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ENGR 2860U

FLUID MECHANICS

CHAP. 1: INTRODUCTION - PROPERTIES


OF FLUIDS AND THEIR UNITS

Characteristics of fluids
WHAT IS A FLUID?

A fluid can be
defined as a
substance which
is capable of
flowing. It has no
definite shape of
its own but
confirms to the
shape of the
containing vessel.

Fluids are further


classified as
liquids and gases.

Liquid is a fluid, which


possesses a definite volume,
which varies only slightly
with temperature and
pressure. Liquids are
almost incompressible.

Gas is a fluid, which is


compressible and possesses no
definite volume and expands until
its volume is equal to that of the
container. Even a slight change in
temperature causes a significant
change in volume and pressure.

WHAT IS FLUID MECHANICS?


Fluid mechanics is a section of Applied-Mechanics that concerns itself with the
behavior of liquids and gases at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics).
Differences between solids and fluids can be explained qualitatively on the basis
of molecular structure.
A more scientific distinction is based on how they deform under the action of an
external load (shear stress).
A shear stress (force per unit area) is created
whenever a tangential force acts on a surface.

(shear stress ) = F/surface area [N/m2]

A solid at rest can resist shear

A fluid at rest cannot resist shear


(container walls are needed)

Some common fluids such as water, oil, and air satisfy the definition of a fluidthat
is, they will flow when acted on by a shear stress.
However some materials, such as slurries, tar, putty, toothpaste, and so on, are not
easily classified since they will behave as a solid if the applied shear stress is small, but
if the stress exceeds some critical value, the substance will flow.

All the fluids we will be concerned with in this course, will conform to the given
definition of a fluid.
The distinction between the 2 fluids (liquid and gas) is related to the spacing between
molecules. For a gas, the spacing is about 10 times larger than in the liquid case and
therefore a gas has the ability to expand.

Dimensions, dimensional homogeneity and units


Dimensions are typically given in terms of certain primary quantities which are:
M: mass
L: length
T: time
and
: temperature
dimension of area?

length x length = L2

dimension of speed?

length / time = LT-1

dimension of acceleration

dimension of force?

length/time / time = LT-2

mass x acceleration = MLT-2

The primary quantities M, L, T, and are also called basic dimensions.


Another system called F, L, T can also be used where M has been replaced by the
dimension of force F, where F = MLT-2 (or M = FL-1 T2)
The table below provides a list of dimensions for a number of common physical
quantities in both systems (MLT) and (FLT).
TB p 5

All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally homogeneousthat is, the


dimensions of the left side of the equation must be the same as those on the right
side, and all additive separate terms must have the same dimensions.
Example: A liquid flows through an orifice located in the side of a tank as shown below
A commonly used equation for determining the volume rate of flow, Q,
through the orifice is
Q = 0.61 A2gh
where A is the area of the orifice, g is the acceleration
of gravity, and h is the height of the liquid above the orifice.
Investigate the dimensional homogeneity of this formula.

Left hand side = Q = volume flow rate = volume/unit time = L3T-1

Right hand side = (L2) (LT-2)(L) = (L2)(LT-1) = L3T-1

System of units
There are several systems of units in use but we shall consider only the three
systems that are commonly used in engineering:
International system (SI)
British gravitational system (BG)
English engineering system (EE)

SI system
M : kilogram (kg)
L : meter (m)
T : second (s)
: Kelvin (oK)

oK (absolute tempereature) = oC + 273.15(or 273)

The force unit is the newton (N) --- 1 N = 1 kg.m/s2


The unit of work/energy is the Joule (J) --- 1 J = 1 N.m
The unit of power is the watt (W) --- 1 W = 1 J/s
TB p 7

BG system
F : pound (lb)
L : foot (ft)
T: second (s)
: Fahrenheit (oF)

oR (Rankine) = oF + 459.67 (or 460)

The mass unit is the slug --- 1 slug = 1 lb /(ft/s2)

Weight W = mg and in BG units W(lb) = m (slugs) g(ft/s2) and since


g = 32.174 ft/s2 so 1 slug weighs 32.174 lb in standard gravity.
EE system
L : foot (ft)
T : second (s)
M: pound mass (lbm)
F : pound (lb)
: absolute temperature (oR)

