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Received 13 October 2006; received in revised form 13 March 2007; accepted 4 May 2007
Abstract
Indonesia contains many Tertiary basins, several of which have proven to be very prolic producers of oil and gas. The geology and
petroleum systems of these productive basins are reviewed, summarized and updated according to the most recent developments. We
have linked the recognized petroleum systems to common stages in the geological evolution of these synrift to postrift basins and
classied them accordingly. We recognize four Petroleum System Types (PSTs) corresponding to the four main stages of geodynamic
basin development, and developed variably in the different basins depending on their depositional environment history: (i) an oil-prone
Early Synrift Lacustrine PST, found in the Eocene to Oligocene deeper parts of the synrift grabens, (ii) an oil and gas-prone Late Synrift
Transgressive Deltaic PST, located in the shallower Oligocene to early Miocene portions of the synrift grabens, (iii) a gas-prone Early
Postrift Marine PST, characteristic of the overlying early Miocene transgressive period, and (iv) an oil and gas-prone Late Postrift
Regressive Deltaic PST, forming the shallowest late Tertiary basin lls. We have ascribed the petroleum systems in each of the basins to
one of these types, recognizing that considerable mixing of the predominantly lacustrine to terrestrial charge has taken place.
Furthermore, we have grouped the basins according to their predominant PSTs and identied basin families that share important
aspects of their hydrocarbon habitat: these have been termed proximal, intermediate, distal, Borneo and eastern Indonesian, according to
their palaeogeographic relationship to the Sunda craton of Southeast Asia.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Indonesia; Tertiary; Sedimentary basins; Rifts; Petroleum system; Petroleum system types
1. Introduction
Petroleum exploration in Indonesia has had a long and
successful history. Some of the earliest oil production of
the modern age comes from shallow elds in Java and
Sumatra, and discoveries have been made throughout the
past century up to the present day. Knowledge of the
petroleum habitat has been encouraged since the 1970s,
partly thanks to an enlightened policy of cooperation by
the petroleum community in Indonesia, through technical
conferences and through publications sponsored by the
Indonesian Petroleum Association (IPA). This cooperation
amongst industry participants has grown from the need to
develop a comprehensive understanding of the large
Corresponding author.
1
0264-8172/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2007.05.007
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Fig. 1. Location map of Indonesian basins, grouped according to resource volumes. Those with less than 10 MMboe do not contain petroleum systems
described here. MM, million; B, billion; boe, barrels of oil-equivalent.
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In nearly all of the basins, four stages of tectonostratigraphic evolution can be recognized (Fig. 2):
1. Early Synrift (typically Eocene to Oligocene)corresponds with the period of rift graben formation and the
following period of maximum subsidence. Often deposition is limited to early-formed half-grabens.
2. Late Synrift (Late Oligocene to Early Miocene)
corresponds with the period of waning subsidence in
the graben, when individual rift elements amalgamated
to form extensive lowlands that lled with paralic
sediments.
3. Early Postrift (typically Early to Middle Miocene)
corresponds with a period of tectonic quiescence
following marine transgression that covered the existing
grabenhorst topography.
4. Late Postrift (typically Middle Miocene to Pliocene)
corresponding to periods of inversion and folding,
during which regressive deltas were formed.
A nal transgressive period characterizes the Quaternary, but it has no signicance to petroleum habitat and will
not be referred to further.
These stages can be related to the areas plate tectonic
evolution (Hall, 1997), particularly to early Tertiary
Fig. 2. Chronostratigraphy of Indonesian petroliferous basins, showing stages, background tectonics and geodynamic events. Seaoor spreading events
and continental collisions are from Longley (1997).
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transtensional stresses generated by the IndiaAsia collision (including opening of the South China Sea (3020 Ma)
and with late Tertiary uplift and inversions caused by
collisions and plate rotations. They can also be correlated
with the four phases or stages of SE Asian tectonostratigraphic evolution as dened by Longley (1997). His Stage I
(5043.5 Ma) corresponds to a period of early continental
collision, which led to the formation of many of the older
synrift grabens, while his Stage II (43.532 Ma), during
which major plate reorganizations took place, resulted in
the formation and active subsidence of a younger population of rifts. Stage III (3221 Ma), contemporaneous with
sea oor spreading in the South China Sea, was a period
during which rifting ceased, local inversion took place
and a major marine transgression marked the beginning
of postrift development. Stage IV (210 Ma) was characterized by a maximum transgression, followed by several
collision phases that led to inversions, uplift and the
development of regressive deltaic sequences. This is equivalent to the early and late postrift stages.
