Lecture on Microsystems Design and Manufacture

Chapter 11
Assembly, Packaging, and Testing (APT)
of Microsystems
Like ICs, no MEMS or microsystem is made by only one single component.
They are almost all made of multi-components that need to be assembled
and packaged to make the microdevices
Thus, packaging of microsystems involves: assembly, joining, interconnecting,
encapsulation of minute parts and components into a microsystem product
Packaging also includes performance and reliability testing of the finished
products
Packaging is the most critical factor of successful commercialization of microscale products. Packaging cost can be as high as 95% of the overall cost of
the production. On average, packaging cost is about 30% of the total
production cost. Cost-effective and reliable packaging technique is thus the
key to the competitiveness of the microsystem product in the marketplace

Content
Overview of Assembly, Packaging and Testing (APT)
of MEMS and Microsystems
Part 1: Microassembly
Part 2: Packaging of Microsystems
Part 3: Reliability and Testing of Microsystems

High Cost in APT of MEMS and Microsystems

MEMS and microsystems involve complex structural geometry and
a variety materials
They are expected to perform multi-functions involving biological, chemical,
electrical, mechanical, and optical performances
There is no standard in materials and process to follow in APT:
Packaging
Categories

Process
Interconnect
Design & Modeling; Testing
Equipment
Materials
1990

1995

2000

2005 2010
Standards Timeline

2015

2020

Every microdevice requires special design, component fabrication and APT

High development cost
No sharing in technical information
Every new device development requires APT from fresh start
High overall costs in APT

APT of a Microdevice Component

A Micro Pressure Sensor Die

Silicon Wafer

Top View
Silicon Die

Elevation
(Cross-Section)

P
Co yrex
G
nst
rain lass
tB
ase

Pyrex Glass Wafer

A Flow Chart for Integrated Assembly, Packaging and Testing

for mass production of micro pressure sensors

(1) Wafers

Surface
coating

Wafer bonding (3)

(4) Wafer dicing

(5)

Lift-off

Part
sorting

Sub-group
(7) assemblies:

(8)

(9) Die or parts

passivation

Die attach and/or

Bonding
(10)

Surface
bonding
Wire
bonding

Assembly:
Steps (6) and (12)
Packaging: Steps (3), (7), (9) and (16)
Testing:
Steps (2), (8), (11), (14) and (15)
-fabrication: Steps (4), (5), (10), (13)

(11)

(12)

Electrical
inspection

Curing of
passivation
materials

Electrical
inspection

(Packaged sub-groups)

Microfabrication
on wafers
(3)

(6)

Incoming wafer
inspection

(Parts)

(2)

(13)

(14)

System
assembly
System
encapsulation
(Sealing)
Testing for
sealing

Testing for
(15) electrical and
performance
functions
(16) Product packaging

(17)

Shipping

Part 1

Microassembly

Microassembly = the assembly of objects with microscale and/or

mesoscale features under microscale tolerances.

The High Costs in Microassembly

We have defined microcomponents of MEMS and microsystems to be in the dimensions
ranging from 1 m to 1 mm

Thus, most of them cannot be seen by naked human eyes

Almost all assembly of microcomponents have to be performed under microscopes
There are huge number of microcomponents to be assembled by MEMS industry:
MST
Products

1996 Units
(millions)

1996 Revenue
($millions)

2002 Units
(millions)

2002
Revenue
($millions
)

2006 Units
(millions)

2006
Revenue
($million)

Established
Products

1595

13033

6807

34290

10282

48461

33

107

1045

4205

1720

6937

1628

13140

7852

38495

12002

55398

Emerging
Products
Total

Source: NEXUS , hhtp://www.wtec.org/loyala/mcc/mes.eu/pages/chapter-6.html

The Needs for Cost-Effective Assembly of Microsystems

By reliable estimate, there are 12 billion units worth $50 billion of microscaled
products to be in the marketplace in 2006.
Among them, there are 2+ billion units are read-write heads for hard disk drives,
inkjet printer heads and inertia sensors that are automatically assembled.
The remaining 10 billion units would be assembled with some degree of
automation, or entirely assembled by human effort.
Manual assembly of MST products is prohibitively expensive, tiresome and
time consuming. Often, the products would not meet the extremely stringent
requirements in precision and thus the necessary quality and reliability of
the finished products.
Awkward assembly and packaging techniques used by the MST industry are
the major stumbling blocks to successful marketing, and thus capitalizing the
enormous full potential benefits of microsystems technology.

Main reasons for lack of automated microassembly technology:

There is lack of standard procedures and rules for such assemblies:
Products are assembled according to the specific procedures based either on
individual customer requirements, or on the personal experience of the design
engineer

There is lack of effective tools for micro assemblies:

Tools such as micro grippers, manipulators and robots are still being developed

Micro assemblies require reliable visual and alignment equipment:

Such as stereo electron microscopes, electron-beam, UV stimulated beam or
ion beam imaging systems specially design for microsystems assembly

Lack of established methodology in setting proper tolerances:

The strategies for setting tolerances in parts feeder, grasp surface to mating surface,
fixtured surface to mating surface, etc. have not been established for micro assembly

Micro assemblies are physical-chemical processes related with

strong material-dependence:
Traditional assembly techniques are not suitable for micro devices because of the
minute size of the components and the close tolerances in the orders of sub-microns.
Moreover, chemical and electrostatic forces dominate in micro assembly, whereas
gravity and physics are primary consideration in macro assemblies. There is little
theory or methodology developed to deal with these problems in micro assemblies.

