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UNIT 1.0: ELASTICITY

INTRODUCTION
Elasticity is a branch of physics which studies the properties of elastic materials.
A material is said to be elastic if it deforms under stress, but then returns to its
original shape when the stress is removed. Many of the necessities of everyday
life, from rubber bands to suspension bridges, depend on the elastic properties of
materials.
In this chapter we will introduce a simple principle called Hookes Law that helps
us to predict the deformations of elastic material and the concepts of stress,
strain and elastic modulus. Some examples and exercises are given along the
topic to improve your understanding on the topics discussed.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this unit are to impart student:
i.
ii.

With the basic knowledge in elasticity.

With the concept of elasticity in engineering course.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this unit, students should be able to:

i.
ii.

Analyze situations in which a body is deformed by tension, compression,

pressure or shear.
Manipulate what happens when a body is stretched so much that it
deforms or breaks.

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1.1 HOOKES LAW
The Hooke's law of elasticity states the relationship of a deformed elastic material
when acts by external forces. It is more convenient to write Hookes law, after
Robert Hooke (1635-1703) as a proportionality of stress and strain.

(Hookes Law)

(1.1)

Hookes law states that the strain produced is directly proportional to the
stress applied, provided the stress is below the elastic limit.
The elongation of an ideal spring is proportional to the stretching force. Suppose
an ideal spring in equilibrium with no external forces acted on it, F = 0. When a
compressive or tensile force acted on the spring, it will change the length of the
spring as shown in Figure 1.1.

No forces acts

x
Stretching force, F

x
Compressive force, F

Figure 1.1 An ideal spring acted by external force

According to Hookes law, the deformation is proportional to the deforming forces
as long as they are not too large,
F = kx

(1.2)

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Where F is the restoring force exerted by the spring, k is a spring constant and x
is the distance the spring elongated or compressed. The unit of k is Newton per
metre, Nm-1.
Example 1.1
An ideal spring is placed on a horizontal wooden tabletop. A tensile force of 5.0 N
is pulling one end of the spring causing it to elongate 10 cm. What is,
(a)
(b)

The spring constant.

The displacement of the spring if a 10 N of compressive force pushing it.

Solution
(a)

(b)

Since the spring is elongate 10 cm, from Hookes law the spring constant
is,

The compressive force of 10 N causing the spring to displace (compress),

Example 1.2
What is the maximum load that could be suspended from a hanging spring to
stretch it 5.0 cm from equilibrium? The spring constant, k is 100 Nm-1.
Solution
From Eq. 1.2, the maximum load is equal to the restoring force of the spring.

1.2

STRESS, AND STRAIN,

A bar, rod or wire will stretch when its ends are pulled; hence show its elastic
behavior. Figure 1.2 shows a metal rod that initially has uniform cross-sectional A

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lo
Area, A

l
and length, l. A force F is applied perpendicularly
at the end of the rod, causing it
A
in tension.
F
lo

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.2 (a) Metal rod with initial length, lo. (b) Tensile stress acts
perpendicularly to the metal rod causing elongation, l.
We define tensile stress at the cross section as the ratio of the force to, F the
cross sectional area, A;

(1.3)
The SI unit for stress is the Pascal or Nm-2.
Stress is characterized as the strength of the forces causing the
deformation of an elastic material, on a force per unit area basis.
Besides that, the deformation of an object under tensile stress will cause tensile
strain. As in Figure 1.2, the rod is stretches to a length l = lo + l when under
tension.
The tensile strain of the rod (or elastic object) is equal to the fractional
change in length, which is the ratio of the elongation l to the original
length lo;

(1.4)
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Tensile strain is a ratio of two lengths, always measured in the same units, hence
has no units.
Example 1.3
A steel rod 2.0 m long has a cross sectional area of 0.30 cm 2. The rod is now
hung by one end from a support structure, and a 550 kg weight is hung from the
rods lower end, causing it to elongate 1.8 mm. What is the stress and strain of
the rod?
Solution