Newtons second law F = ma/gc


For BG and SI systems gc = 1

For EE system, a 1-lb force is defined as the


force who gives a 1-lbm mass an acceleration
of 32.174 ft/s2 so gc = 32.174 lbm.(ft/s2)/lb

In the EE system W = mg/gc so it follows that 1 slug = 32.174 lbm


In this text we will primarily use the BG system and SI for units.
Handout#1 (H-1) gives conversion factors from BG to SI units and vice versa
(TB tables 1.3 and 1.4)

Measures of fluid mass and weight


Density
The density of a fluid, designated by (rho), is defined as its mass per unit volume.
Density is typically used to characterize the mass of a fluid system.

= m/V
In the SI system, has units of kg/m3 and in the BG system slugs/ft3.

For liquids, the density has a very mild dependence on temperature and pressure
DOB1

at 80 oC, = 972 kg/m3 or


= 1.886 slugs/ft3 .

Density of water as function of temperature

Unlike liquids, the density of a gas is strongly influenced by both pressure and
temperature.
The specific volume, v, is the volume per unit mass and is therefore the reciprocal of
the density v = 1/
Specific weight
The specific weight of a fluid, designated by (gamma), is defined as its weight
per unit volume.
= mg/ (m/)

or

= g

Units of : mg/V = F/V

In BG system lb/ft3 and in SI system N/m3


Water at 80 oC has a specific weight of 60.68 lb/ft3 and 9.535 kN/m3

DOB2

Handout #2 (H-2) and handout #3 (H-3) lists values of specific weights for some
common liquids and gases.
H-2 (TB tables 1.5 and 1.6)
H-3 (TB tables 1.7 and 1.8)

Specific gravity

The specific gravity of a fluid, designated as SG, is defined as the ratio of the density of
the fluid to the density of water at some specified temperature.
Usually the specified temperature is taken as 4oC (39.2 oF), and at this temperature the
density of water is 1.94 slugs/ft3 or 1000 kg/m3.
In equation form, specific gravity is expressed as:
SG = / H20@4oC
Let A be the cross-section area of cylinders:
then, 13.55(A)* H20 = 1(A)* Hg

so SG(mercury) = Hg /H20 = 13.55


So, we can calculate the density of mercury:
In BG: Hg = (13.55)(1.94 slugs/ft3 ) = 26.3 slugs/ft3

In SI: Hg = (13.55)(1000 kg/m3 ) = 13.6 x 103 kg/m3

Ideal gas law

Gases are highly compressible in comparison to liquids. The changes in gas density
are directly related to changes in pressure and temperature through the equation:

= p/RT

where p is the absolute pressure


the density
T the absolute temperature
and R a gas constant

The equation above is commonly termed the ideal or perfect gas law, or the equation
of state for an ideal gas. It is known to closely approximate the behavior of real gases
under normal conditions.
Pressure has the dimension of FL-2 and in BG units is commonly expressed as lb/in2
(psi) and in SI units as N/m2. In SI, 1 N/m2 defined as a pascal, abbreviated as Pa.
Atmospheric pressure is commonly taken as 14.7 psi or 101 kPa.
Absolute pressure (psia) = gage pressure (psi) + 14.7 psi (atmospheric pressure)
The gas constant, R, depends on the particular gas and is related to the molecular
weight of the gas. Values of the gas constant for several common gases are listed in
H-3 (tables 1.7 and 1.8 inside front cover of textbook).

Solved problem 1: A compressed air tank contains 5 kg of air at a temperature


of 80 C. A gage on the tank reads 300 kPa.
Determine the volume of the tank

= p/RT and for air R = 286.9 J/kg.oK (see H-3)


p = 300 kPa + 101 kPa = 401 x 103 N/m2
so = 401 x 103 /(286.9)(80 + 273) = 3.96 kg/m3
= m/V
so

V = m/ = 5 kg/ 3.96 kg/m3 = 1.26 m3

Viscosity

Oil and water may have almost the same density, but they do not flow in the
same fashion.
When the force P is applied to the upper plate,
it will move continuously with a velocity, U.
From the definition of a fluid, if a shear stress = P/A
is applied to a fluid, it will deform continuously.
Behavior of a fluid placed
between two parallel plates.