Four Reasons for High Cost of Microassembly

No standard procedure for microassembly

Lack of effective tools for:
Microgripping
Manipulating
Reliable visual and alignment
Stereo imaging
Lack of established methodologies in setting tolerances in:
Insertion and assembly
Lack of understanding in the influences of non-conventional forces,
e.g., the interface electrostatic and atomic/chemical forces during
microassembly

Microassembly Processes
Parts feeding
Part grasping by microgrippers, manipulators and robots
Part mating by specially designed tools
Part bonding and fastening
Wire bonding
Special surface bonding
Encapsulation and passivation
Mechanical and physical/chemical encapsulation
Vacuum packaging
Sensing and verification
Visual inspection for structural integrity
Performance testing

Major Technical Problems in Microassembly

- setting proper tolerances
Dimensional tolerances inherited from microfabrication:
Fabrication Processes

Materials

Minimum/Maximum
Sizes

Dimensional
Tolerance (m)

Wet anisotropic
etching

Si, GaAs, quartz,

SiC, InP

Few m wafer size

1.0

Dry etching

Si, GaAs, quartz,

SiC, InP

Sub- m-wafer size

0.1

Poly-silicon
Poly-Si, Al, Ti
surfacemicromachining

Sub- m-wafer size

0.5

Silicon-on-insulators

Si crystal

Sub- m-wafer size

0.1

LIGA process

Ni, PMMA, Au,

ceramics

0.2 m/10x10 or larger

0.3

Major Technical Problems in Microassembly - setting proper tolerances (Contd)

Geometric Tolerances:
Relating to the discrepancy of the geometry of microcomponents produced by
microfabrication processes and the intended application of the microsystem.
Improperly setting of this tolerance may cause serious misfit2 in assembly:
o

4.8 m

Fixed
Electrodes
L = length
w = width
d = gap

Moving
Electrodes
with fingers
L

W=2 m

(a) Resonator actuated by comb-drive

(b) An electrode finger with 2o tapered edges

2o

4.8 m

db = 3 m

W=2 m

(c) Variation in gaps

40 m

dt = 1.74 m

36 m

Figure 11.5

L = 40 m

Major Technical Problems in Microassembly - setting proper tolerances (Contd)

Alignment Tolerances:
Proper setting is necessary in inserting and placing of parts
This tolerance relates to specific applications, e.g., bioMEMS and OptoMEMS
In most cases, these tolerances < 1 m
Other Tolerances:
Part feeders
Grasping surface to mating parts
Fixture surface to mating surfaces

Tools and Fixtures for Microassembly

Major problem in microassembly is the minute size of microcomponents to be assembled
Many components can only be viewed under microscopes
with magnification at 300X - 500X

For typical optical microscope, the working distance

(the gap between the objective lens and the microcomponent) d
is inversely proportional to the magnification:
X =

Ocular Lens
(Eyepiece)

Y
1

y
d

The small d for large X means very small working space for
microassembly tools, e.g., microgrippers, or other fixtures
tools and fixtures with very low aspect ratios
(aspect ratio = dimension in height to length)

Microgripper with LONG arms

Objective Lens

Working
Distance
d

Tools with high aspect ratios may not have sufficient rigidity
to provide high precision pick-n-place operations
difficult in precision control without feedback tactile sensor feedback

Contact Problems in Microassembly Tools

Pick-n-Place by microgrippers or micro robotic end-effectors are common
and necessary practice in microasdsembly

This practice requires the tool surface to be in contact with that of the microcomponents to be picked from one location and placed at another location.

Adhesive forces on the contacting surfaces of minute pieces develop, e.g.,

in the effort to peel of thin light-weight piece of paper from a transparency
These adhesive forces likely developed between the surface of the tools
and that of the microcomponents due to electrostatic and chemical
(atomic or van der Waals) forces.
In the Pick-n-Place operations in microassembly, there is no problem in Pick
but often cannot release for the Place part of the operation because of
these adhesive forces compounded by insignificant gravity (weight) effect

Adhesive Forces in Micrograsping

Gravitation of minute objects is insignificant in pick-n-place operations.
As such, induced adhesive forces may dominate in this operation.
These adhesive forces cause great difficulty in releasing the object at the
end of the operation:

Gripping
Force

Flat Gripper Arms

Grasping:

Releasing:

Adhesive
Force

Gravitation
Gravitation
(insignificant)

Adhesive Forces in Micrograsping

There are two principal contributing sources for the adhesive
forces:
Van der Waals force, and
Electrostatic force.
In wet assemble, or assembly in humid environment, the
surface tension of the fluid between the contacting surfaces
become the 3rd adhesive force component.
Exact quantification of these forces is not possible.
Use a case involving Pick-n-Placing a sphere by a pair of

flat plate gripping arms for assessing the adhesive forces:

Flat gripping arm

Adhesive forces in Pick-n-Placing of a sphere by a pair of flat

plate gripping arms:
(1) Van der Waals force (d < 100 nm, or 0.1 m):

Fv =

Ad
12 2

where A = Hamaker constant = 10-20 to 10-19 J

= atomic separation between
the contacting surfaces
o
typically at 4 to 10 A
= correction factor for rough surfaces ( 0.01)
Adhesive
(2) Electrostatic force (10 m < d < 1 mm):
Force, F
Induced in picking portion of the process due to
charge-generation, or charge- transfer during the contact.

Fe =

q2

4 d 2

where q = electrostatic charge, 1.6x10-6 C/m2 in microgripping

= permittivity of the dielectric, = 8.85x10-12 C2/N-m2
d = diameter of the sphere (10 m to 1 mm)

(3) Surface Tension:

Fs = s

where s = perimeter of microvoid in contacting area

= coefficient of surface tension

Total adhesive force in assembly: F = Fv + Fe + Fs

Gravitation
(insignificant)

Microassembly Work Cells

Essential Elements of an Automatic Microassembly Work Cell

An integrated micropositioner:
Linear movement with step sizes: 0.3 m in X-Y and 0.07 m in the Z-axis
Rotation about both X & Y axes at 0.0028o/step.
Resolution in linear movements: 40 nm.

Microscope optics and imaging unit.

Require long working distance to 30 mm with 1 m resolution.

Micromanipulator unit:
Microgripper with special end-effector, or micro tweezers.
Provide proper gripping forces, and be able to overcome the induced
adhesive forces in releasing the object.

A high precision transfer tool.

For transporting dies in wafers, or trays with discrete parts.

A real-time computer with vision for precision alignment:

Controls movements of transfer tools, micro positioner and micro manipulator.
Implement assembly strategy, process monitoring, diagnosis and error recovery.

A portable class 100 clean room.