3. Relationship of tectono-stratigraphic history to petroleum
system development
For many years, it has been recognized that most
sedimentary basins have complex histories that can be
divided into stages or cycles (mentioned above). Kingston
et al. (1983) described a method by which various basin
types could be categorized by their sequence of evolutionary stages. SE Asia Tertiary basins were classied as
two-stage wrench or shear basins, in recognition of their
early synrift phase with probable transtensional origin,
followed by almost inevitable inversions related to the
inherent instability (reected in the poor preservation
potential of this basin type). They also noted that each
basin stage typically comprised a transgressiveregressive
sedimentary cycle, which today we can recognize as a
rst order sequence, containing lowstand, transgressive
and highstand systems tracts, bounded by regionally correlatable horizons.
It is our belief that in many basins, petroleum systems
can be related directly to basin stage, since rst-order
sedimentary sequences often contain source, reservoir and
seal rocks, frequently in a favourable vertical succession.
We have applied this concept to Indonesian petroleum
systems, albeit with some modications in recognition of
the synrift development (which does not lend itself easily to
the classic model of sequence stratigraphy) and the rapid
facies variations.
Doust and Lijmbach (1997) and Doust (1999) proposed
that almost all of the petroleum systems developed in
Indonesian basins could be ascribed to one of four basic
types, each with its characteristic source, reservoir and seal
facies. By classifying them in this way, it is possible to make
broad comparisons of basin prospectivity. Recognition of
discrete petroleum systems depends on geochemical correlation between source rocks and their related hydrocarbon
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Fig. 3. Source rock types in Indonesian basins based on oil typing from Todd et al. (1997), showing lithology, age, and the basin stage in which they are
developed and total associated reserve volumes in million barrels of oil-equivalent. ES, Early Synrift; LS, Late Synrift; EP, Early Postrift; LP, Late
Postrift; HC, hydrocarbons.
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Fig. 4. Stratigraphic sections of southern and western Indonesian basins, showing basin stage, common formation names, lithology and predominant
depositional environments (thicknesses are not indicated).
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structural noses in the deltaic sequences of the late synand postrift section. Deep water plays of the Mahakam
Delta may also have a component of stratigraphic
trapping, particularly in ponded mini-basins in intra-slope
environments.
5. Summary of Indonesian petroleum basin geology
In this section, we summarize the stratigraphic and
structural development of the various productive basins of
Indonesia, and relate them to the petroleum system
framework presented above (Figs. 4 and 5). It should be
noted that many of these are composite basins, comprising
a number of separate synrift grabens overlain by a blanket
of postrift deposits. In many cases, the facies vary
considerably across the various provinces, depending on
the proximity to or distance from the contemporary open
ocean (in the synrift) and to zones of active deformation
(in the postrift).
Note that in ascribing reservoir levels to petroleum
system types and basin stages, we have included PST 3
basal carbonates within PST 2 in those areas where,
because there is no regional seal between them, they
essentially form one combined group of reservoirs.
Examples of this include areas where the Batu Raja
Formation directly overlies the Talang Akar Formation
in the South Sumatra Basin. Unless stated, we have
followed the petroleum systems classication as dened
by Howes and Tisnawijaya (1995).
5.1. North Sumatra Basin
The North Sumatra Basin comprises a series of north
south trending ridges and grabens formed in Early
Oligocene time (Fig. 6). Almost the entire basin ll is
marine, much of it, especially in the north, comprising
basinal deeper marine claystones, shales and shallow water
reefoid limestones, the latter developed on structural highs.
Regressive shallow water deltaic facies are found in the
southeast. The sequence is predominantly argillaceous and
the division into four-basin stages is somewhat arbitrary.
Early Synrift (Early Oligocene): Coarse-grained conglomerates and bioclastic limestones are recorded at the
bases of the graben lls and on their adjacent highs.
Late Synrift (Late Oligocene): This comprises thick,
deep marine claystones, mudstones and dark shales of
the Bampo Formation. These represent the main source
rock for the gas in the northern part of the basin:
although lean (1% TOC, type III), they are very thick
and may reach high maturities.
Early Postrift (Early to Middle Miocene): This sequence, corresponding to the Peutu Formation, comprises thick basinal deeper marine shales and marls, with
extensive reefoid carbonate buildups developed on
structural highs. The latter form excellent reservoirs,
with porosities averaging 16% in the Arun eld. Deep
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Fig. 5. Stratigraphic sections of northern and eastern Indonesian basins, showing basin stage, common formation names, lithology and predominant
depositional environments (thicknesses are not indicated).