The experimental observation that the fluid sticks


to the solid boundaries is a very important one in
fluid mechanics and is usually referred to as the
no-slip condition. Both fluids satisfy this condition.

The fluid between the two plates moves with velocity u = u(y), that would be found
to vary linearly, u = Uy/b. DOB3

In a small time increment t, an imaginary vertical line AB in the fluid would rotate
through an angle , so that

a is called the shear strain

Since a = U t, then:

and the rate of shear strain = /t = U/b = du/dy


A continuation of this experiment would reveal that if the shear stress is increased,
the rate of shear strain is increased in direct proportionthat is:
where the constant of proportionality is called the
absolute viscosity, dynamic viscosity, or simply the
viscosity of the fluid.

Linear variation of shear stress


with rate of shear strain for
common fluids.

Fluids for which the shear stress is linearly


related to the rate of shear strain are
designated as Newtonian fluids. Most
common fluids, both liquid and gases are
Newtonian.
Fluids for which the shear stress is not linearly
related to the rate of shear strain are called
non-Newtonian fluids.

Dimensions of viscosity are FL-2T, thus, in BG units viscosity is given as lb.s/ft2 and in
SI units as N.s/m2.
Values of viscosity for several common liquids and gases are listed in H-2 and H-3
(Tables 1.5 through 1.8 in front cover of textbook)
Viscosity is very sensitive to temperature
The effect of temperature on viscosity can be closely
approximated using two empirical formulas.

For gases the Sutherland equation can be


expressed as:
DOB4

where C and S are empirical constants, and T is


absolute temperature. If the viscosity is known
at two temperatures, C and S can be determined.

For liquids an empirical equation that has been


used is (Andrades equation ):

where D and B are constants and T is absolute


temperature.
Quite often viscosity appears in fluid flow problems
combined with the density in the form = /
This ratio is called kinematic viscosity.

For air
S = 150.7
C= 1.59E-06

SUTHERLAND EQUATION

T(degC) T(degK)
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

313
323
333
343
353
363
373

Viscosity from
Viscosity from
Sutherland equation table B.4 [H5]
1.89879E-05
1.87E-05
1.94849E-05
1.95E-05
1.9975E-05
1.97E-05
2.04586E-05
2.03E-05
2.09357E-05
2.07E-05
2.14066E-05
2.14E-05
2.18715E-05
2.17E-05

Solved problem 2: A dimensionless combination of variables that is important in the


study of viscous flow through pipes is called the Reynolds number, Re, defined as
VD/ where is the fluid density, V the mean fluid velocity, D the pipe diameter,
and the fluid viscosity. A Newtonian fluid having a viscosity of 0.38 Ns/m2 and a 0.91
specific gravity flows through a 25-mm diameter pipe with a velocity of 2.6 m/s.
Determine the value of the Reynolds number using (a) SI units, and (b) BG units.
(a) SI units

SG = / H2O = 0.91
Re = VD/

= H2O x 0.91

= (1000) x 0.91 = 910 kg/m3

Re = (910)(2.6)(0.025)/(0.38)

Re ~ 156

(a) BG units
From conversion factor (H-1)/table 1.4
= 0.00194 x (910) = 1.77 slugs/ft3

Re = VD/

Re = (1.77)(2.6 x 3.281)(0.025 x 3.281)/(0.38 x 0.02089)


Re ~ 156

Solved problem 3: A layer of water flows down an inclined fixed surface with the
velocity profile shown in Fig. below. Determine the magnitude and direction of the
shear stress that the water exerts on the fixed surface for U = 2 m/s and h = 0.1 m.
with du/dy = (2U/h) (2yU/h2)

So at the fixed surface (y = 0)


(du/dy)y=0 = 2U/h
from H-2 (table 1.6)

So that = (2U/h)

in SI units

= (1.12 x 10-3)(4/0.1)