A Typical Automatic Microassembly Work Cell

pe
o
c
ros
c
i
oMa
e
r
Ste amer
&c

Microtweezers
or manipulator

Integrated
Micro-positioner
with Micro Servo
Actuator:
(Linear in X & Y
+
Rotations about x-Y)

Vertical Microscope
& Camera

Optics
St
& ereo
Ca
me Micr
ra os
co
pe
Portable Clean Room (class 100)

PC

Micro-controller
cards + operation
software

An Experimental Microassembly Work Cell at Sandia National Laboratory

Grasping a ring by a
micro tweezers

An Experimental Automatic Microassembly Work Cell

at University of New Mexico

An Experimental Automatic Microassembly Work Cell

at University of Minnesota

Micro positioner

Micro manipulator

Part 2

Packaging of Microsystems

Overview of Mechanical Packaging of Microelectronics

Objectives of mechanical packaging of microelectronics:
To provide support and protection to the IC, the associate wire bonds and
the printed circuit board from mechanical or environmentally induced
damages.
To dissipate excessive heat generated by electric heating of the IC.
The 4 levels of microelectronics packaging:
Level 1: Silicon chip into a module.

Level 4
Gate (L4)

Level 3
Board (L3)

Level 2: Card level.

Level 3: Cards to boards
Level 2

Level 4: Boards to system

Card (L2)

Level 1

Level 1 and 2 are of primary

interest to mechanical engineers.

Module (L1)

Chip (L0)

Overview of Mechanical Packaging of Microelectronics Contd

Level 1 & 2 packaging:
Plastic encapsulated chip:

Principal components in a chip:

Interconnect
J-Lead

Wire bond
Si die
Die attach

Interconnect
Gull-wing Lead

Die pad and

die attach
Epoxy
encapsulant

Silicon die
with IC

Wire bond

Die pad

Solder joint
Printed Circuit Board (or Wirebound) Board

Reliability issues:

e
int
Pr

uit
irc
c
d

Solder joint
er
Int

s
ect
n
con

ts
oin
j
r
lde
So

Printed circuit board

Die and passivation cracking.

Delamination between the die, die attach, die pad and plastic passivation.
The fatigue failure of interconnects.
Fatigue-fracture of solder joints.
The warping of printed circuit board.

Failure mechanisms:
Mismatch of coefficients of thermal expansion between the attached materials.
Fatigue-fracture of materials due to thermal cycling and mechanical vibration.
Deterioration of material strength due to environmental effects such as moisture.
Intrinsic stresses and strains from fabrication processes as described in Chapter 8.

MEMS and Microsystems Packaging

Current state:
There is no standards in packaging materials and methodologies adopted by
the industry at the present time.
Packaging
Process
Categories

Interconnect
Design & modeling;
Testing
Equipment
Materials

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

Standards Timeline

Most MEMS and microsystems packaging have been carried out on the
basis of specific applications by the industry.
Little has been reported in the public domain on the strategies,
methodologies, and materials used in packaging of MEMS and
microsystem products.

MEMS and Microsystems Packaging Contd

Objectives of microsystems packaging:
To provide support and protection to the delicate core elements (e.g. dies),
the associate wire bonds and transduction units from mechanical or
environmentally induced damages (e.g. heat and humidity).
Most of these elements requiring protection are required to interface with
working media, which may be environmentally hostile to these elements.
Interface is thus a major concern in microsystems packaging.
Diverse signal transduction in mcirosystems:
Signals

Input

Output

Chemical

Yes

Yes

Electrical

Yes

Yes

Fluid/hydraulic

Yes

Yes

Magnetic

Yes

Mechanical

Yes

Yes

Optical

Yes

Yes

MEMS and Microsystems Packaging Contd

General considerations:
The required costs in manufacturing, assemblies and packaging of the components.
The expected environmental effects, such as temperature, humidity, chemical
toxicity, etc. that the product is designed for.
Adequate over capacity in the packaging design for mishandling and accidents.
Proper choice of materials for the reliability of the package.
Achieving minimum electrical feed-through and bonds in order to minimize the
probability of wire breakage and malfunctioning.

The scope of this chapter:

On silicon-based microsystems only.
Packaging of microsystems produced by LIGA processes are not covered in
this chapter.

MEMS and Microsystems Packaging Contd

The 3 levels of microsystems packaging

Level 1: The die level,

Level 2: The device level, and
Level 3: The system level.
System Packaging:
Output
Signals

Device packaging:
Die Packaging:
Input
Action

Sensing
Element

Output
Motion

Actuating
Element

Signal Mapping
& Transduction

Signal
Conditioning &
Processing

Power
Supply

MEMS and Microsystems Packaging Contd

Die-level packaging:
Dies in most microsystems are the most delicate components, which require
adequate protection. Thus the objectives of this level packaging are:
To protect the die or other core elements from plastic deformation and cracking,
To protect the active circuitry for signal transduction of the system,
To provide necessary mechanical isolation of these elements, and
To ensure the system functioning at both normal operating and over-load
conditions.
Die-level packaging often involves wire bonding:
Pressure sensor with metal casing:
Pressure sensor with plastic encapsulation:
Wire bond Piezoresistor
Metal film
Dielectric layer

Interconnect

Wire bond
(Si gel)
Si die
Die attach

Silicon gel
Silicon
Diaphragm

Die
Attach

Pyrex Glass
Constraining
Base

Interconnect

Metal
Casing

Plastic encapsulant
Passage for
Pressurized
Medium

Metal cover

Pressurized
medium inlet

MEMS and Microsystems Packaging Contd

Device-level packaging:

Input
action

Sensing
element

Output
motion

Actuating
element

Major technical problems:

electric bridges
signal conditioning circuits
Output
signals
Signal mapping
& transduction

Signal
conditioning
& processing
Power
supply
Proper regulation
of input power

The interfaces of delicate dies and core elements with other parts of the
packaged products at radically different sizes, and
The interfaces of these delicate elements with environmental factors, such as
temperature, pressure and toxicity of the working and the contacting media.