1.3

ELASTIC MODULUS

When the stress and strain is small enough, we often find that the two are directly
proportional. We call the proportionality constant an elastic modulus, as in Eq.
1.1. Table 1.1 lists approximate elastic modulus for some materials.
Table 1.1 Approximate elastic modulus for some materials.
Material
Youngs Modulus, Bulk Modulus,
Y ( x 1010 Pa)
B ( x 1010 Pa)
Lead
1.6
4.1
Crown glass
6.0
5.0
Aluminum
7.0
7.5
Brass
9.0
6.0
Copper
11.0
14.0
Steel
20.0
16.0
Iron
21.0
16.0
Nickel
21.0
17.0

Shear Modulus,
S ( x 1010 Pa)
0.6
2.5
2.5
3.5
4.4
7.5
7.7
7.8

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1.4

YOUNGS MODULUS, Y

For a sufficiently small tensile stress, stress and strain are proportional. Thus the
corresponding elastic modulus is called Youngs modulus, Y;

(1.5)
Eq. 1.5 can be simplified as;
Tensile stress, = Y (Tensile strain, )
The SI unit of Youngs modulus is Pa or Nm -2. A material with a large value of Y is
relatively unstretchable; a large stress is needed for a given strain. For example,
the value of Y for iron is much larger than aluminum, as shown in Table 1.1.
Youngs modulus can be thought of as the inherent stiffness of a material;
it measures the resistance of the material to elongation or compression.
Example 1.4
A circular steel wire with length 2.0 m must stretch no more than 0.25 cm when a
tensile force of 400 N is applied to one end of the wire. What minimum diameter
is required for the wire?
Solution

Lo = 2.0 m,
F

l = 0.25 cm = 0.25 x 10-2 m, 2.0 mF = 400 N,

F

From Hookes law,

Ysteel = 20 x 1010 Pa

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Stress = Y (strain)

Example 1.5
Refer to Example 1.3, what is the Youngs modulus of the steel rod?
Solution
By using Eq. 1.5, the Y is;

1.5

BULK MODULUS, B

When a diver plunges into the ocean, the water exerts nearly uniform pressure
everywhere on the diver, and squeezes him to a slightly smaller volume. This is a
different situation from the tensile and compressive stress and strain as
discussed in the earlier section. The stress is now uniform pressure on all sides,
and the resulting deformation is a volume change. We use the term bulk stress
(or volume stress) and bulk strain (or volume strain) to describe these
quantities.
F = PA
F = PA

F = PA

If an object is immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts a force on any part of the
objects surface; this force is perpendicular to the surface, resulting pressure on
Vo
the object as shown in Figure 1.3. Pressure plays important role in a volume
deformation.
V
F = PA

F = PA

F = PA
F = PA

F = PA

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Figure 1.3 Volume change due to volume stress.

(1.6)
The volume strain is the ratio of the volume change V to the original volume Vo;

(1.7)
When Hookes law is obeyed, an increase in pressure (bulk stress) produces a
proportional bulk strain.
The corresponding elastic modulus for bulk stress and bulk strain is called
Bulk modulus, B.

(1.8)
Eq. 1.8 can be simplified as;
Bulk stress = - B (Bulk strain)
The minus sign in the equation because an increase of pressure always causes
decrease in volume.

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Example 1.6
A hydraulic press contains 0.30 m3 of oil. Find the decrease in the volume of the
oil when it is subjected to a pressure increase P = 2.0 x 107 Pa. The bulk
modulus of the oil is B = 5.0 x 109 Pa.
Solution

1.6

SHEAR MODULUS, S

The third kind of stress-strain is called shear. Consider a book placed on a

tabletop. If we push horizontally on the top cover of the book while pushing in
opposite direction on the bottom cover to hold it in place, the book is deformed as
shown in Figure 6.4.

Figure 1.4 A book under shear stress.

Shear deformation is the result of a pair of equal and opposite forces that
act parallel to two opposite surfaces.