= 0.0448 N/m2, acting in direction of flow

Compressibility of fluids

Bulk modulus
How compressible is a fluid? A property that is commonly used to characterize
compressibility is the bulk modulus Ev , defined as:
Ev = - dp/(dV/V)

From m = V,

(dV/V) = - d/, so another expression for the bulk modulus is:


Ev = dp/(d/)

The bulk modulus (also referred to as the bulk modulus of elasticity) has
dimensions of pressure, FL-2.
In BG units, values for Ev are usually given as lb/in2 (psi) and in SI units as N/m2 (Pa).
The use of bulk modulus as a property describing compressibility is most prevalent
when dealing with liquids, although the bulk modulus can also be determined for
gases.

Bulk modulus for liquids are listed in H-2 (or tables 1.5 and 1.6). It can be seen that
the values are quite large.
Compression and expansion of gases
When gases are compressed (or expanded), the relationship between pressure and
density depends on the nature of the process:
Isothermal process: The compression or expansion takes place under
constant temperature conditions
p/ = constant
Isentropic process: The compression or expansion is frictionless and no
heat is exchanged with the surroundings
p/k = constant
where k is the ratio of the specific heat at
constant pressure cp, to the specific heat
at constant volume cv, the two specific heats
are related to the gas constant, R, through the
equation R = cp cv.

Values of k for some common gases are given


in H-3 (tables 1.7 and 1.8).

Bulk modulus for gases:


for isothermal process Ev = p
for isentropic process Ev = kp
For air at atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi) and k = 1.40, Ev (isentropic) = 20.6 psi
For water in similar conditions Ev = 312,000 psi (H-2)

Solved problem 4: Air is enclosed by a rigid cylinder containing a piston. A pressure


gage attached to the cylinder indicates an initial reading of 25 psi. Determine the
reading on the gage when the piston has compressed the air to one-third its original
volume. Assume the compression process to be isothermal and the local atmospheric
pressure to be 14.7 psi.
isothermal process: p/ = constant

pi /i = pf /f
where i stands for initial state
and f stands for final state

thus, pf = (f /i ) pi
air

and since m = V, f /i = 3 (constant mass)


so, pf = 3 x (25 + 14.7) = 119.1 psia
reading on the gage = 119.1 14.7 = 104.4 psi

Speed of sound
valve

Disturbances introduced at some point in the fluid propagate at a


finite velocity.
The velocity at which these small disturbances propagate is called the acoustic velocity
or the speed of sound, c.
The speed of sound is related to changes in pressure and density of the fluid medium
through the equation:
or in terms of the bulk modulus

Since the disturbance is small, there is negligible heat transfer and the process is
assumed to be isentropic. Thus:
and making use of the ideal gas law

For example, for air at 15 oC with k = 1.40 and R = 286.9 J/kg. oK, it follows that
c = 340 m/s

Vapor pressure
Vapor pressure is the pressure at which a liquid boils and is in equilibrium with its
own vapor.
For example, the vapor pressure of water at 68F is 0.34 psi, while that of mercury
is only 2.3 x 10-5 psi.
If the liquid pressure is greater than the vapor pressure, the only exchange between
liquid and vapor is evaporation at the interface.
If, however, the liquid pressure falls below the vapor pressure, vapor bubbles begin
to appear in the liquid.
If water is heated to 212F, its vapor pressure rises to 14.7 psi, and thus water at
normal atmospheric pressure will boil
Surface tension
Surface tension
(force/unit length)

At the interface between a liquid and a


gas, or between two immiscible liquids,
forces develop in the liquid surface
which cause the surface to behave as if it
were a skin or membrane stretched
over the fluid mass.

razor blade in water cup


leaky faucet

For a given liquid the surface tension depends on temperature as


well as the other fluid it is in contact with at the interface.
The dimensions of surface tension are FL-1 with BG units of lb/ft
and SI units of N/m.

air bubbles
in liquid

Values of surface tension for some common liquids (in contact with air) are given H-2
(tables 1.5 and 1.6).
In general, the value of the surface tension decreases as the temperature increases

END OF CHAP.1

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