MEMS and Microsystems Packaging Ends

System-level packaging:
This level packaging involves the packaging of primary signal circuitry with
the package of the die or core element unit.
Major tasks involve proper mechanical and thermal isolation as well as
electromagnetic shielding of the circuitry.
Metal housings usually give excellent protection for mechanical and
electromagnetic influences.

MEMS devices or microsystems at the end of this packaging level are ready
to be plug-in to the existing engineering systems:
Packaged inertia
Sensor for airbag
Deployment system

Interfaces in Microsystems Packaging

Various parts, in particular, the delicate dies of microsystems are expected to be in
contact with various working media, e.g. chemicals, optical, corrosive gases, etc.
Interface between these parts with working media becomes a major design issue in
packaging.

Biomedical interfaces
The packaged systems need to be biologically compatible with human
systems and they are expected to function for a specified lifetime.
Every micro biosystem must be built to satisfy the following requirements
that are related to interface:
It is inert to chemical attack during the useful lifetime of the unit.
It follows mixing with biological materials in a well-controlled manner
if it is used as biosensors.
It causes no damage or harm to the surrounding biological cells in the
cases of instrumented catheters such as pace makers.
It causes no unwanted chemical reactions such as corrosion between the
packaged device and the contacting human body fluids, tissue and cells.
All biomedical devices and systems are subject to FDA regulations.

Interfaces in Microsystems Packaging Contd

Optical interfaces
There are two principal types of optical MEMS:
The devices that direct lights, e.g. micro switches involving
mirrors and reflectors.
Optical sensors.
Optical MEMS require:
Proper passages for light beams to be received and reflected.
Fiber-optics are common light conduits in optical MEMS.
Proper surface coating for receiving and reflect lights.
The quality of the coating must be enduring during the lifetime of the device.
The surfaces must be free of contamination of foreign substance.
The enclosure must be free of moisture. The presence of moisture may
cause stiction of the enclosed components.

Interfaces in Microsystems Packaging Ends

Electromechanical interface
Electrical insulation, grounding and shielding are typical problems
to be dealt with in MEMS and microsystems packaging.
Interfaces in microfluidics
Precise fluid delivery.
Thermal and environmental isolation and mixing.
Material compatibility between the fluid and the containing walls.
Interface of the fluid and containment wall, e.g. corrosion, friction, etc.
Another major interface problem is in sealing

Enabling Packaging Technologies

Die preparation
Dies, or substrates in MEMS, are normally cut
(sliced) from single wafers using thin diamond
saw blades.

Spacing between dies: 50 m with saw blade thickness of 20 m.

Cutting wheel: 75 100 mm diameter
Cutting speed: 30,000 40,000 rpm.

Enabling Packaging Technologies Contd

Surface bonding
There are four (4) techniques available for surface bonding in MEMS
and microsystems:
(1) Adhesives
(2) Eutectic soldering
(3) Anodic bonding
(4) Silicon fusion bonding (SFB)
Bonding by adhesives:
Epoxy resin and silicone rubbers are two
commonly used adhesives.
Good bonding by epoxy resin rely on
surface treatments and curing process
control. Avoid glass transition temperature
at 150-175oC.
Soft silicone rubbers are used for bonding
parts require flexibility. It is vulnerable
to chemicals and air.

A typical micro dispenser of

epoxy resins (Courtesy of
Asymtek Co., Carlsbad, CA

Enabling Packaging Technologies Contd

Surface bonding Contd
Eutectic bonding:
Eutectic bonding involves the diffusion of atoms of eutectic alloys into the
atomic structures of the materials to be bonded together.
Must first select a candidate material that will form a eutectic alloy with the
materials to be bonded.
A common material to form eutectic alloy
with silicon is thin films made of gold
or alloys that involve gold.
Gold-tin (80% Au+20% Sn) films around 25 m
thick is commonly used.
Bonding takes place at about 300oC.
Offers much solid bonding than adhesives.

Heat
Weight
Doped Si
Si Substrate

Au/Sn Film

Enabling Packaging Technologies Contd

Surface bonding Contd
Anodic bonding:
Bonding wafers of different materials.
Also called electrostatic bonding or Field-assisted thermal bonding.
It is popular because of simple set-up and inexpensive equipment.
Bonding temperature is relatively low in the range: 180-500oC.
Possible to bond wafers of:
Glass-to-glass
Glass-to-silicon
Glass-to-silicon compounds
Glass-to-metals
Silicon-to-silicon
Most common application is for Glass-to-silicon wafer bonding.

Enabling Packaging Technologies Contd

Surface bonding Contd
Anodic bonding-Ends
The working principle of Glass-to-silicon wafer bonding:

Weight for contacting pressure (Cathode)

Applied DC voltage:
200-1000 volts

Glass wafer
Silicon wafer

Weight for contact

Pressure (Cathode)

Na+
Na+
Na+ Glass
Na+
Na+
Na Depletion
Layer 1 m

O 2O 2O 2O 2O 2-

SiO2 layer

Heated mechanical support (Anode)

Si+
Si+
Si+ Silicon
Si+
Si+

Hot Plate (Anode)

20 nm
Bonding interface

Enabling Packaging Technologies Contd

Surface bonding Contd
Silicon Fusion bonding
Silicon fusion bonding is like welding a silicon wafer to another silicon wafer.
It is relatively simple and inexpensive bonding method.
Silicon fusion bonding (SFB) has been used to bond:
Silicon-to-silicon
Silicon with oxide-to-silicon
Silicon with oxide-to silicon with oxide
GaAs-to-silicon
Quartz-to-silicon
Silicon-to-glass
It is the induced chemical forces that bond the pieces together.
Wafer surfaces need to be extremely flat (at 4 nm) to be bonded.
Bonding strength between silicon wafers can be as high as 20 MPa.
The SFB process begins with thorough cleaning of the bonding surfaces.
These surfaces must be polished, then make them hydrophilic by exposing
them in boiling nitric acid.
These two surfaces are naturally bonded even at room temperature.
Strong bonding occurs at high temperature in the neighborhood of
1100oC to 1400oC.