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The shear stress is the magnitude of the shear force divided by the area of the
surface on which the force acts;

(1.9)
Shear strain is the ratio of the relative displacement x to the separation L of the
two surfaces;

(1.10)
The shear stress is proportional to the shear strain as long as the stress is not
too large. The constant of proportionality is the shear modulus, S;

(1.11)
Eq. 1.11 can be simplified as;
Shear stress = S (Shear strain)
Example 1.7
An outdoor sculpture made of brass base plate; experiences shear forces as a
result of an earthquake. The frame is 0.80 m square and 0.50 cm thick. How
large a force must be exerted on each of its edges if the displacement is 0.16
mm?
Solution
From Table 1.1 the shear modulus of brass, Sbrass = 3.5 x 1010 Pa.
Note that L represents the 0.80 m length of each side of the square plate, and
the area A is the product of the 0.8 m length and 0.50 cm thickness.
Using Eq. 1.11 the shearing force is;

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0.5 cm
0.8 m

F
Area, A

0.8 m

1.7

POISSON RATIO, v

Poisson ratio, v is defined as the ratio of transversal strain over

longitudinal strain.

(1.12)
Figure 1.5 shows a box experiencing tensile stress causing it to elongate in the F
direction, from Lo to L, and reduce in the width, from Wo to W. The relationship of
this transversal strain to longitudinal strain is called Poisson ratio.

Figure 1.5 A box experiencing transversal strain and longitudinal strain.

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(1.13)

SUMMARY
1.

Hookes law states that the strain produced is directly proportional to the
stress applied, provided the stress is below the elastic limit.

2.

Stress is characterized as the strength of the forces causing the

deformation of an elastic material, on a force per unit area basis.

3.

The tensile strain of the rod (or elastic object) is equal to the fractional
change in length, which is the ratio of the elongation l to the original
length lo;

4.

Youngs modulus can be thought of as the inherent stiffness of a material;

it measures the resistance of the material to elongation r compression.

5.

The corresponding elastic modulus for bulk stress and bulk strain is called
Bulk modulus, B.

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6.

Shear deformation is the result of a pair of equal and opposite forces that
act parallel to two opposite surfaces.

7.

Poisson ratio, v is defined as the ratio of transversal strain over

longitudinal strain.

EXERCISES
1.

Youngs modulus for diamond is about 20 times as large as that of marble.

Does that tell you which is stronger? If not, what does it tell you?

2.

A 2.5 m long steel beam is placed vertically in the basement of a building.

This is to ensure the floors as well the building above from sagging. The
load on the beam is 5.8 x 10 4 N and the cross-sectional area of the beam
is 7.5 x 10-3 m2. What is the vertical compression of the beam?
(Ans: 0.097 mm)

3.

A 0.50 m string with cross-sectional area 1.0 x 10 -6 m2 has Youngs

modulus of 2.0 x 109 Nm-2. By how much must you stretch the string to
obtain a tension of 20 N?
(Ans: 5.0 mm)

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4.

What is the maximum load that could be suspended from a copper wire of
length 1.0 m and diameter 2.0 mm without permanently deforming the
wire? Copper has an elastic limit of 2.0 x 10 8 Nm-2 and a tensile strength of
4.0 x 108 Nm-2.
(Ans: 1300 N)

5.

A steel rod is compressed by the application of forces with magnitude F at

each end. What magnitude of forces required to compress by the same
amount;
(a)
a steel bar of the same cross-sectional area but one half the
length?
(b)
a steel bar of the same length but one half the radius?
An anchor, made of cast iron with volume 0.230 m 3 has bulk modulus of
60 x 109 Pa is lowered over the side of the ship to the bottom of the
harbor. The pressure below the harbor is greater than sea level pressure
by 1.75 x 106 Pa. What is the change in the volume of the anchor?
(Ans: -6.71 cm3)

6.

7.

A copper sphere of bulk modulus 130 GPa is subjected to 100 MPa of

pressure. By what fraction does the volume of the sphere change?
(Ans: 7.7 x 10-4)

8.

A cube of gelatin with dimensions of 5.0 cm on each side is displaced

0.64 cm by a tangential force. If the shear modulus of gelatin is 940 MPa,
what is the magnitude of the force?
(Ans: 0.30 N)

REFERENCES
1. Pre-U Text STPM: Physics Volume 1, Cheong Foon Choong, PearsonLongman, 2006.
2. College Physics. International Edition, Alan Giambattista, Betty McCarthy
Richardson and Robert C. Richardson, McGraw-Hill, 2004.
3. University Physics: With Modern Physics. 12 th Ed., Young H. D and R. A.
Freedman, Pearson Addison-Wesley, 2008.
4. Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics. 3 rd Ed., Douglas
C. Giancoli, Prentice Hall, 2000.

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