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to Oligocene extension phases were responsible for formation of the rifts throughout the area, while Early to Middle
Miocene NESW and NWSE wrench movements recording complex plate readjustments affected west Natuna,
producing basin margin inversions. In east Natuna, opening of the South China Sea continued until late in the
Tertiary and there is little evidence for compressional
movements. Local to regional unconformities are present
at the end of the early synrift and during the early postrift
periods.
5.4.1. Petroleum systems
In West Natuna many hydrocarbon elds are associated
with Sunda-type inversion folds formed in the Miocene
adjacent to the main boundary faults of a number of the
rift basins. These dip-closed anticlinal structures are
sometimes associated with thrusts and are often faulted.
The charge is derived from synrift lacustrine shales and the
main reservoirs comprise paralic to marine sands of the
Gabus Formation. Keras and Barat shales form efcient
regional seals. Most of the elds are shallow (maximum
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2 km), have high API gravities and produce both oil and
gas. In comparison to other basins with similar stratigraphy, there are a few elds. This is due to the fact that traps
are largely limited to complex wrench-reactivated boundary fault zones with NESW or NWSE orientations.
Along such fault trends, several small fault-dependant
elds may be clustered. This petroleum system is known as
the BenuaGabus (!) PS.
One large, as yet non-productive gas eld, D-Alpha is
present in a large carbonate buildup in eastern Natuna
(May and Eyles, 1985). The gas contains a high percentage
of CO2, suggesting that the charge is derived from deepseated sources associated with crustal faults along the
western margin of the South China Sea. Hydrocarbon
charge for this PS may be derived partly from the pre-rift,
but is more likely to be derived from the synrift and it is
referred to here as the TertiaryTerumbu (.) PS.
The creaming curves for Natuna presented by Howes
and Tisnawijaya (1995) show no signs of creaming.
However, the number of elds is too small to provide
reliable statistics. The complex geology and continuous
tectonics have led to signicant issues related to the timing
of migration versus trap formation. Re-migration may be
common, and this is probably reected in the apparently
poor nding efciency.
5.5. Sunda and Asri basins
The geology of these two rich hydrocarbon basins shows
many similarities to one another, as described by Bushnell
and Temansja (1986), Wight et al. (1997) and Sukanto et al.
(1998). The location of major elds and structural elements
are shown in Fig. 10. The stratigraphic nomenclature is
similar to that of South Sumatra.
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Fig. 11. East Java Basinsimplied location and structure map showing
inferred areas of hydrocarbon generation and oil/gas elds classied
according to the basin stage in which the main reservoir occurs.
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Early Synrift (Middle Eocene): This sequence is dominated by volcanics and volcaniclastics of the Sembakang
Formation. It is highly tectonized.
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Fig. 14. East Indonesia basinslocation map (top left), West Papua and Seram basins (Salawati, Bintuni and Bula, respectively, top right) and Tomori
Basin, Sulawesi (bottom left). Oil and gas elds are classied according to the basin stage in which they occur.
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Fig. 15. The four petroleum system types (PSTs) typical of Southeast Asian Tertiary basins and their relation to basin stages, from Doust and Lijmbach,
(1997). A number of the most important characteristics of each are shown.
Category (ii)
BampoPeutu (!) PS, reservoir in PST 3 (North
Sumatra Basin).
Category (ii)
TertiaryBelumai (.) PS, source possible Baong,
reservoir in PST 3 (North Sumatra Basin).
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Fig. 16. Petroleum systems types in Indonesia grouped into families showing the depositional environment evolution in relation to tectonic basin stages,
after Doust (2003). Trajectories of Proximal, Intermediate, Distal and Borneo (Kalimantan) basins are shown.
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Distal basins: Distal basins occupy the edges of the preTertiary Sunda craton, and have either a history of
substantial subsidence or are located distally with respect
to postrift uplift and delta developments.
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Acknowledgements
We are grateful to all of the authors whose work over the
years has contributed so abundantly to knowledge of
Indonesian petroleum geologywithout them a synthesis
of the main trends, as we have attempted here, would be
impossible. One of us (H.D.) is also grateful to Shell
International Petroleum Company for the opportunity
(in the 1990s) to study, with an outstanding team, the
fascinating geology of Far East Tertiary basins. Some of
the ideas presented here were conceived during this period.
R.A.N. is grateful for the support of Unocal Indonesia
Company and for their permission to publish this article.
Finally, we are very grateful to anonymous reviewers who
helped us in many ways to increase the quality and
consistency of the text.
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