Wire Bonding
Wire bonding techniques developed for microelectronics are applicable for
bonding electric lead wires in MEMS and microsystems.
Interconnect
Wire bond Piezoresistor
Metal film
Dielectric layer

Metal cover

Wire bond
(Si gel)
Si die
Die attach

Silicon gel
Silicon
Diaphragm

Die
Attach

Metal
Casing

Pyrex Glass
Constraining
Base

Interconnect

Passage for
Pressurized
Medium

The three (3) wire bonding techniques

used in IC industry are adopted for
MEMS and microsystems:
Thermocompression wire bonding
Wedge-wedge ultrasonic bonding
Thermosonic bonding.
Common wire materials are Au, Ag, Al,
Cu and Pt with diameters at 20-80 m.
Wire bonding is fully automatic.

Plastic encapsulant

Pressurized
medium inlet

Wire Bonding Contd

Thermocompression wire bonding
Wire bonding is accomplished with mechanical compression at elevated
temperatures at about 400oC.
The bonding process is illustrated as:
Heat the wire to form a bead
Feed the bead to the pad by
pulling down the capillary tool:
Metal Wire
(HEAT)

Capillary
Tool

Compress the bead to

pad mechanically:

Metal Pad

Retract the capillary tool

Substrate

after the bead is bonded

to the pad:
Substrate

Substrate

Wire Bonding Ends

Wedge-wedge ultrasonic bonding
This bonding process takes place at room temperature.
The energy supply to the bonding is from ultrasonic vibration of the tool
at 20 60 kHz.
The process is illustrated as:
Tool Direction
Wedge
Bonding
Tool

With mechanical
compression
Metal pad

Wedge
Bonding
Tool

Wire

Metal Pads

Wedge
Bond

Substrate
Metal Pads

Thermosonic bonding
This process uses ultrasonic energy with thermocompression.
As such, wire bonding can take place at 100-150oC.
Joints can be in either ball-wedge or wedge-wedge form.

Wire

Sealing
Sealing is a key requirement in MEMS and microsystems packaging.
Hermetic sealing is essential in devices or systems such as: microfluidic,
optoMEMS, bioMEMS, pressure sensors, etc.
There are generally 3 sealing techniques available for MEMS and microsystems:
(1) Mechanical sealing technique:
Epoxy for microfluidics. It is flexible but ages with time.
Eutectic soldering for hermetic seals.
(2) Sealing by microfabrication processes - Sealing by micro shells:
Doped silicon

PSG sacrificial
layer
Die

Constraint base
(a) With sacrificial layer

Doped silicon
micro shell

Constraint base
(b) After the removal of sacrificial layer

Sealing Ends
(3) Sealing by chemical reactions:

Sealing

Sealing is accomplished by growing the sealant using chemical reactions.

Example is the production of SiO2 as the sealant for sealing a delicate die
with a silicon shell.
The growth of SiO2 from the silicon encapsulant to the constraint base
provides reliable and hermetic seal for the die.

Silicon shell
Die
Si Constraint base
(a) Unsealed encapsulant

SiO2
seals

SiO2 film
Die

SiO2
seals

Si Constraint base
(b) Sealed encapsulation by oxide
grown from silicon shell

3-Dimensional Packaging
3-D microelectronics packaging
3-dimensional packaging is a popular R&D topic in microelectronics
packaging.
Principal reasons for 3-D packaging are:
Provides high volumetric efficiency,
Provides high-capacity layer-to-layer signal transport.
Has the ability to accommodate wide range of variation of layer types.
Has the ability to isolate and access a fundamental stackable
element for repair, maintenance or upgrading.
Has the ability to accommodate multiple modalities, e.g. analog,
digital, RF power, etc.
Provides adequate heat removal among the package layers.
Allows for high pin-count delivery to the next level of packaging with
high electrical efficiency.

3-Dimensional Packaging - Ends

3-D MEMS and microsystems packaging
Package MEMS and microsystems with distinct functions stacked up
with signal processing units in compact configurations
Shielding of electromagnetic and thermal effect, and hermetic sealing of moving
fluids are the critical issues in 3-D packaging.
Acceleration
in x-direction
x
y
x
Signal conditioning
and processing

Accelerometer
for x-direction

Accelerometer
for y-direction

Acceleration
in y-direction

Planar (2-D) packaging

Signal conditioning
and processing

3-D packaging

Vacuum Sealing and Encapsulation

Many MEMS and microsystems can perform better, or can only perform
in vacuum.
It is a very important requirement for many MEMS and microsystems.
Examples such as microgyroscopes and micromirrors in micro fiber optical switches
require vacuum to provide free air-resistance and a moisture-free environment.
High vacuum in the MEMS devices must be maintained while the system
is packaged.
Hermetic and enduring sealing is required to maintain vacuum in the system.
Two vacuum sealing techniques will be introduced here:
(1) Vacuum sealing by RTP bonding process, and
(2) Vacuum sealing by localized CVD process.

Vacuum Sealing and Encapsulation

Many MEMS and microsystems can perform better, or can only perform
in vacuum.
It is a very important requirement for many MEMS and microsystems.
Examples such as microgyroscopes and micromirrors in micro fiber optical switches
require vacuum to provide free air-resistance and a moisture-free environment.
High vacuum in the MEMS devices must be maintained while the system
is packaged.
Hermetic and enduring sealing is required to maintain vacuum in the system.
Two vacuum sealing techniques will be introduced here:
(1) Vacuum sealing by RTP bonding process, and
(2) Vacuum sealing by localized CVD process.

Vacuum Sealing Contd

Example of Sealing by RTP bonding
RTP = Rapid Thermal Processing, a process that is commonly used in IC packaging
Two wafers:
Cap wafer = the wafer with cavity for passivation of the device
Device wafer= the wafer with microcompenents
Heating Elements
Quartz Tube
To vacuum pump

Cap wafer
Al-to-nitride bond
Device wafer

Both the device and cap wafers are pre-baked in vacuum at 300oC for 4 hours in a vacuum
quartz tube to drive out and entrapped gas from microfabrication processes.
The two wafers are assembled and loaded into a sample holder and placed in the vacuum
heating tube again.
The set is then placed inside of the RTP equipment and the base pressure was pumped
down to about 1 mTorr.
The vacuum was held steady for about 4 hours to drive out entrapped gas inside the cavity.
The sealing is completed by RTP heating in 10 s at 750oC.

