure 1.3 categories of innovativeness

Knowing your customer

the customer and fashion consumption 

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 9 24/10/08 2:48:10 pm

10 mastering fashion marketing

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 10 24/10/08 2:48:10 pm

the customer and fashion consumption 11

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 11 24/10/08 2:48:11 pm

table 1.1 common acronyms for target customer groups

Yuppies Young Urban Professionals

12 mastering fashion marketing

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 12 24/10/08 2:48:12 pm

Marketing researchers often create their own typologies to describe meaningful

table 1.2 fashion consumer typologies

Big spenders ‘I spend a lot on clothes’

the customer and fashion consumption 13

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 13 24/10/08 2:48:13 pm

14 mastering fashion marketing

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 14 24/10/08 2:48:13 pm

The next generation

The customer is king (?)

the customer and fashion consumption 15

97814039_19021_02_Ch1.indd 15 24/10/08 2:48:14 pm

Some major factors influencing fashion consumers

Wider availability of and access to fashion products

16 mastering fashion marketing

mastering fashion marketing

the customer and fashion consumption

mastering fashion marketing

the customer and fashion consumption

mastering fashion marketing

Jackson Figure 1.2 the customer and fashion consumption

mastering fashion marketing

the customer and fashion consumption