Vacuum Sealing Contd

Example of Sealing by localized CVD process
The microcomponent is assembled to the silicon substrate.
The silicon substrate with assembled microcomponent is anodically bonded to a glass cap.
A vent hole is created in the assembly.
There is a small heater at the vent hole made by electrically conducting polysilicon
Glass cap
Vent
Microheater

Microstructure

CVD
Deposition

Vacuum Cavity

Silicon substrate

The set is put into a vacuum chamber at about 250 mTorr with the flow of silane gas.

The intense heat release by the microheater decomposes silane for localized polysilicon
deposition to seal the venting hole as shown in the right of the Figure.
The CVD deposition process provide the necessary seal for the microdevice

Selection of Packaging Materials

There are a broad range of materials used in packaging MEMS and microsystems.
Commonly used materials for various parts of MEMS and microsystems are:
Microsystem Components

Available Materials

Remarks

Die

Silicon, polycrystalline silicon, GaAs,

ceramics, quartz, polymers

Refer to Chapter 7 and

Section 10.2.2 for selection.

Insulators

SiO2, Si3N4, quartz, polymers

Materials are in order of

Increasing quality and cost.

Constraint base

Glass (Pyrex), quartz, alumina, silicon

carbide

Pyrex and alumina are more

commonly used materials

Die bonding

Solder alloys, epoxy resins, silicone

rubber

Solder for better seal, silicone

rubber for better die isolation.

Wire bonds

Gold, silver, copper, aluminum and

tungsten

Gold and aluminum are

popular choices.

Interconnect pins

Copper and aluminum

Headers and casings

Plastic, aluminum and stainless steel

Selection of Packaging Materials Contd

Summary of die packaging material properties:
Materials

Youngs Modulus (MPa)

Poissons ratio

Thermal Expansion
Coefficient ppm/oK)

190,000

0.29

2.33

344,830-408,990 (20oC)
344,830-395,010 (500oC)

0.27

6.0-7.0 (25-300oC)

Solder (60Sn40Pb)

31,000

0.44

26

Epoxy
(Ablebond 789-3)

4,100

Silicon
Alumina

Silicone rubber
(Dow Corning 730)

1.2

63 below 126oC
140 above 126oC
0.49

370

Selection of Packaging Materials Ends

Temperature-dependent properties of epoxy resin (Ablebond 789-3):
Strain range (10-6)

Youngs modulus (MPa)

Poissons ratio

0 500

at 40oC: 7,990
at 25oC: 5,930
at 125oC: 200

0.42
0.42
0.49

55
60
1.5

500 2,000

at 40oC: 4,680
at 25oC : 4,360
at 125oC: 110

Same as above

Same as above

2,000 10,000

at 40oC: 3,830
at 25oC: 3,620
at 125oC: 60

Same as above

Same as above

10,000 20,000

at 40oC: 3,610
at 25oC: 2,650
at 125oC: 40

Same as above

Same as above

20,000 30,000

at 25oC: 1,790
at 125oC:
30

Fracture strength
(MPa)

Signal Mapping and Transduction

Signal Mapping:
Develop and establish strategies in selecting both the type and positions
of the transducers for the MEMS device of microsystem.
Common Transducers for MEMS and Microsystems
Transducers
Piezoresistors

Electric signals
Resistance, R

Input or Output
Output

Typical applications
Pressure sensors

Piezoelectric

Voltage, V

Input or Output

Capacitors

Capacitance, C

Input or Output

Electro-resistant
heating/Shape
memory alloys

Current, i

Input

Actuators,
accelerometers
Actuators by
electrostatic forces,
Pressure sensors
Actuators

Signal Mapping and Transduction Contd

Signal mapping for a micro pressure sensor:
Piezoresistors are used to sense the change of electrical resistance relating to the
Induced stresses at the location.
Three locations are chosen for these piezoresistors in the following 3 cases:
Case 2: Rectangular die/rectangular diaphragm
Case 1: Square die/square diaphragm:
Outline of diaphragm
Piezoresistors
Outline of silicon die

Case 3: For shear deformation in square diaphragm

o
45

Signal Mapping and Transduction Contd

Signal transduction by Wheatstone bridge:
4 gages involved in the bridge.
R1= Rg the variable resistance
R2, R3 and R4 have fixed resistance.

R1=Rg For static conditions:

R3

Vin

The voltage Vo is adjusted to zero:

a Vo

R2

R3 R 4
(11.6)
R2
For dynamic conditions:
The voltage Vo changes with time, and the changes
are recorded.
The change of the measured resistance is:
Rg =

b
R4

R4 V o + R3

R g R1 V in
+
R2 R3
1
=

Vo
R1
1
R+3
R2 R3
V in
where R1 = the original value of Rg

(11.8)

Signal Mapping and Transduction Contd

Signal transduction bridge for capacitance measurements:

Variable
capacitor

C
Vo
C

Vin

4 capacitors are involved in the bridge.

There are 3 identical capacitors with
capacitance C.
The 4th capacitor with varying capacitance,
e.g. with gap change between two plate
electrodes.
The bridge is subjected to a constant input
voltage, Vin.
The variation of capacitance, C in this
capacitor may be obtained from the
measured output voltage, Vo:

C =

4C V o
V in 2 V o

(11.9)

Design case: Packaging of Micro Pressure Sensor Dies

Primary packaging considerations
The die in a pressure sensor is to support the thin diaphragm that senses
the medium pressure by the induced stresses.
For accurate sensing the medium pressure, the stresses that the diaphragm
has sensed should be those stresses induced by the medium pressure ONLY.
Unfortunately, there could be stresses induced in the diaphragm by sources
other than the medium pressure the parasite stresses.
A major source of parasite stress is from the thermal stresses induced by
significantly different CTE of various components attached to the diaphragm:
Silicon die:
: 2.33 ppm/oC

Dielectric film
Silicon diaphragm

Die attach
(60Sn40Pbsolder):
: 26 ppm/oC

Constraint base (Pyrex):

: 7 ppm/oC

How to ISOLATE the die/diaphragm from these sources of parasite stresses

become a primary consideration in the packaging design.

Design case: Packaging of Micro Pressure Sensor Dies Contd

Die down
It is a process to bond the die to the constraint base with die attach.
Three commonly used bonding techniques:
Anodic bonding
Eutectic soldering
Adhesive
Silicon die
Silicon die

Height
H

Silicon diaphragm

Height
H

Die attach

Constraint base

Normal die down

Silicon diaphragm
Die attach

Spacer
L

Constraint base

Die down with spacer for die isolation:

The extension of the height by the spacer
increases the flexibility and thereby reduces
the parasite thermal stress.
Disadvantage: takes up extra space.

Design case: Packaging of Micro Pressure Sensor Dies Contd

Die protection
The delicate die in a pressure sensor needs to be protected from possible
damage by the contact pressurized medium.
There are three (3) ways to do this:
(1) By vapor-deposited organic on the die surface:
The deposited organic coating will insulate the die surface from the contact
medium. Unfortunately the deposited organic also serve as a reinforcement
and make the diaphragm undesirably stiff.
Thin organic protective layer
Silicon die
Glass constraint base

Design case: Packaging of Micro Pressure Sensor Dies Contd

Die protection Contd
(2) By coating with silicone gel:
Silicone gel containing one or two
parts of siloxanes has very low
Youngs modulus. So, it is very soft.
Being soft, it would not add
unwanted stiffness to the diaphragm.
A few mm thick coating gives
sufficient protection to the die.
The only problem is aging and
become contaminated with
impurities from the contact medium.

Design case: Packaging of Micro Pressure Sensor Dies Contd

Die protection Contd
(3) Indirect pressure transmission:
This method is used in situation in
which the pressurized medium is so
environmentally hostile that direct
contact of the die and medium is
not possible.
A special arrangement is made for
a special case that involved:
P = 70 kPa 350 MPa
Impact force = 10-20,000 g
T = 5,000oF in milliseconds
Media contain high-velocity dusts

Diaphragm in contact with

pressurized medium

Ceramic volume
compensator

Ball seal

Stainless
casing

Oil fill

TIG weld
Header

Die and wirebonds are submerged in silicone oil.

Pressure from the media was transmitted to the diaphragm through silicon oil.
The stainless steel diaphragm has compliance is 100 times less than that of
silicon diaphragm.
Minimum volume of silicone oil in order to mitigate thermal expansion.

Part 3

Reliability and Testing of Microsystems

Reliability Testing for ICs and Microelectronics

Thermal Shock Tests

Temperature, T(t)

These routine tests are performed before the products are shipped to
the customers:
+100oC

-60oC

Thermal Cycling Tests

Temperature, T(t)

t according to specification
+100oC

-60oC

t1
Burn-in Tests

Time, t

Time, t

t2

t3

Products are placed in autoclaves at specified temperatures

and humidity for hundreds of hours for endurance tests.

Reliability of MEMS and Microsystems

Reliability of ICs and microelectronics are more structure-related.
Reliability of MEMS and microsystems have all the issues as in ICs and
microelectronics + many more issues related to their performances both upon
shipping and in the subsequent in-service in the designed
life span.
Failure mechanisms for microsystems are much more complicated than those
in microelectronics for the following reasons:
Microsystem components are designed to interact with various substances
(e.g., optical, chemical and biological fluids) at various environmental
conditions (temperatures and pressures).
Microsystem components are hermatically sealed and are expected to
perform in immediate and long-terms.
Example of the damage of stiction of delicate components in sealed plastic
package by slow release of moisture (de-gassing) of plastic encapsulating
materials impossible to predict and prevent.
Unlike IC and microelectronics, NO standard is available for reliability testing for
MEMS & microsystems.
New testing procedures and criteria need to be developed for every new product.

Failure Mechanisms in MEMS and Microsystems

Failure Mode
Mechanical

Causes
Local stress concentration due to
surface roughness.
Improper assembly tolerances
Vibration-induced high cycle fatigue
failure.
Delamination of thin layers.
Thermal stresses by mismatch of CTE.

Probability
Low
Moderate
Low in silicon,
moderate in plastic
Moderate to high
High

Electromechanical
break-down

Collapse of electrodes due to excessive

deformation.

High

Deterioration of
materials

Aging and degassing of plastic and polymers.

Corrosion and erosion of materials

Excessive intrinsic
stresses

Residual stresses and molecular forces

inherent from microfabrication.

High

Packaging

Improper bonding and sealing, poor die

protection and isolation

High

Environmental effects

Temperature, humidity, dusts and toxic gas

High

Moderate

Testing for Reliability of MEMS and Microsystems

Reference: MEMS Packaging, ed. T.R. Hsu, IEE, United Kingdom, 2004.
Chapter 1 Fundamentals of MEMS Packaging by T.R. Hsu & J. Custer;
Chapter 6 Testing and Design for Test by A. Oliver & J. Custer.

Design for Test is an important responsibility of design engineers for

MEMS and microsystems
Following major tasks are involved:
Design for testing:
Set the testing strategy, e.g., identifying testing points.
Establish Range of Acceptable Device Performance:
Proper PASS/FAIL limits for test results
a proper balance between Quality (being too lenient)
and Waste (being too stringent)
Performing tests:
Parametric testing
Testing during assembly
Burn-in and final testing
Self testing
Testing during use

Testing for Reliability of MEMS and Microsystems Contd

Parametric testing
For inspecting key components during and after the fabrication.
Requires the definition of parameters, e.g., film resistances, surface stress/strain
for such testing.
Requires proper selection of test points on the workpiece.
Parametric test structures are attached to the workpiece for the testing.
Example 1: The van der Pauw sheet resistance test structure.
Pass current to Pad 2 & 3
Measure voltage across
Pad 1 & 4
The surface resistance
in the area is:

Rc =

V1, 4
I 2,3

Testing for Reliability of MEMS and Microsystems Contd

Parametric testing

- Contd

Example 2: Parametric test structure for measuring tensile strain.

Induced te
nsion
Buck
l
thin ing of
beam

The compressive strain responsible for the buckling of the thin beam is:

Lc =

t 2 2
3

where Lc = length of the beam, t = thickness

Testing for Reliability of MEMS and Microsystems Contd

Parametric testing

- Contd

Example 3: Parametric test structure for measuring both tensile and

compressive strains.
Beam electrodes are connected and anchored on the workpiece at shallow angles.
Tension

gap change in A & B

Compression

Gap change in A & C

Associated tensile or compressive strains can be correlated to the measured

capacitances from these beam electrodes.

Testing for Reliability of MEMS and Microsystems Contd

Parametric testing

- Contd

Example 4: Parametric test structure using resonator for monitoring

surface stresses.
Change of stiffness of springs
due to change of stresses in
attached workpiece leads to
change of resonant frequencies.

Springs

Resonant frequency of the resonator

can be generated by electrical
stimulator.
Vibrating
Mass

Comb Drives

Shifting of resonant frequencies in

the resonator can be related to the
surface stresses in the workpiece.

Testing for Reliability of MEMS and Microsystems Contd

Testing During Assembly
For two (2) purposes:
To determine which device components are good enough for further
packaging into devices.
To monitor the yield of the packaging process.
Example 1: Texas Instruments digital micromirror device with 0.5 to 1.5 million electrostatically actuated mirrors at 16 m x 16 m
Micromirrors
Mirrors offer 0 or 1 signals on its reflected
intensities.

The open center in the array shows the CMOS

beneath that supplies voltage to rotate the
mirrors for reflecting lights.

Mirrors are tested for reflecting lights at

increasing voltage supplies by the CMOS.

Dies with mirror fails to perform are rejected.

Further inspection on mirror functions after
dies are assembled.
Dies

Testing for Reliability of MEMS and Microsystems Contd

Testing During Assembly - Contd
Example 2: infrared detectors by Dexter Research Center Inc. of Dexter, Michigan
The particular device is thermopile-based single element bulk micromachined infrared
detector for home security, tympanic thermometers, fire detection, and remote temperature
measurement.

Series of tests during assembly:

Electric parametric tests on wafers on:
e.g., sheet and contact resistances.

Same tests after bulk manufacturing by wet etching.

Further Testing on:
die with infrared black coating
wafer dicing
mounting
wire bonding
Partially packaged device exposed to calibrated
blackbody infrared source, with further testing on:
coating, wirebond, tilting & mounting.

Final assembly of device only after passing all these tests.

Testing for Reliability of MEMS and Microsystems Contd

Burn-in Tests for MEMS and Microsystems
These are the tests conducted after all components are assembled into a device.
Some microdevices can only be tested after the assembly.
Burn-in tests are necessary b/c many microdevices can fail to perform due to
invasion of unwanted foreign substances, e.g., air to some packaged infrared
detectors, or dust particles and moisture to the packaged micromirrors.
Failure Rate

A typical failure rate history for a product a Bath-tub curve:

Infant
Mortality

Useful Life
Wear-out

Time (in logarithmic scale)

The GOAL of Burn-in tests is to have the Infant mortality failure of the
device occurs in the factory, but not in the field.

Testing for Reliability of MEMS and Microsystems Contd

Burn-in Tests for MEMS and Microsystems

- Contd

Requirements for proper design of Burn-in tests:

Identify possible failure modes of the particular device.
Identify factors that can accelerate the failure rates of the device.
Possible factors for accelerating failure rates:
Mechanical and thermal loading.
Humidity.
Shifting of applied threshold voltage.
Arrhenius model can be used to identify accelerating loading for Burn-in tests.
This model states: device failure is dependent of the energy barrier surmounted
for failure to occur.
This model can relate failure rate of a device at one temperature to the failure
rate at another temperature.
We may thus accelerate the failure of a device at a higher temperature using
this model.

Testing for Reliability of MEMS and Microsystems Contd

Self Testing
Self testing is important to many electronics devices and computers to ensure
proper functioning of various components in the device before actually using
the device.
For MEMS and microsystems, it involves using electric stimuli that mimics
the real input loads.
Self test device, e.g., a pair of electrodes can mimic mechanical load to
micro pressure sensors:
Measurand
Fluid Inlet
Silicon Die
with
Diaphragm
Cavity

Cavity
Constraint
Base
Measurand
Fluid Inlet

(a) Back side pressurized

(b) Front side pressurized

Testing for Reliability of MEMS and Microsystems Contd

Self Testing

- Contd

A self testing device for a thermopile-based infrared detector:

Testing for Reliability of MEMS and Microsystems Contd

Self Testing

- Contd

Stimuli other than electrical means:

Ambient air for micro pressure sensors.
Earth gravitation for microaccelerometers.
Oxygen content in air for gas sensors.

Testing During Use

It is used for calibrations of microsensors in the designed life span.
Testing during use ensures the proper functioning of devices for the intended
applications.
Input for these tests usually involve the natural loads as in self testing.

Summary on Testing and Reliability of Microsystems

Failure mechanisms in ICs and microelectronics are primarily attrobuted to
mechanical means, e.g., over-stressing or over-heating.
Failure mechanisms in MEMS and microsystems attribute to many more
causes:
Fabrication induced means such as intrinsic and residual stresses
and strains.
Improper sealing and encapsulation in packaging may cause failure of
microsystems such as by undesired dusts and moisture to delicate core
components.
Improper interfacing of delicate core components and the working
media can also result in failure of MEMS and microsystems.
Fault-proof design for reliability for MEMS and microsystems appear unrealistic.
Intelligent testing is a practical approach to insure reliability of these products.

Summary on Testing and Reliability of Microsystems

contd

While testing is viewed to be a practical solution to reliability assurance

of MEMS and microsystems, cost for developing effective and reliable
testing remain high mainly because of lack of standard to follow:
Packaging
Process
Categories

Interconnect
Design & modeling;
Testing
Likely extension
Equipment
Materials

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

Standards Timeline

2015

2020