OPERATING SYSTEM

OVERVIEW
1

CHAPTER 2

Objectives
2

Describe the key function of an operating system

(OS).
Discuss the evolution of OS from early simple batch
system to modern complex system
Explain each of the major achievements in OS
Discuss the key design areas in the development of
modern OS

Topics
3

OS definition, objectives and functions

Evolution of the OS
Major achievements
Development leading to modern OS

Definition of an Operating System (OS)

4

A program that controls the execution of application

programs
An interface between applications and hardware

Objectives of an OS
5

1. Convenience

Makes the computer more convenient to use

2. Efficiency

Allows computer system resources to be used in an

efficient manner

3. Ability to Evolve

Permits effective development, testing, and introduction

of new system functions without interfering with service

Obj 1: As a User/Computer Interface

6

Hardware and software used in providing

applications to a user can be viewed in a layered or

hierarchical fashion as shown in figure below:
A set of system programs
in assisting program
creation, management of
files and controlling I/O.
Application running and
will call this utilities to
perform function.

Obj 1: As a User/Computer Interface

7

Utilities:

A set of system programs in assisting program creation, management

of files and controlling I/O
Application running and will call this utilities to perform function

OS in 3rd layer masks the details of hardware from the

programmer with a convenient interface for using the

system.

most important system programs are here

OS act as a mediator, making it easier for the

programmer and for application programs to access and

use those facilities and services.

Obj 1: As a User/Computer Interface

8

OS provides services in the following areas:

Program development

Provides editors and debuggers to assist programmer in developing

programs

Program execution
Number of tasks need to be performed in executing a program
OS handle the scheduling duties for the user

Access to I/O devices

Provides a uniform interface that hides the details so programmer can

access devices using simple read and writes.

Controlled access to files

Protection mechanism to control access to files

Obj 1: As a User/Computer Interface

9

System access

In shared or public system, OS control access to the system

Error detection and response

Errors occur while computer run:

Internal and external hardware errors
Software errors
OS cannot grant request of application

OS provide response that clear the error condition with least impact
to running applications
Ending program that cause error
Retrying the operation
Reporting error to application

Obj 1: As a User/Computer Interface

10

Accounting
collect statistics
monitor performance
used to anticipate future enhancements
used for billing users

Obj 2: As Resource Manager

11

A computer is a set of resources for the movement,

storage and processing of data and for the control of

these functions.
OS is responsible for managing the resources.
OS functions same way as ordinary computer
software

It is a program that is executed

The differences are OS directs the processor in the use of the
other system resources and in the timing of its execution of
other programs

Obj 2: As Resource Manager

12

Operating system gives control to the processor to

execute programs and then take back control to

prepare the processor to execute the next piece of
work.
Figure 2.2 shows the main resources that are
managed by the operating system.
A portion of the OS is stored in main memory.
This include the kernel or nucleus which contains
the most frequently used functions in the OS and
other portions of OS that are currently in use.

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Obj 3: Ease of Evolution of an OS

14

Major OS will evolve over the time because:

Hardware upgrades and new types of hardware
New services
Fix any fault

Evolution of Operating Systems

15

Serial Processing

Simple Batch
System
Multiprogramming
Batch System
Time Sharing
System

Serial Processing
16

No operating system
User interact directly with computer hardware.
Machines run from a console with display lights and

toggle switches, input device, and printer

Mode of operation could be termed serial processing
because users have access to the computer in series.

Serial Processing
17

How it works?
Programs in machine code were loaded via the input device
(e.g.. Card Reader)
If there is an error (indicated by the lights) halt the
program.
Then the programmer will proceed to examine processor
registers and main memory to determine the cause of error.
If the program proceeds to normal completion, the output will
be printed.

Serial Processing
18

Two Problems

Scheduling
Setup time

processor idle most of the time

Doing nothing, waiting to execute a job

Serial Processing
19

Scheduling
How user use the machine
User reserves machine time

Used a hardcopy sign-up sheet

Problem arise when user sign up more than the time needed or
cant complete their job within the time reserve.
Reserved for 1 hour, but completed job for 20 minutes 40
minutes is a processor idle time
Reserved for 1 hour, but job did not complete because of error
occurs need to reserve another time

Serial Processing
20

Setup time
Many steps involve in running a single program/job
load the compiler + source program to memory
saving the compiled program
load and link the object program and common functions
each of these steps involving mounting or dismounting tapes

If error occurred, user had to go back to the beginning setup

step.
Much of the time is spent on setting up program.

Serial Processing
21

Over the time, various system software tools were

developed to attempt to make serial processing more

efficient.

Libraries of common functions, linkers, loaders, debuggers

and I/O driver routines.

Simple Batch Systems

22

Early machine was so expensive so it is important to

maximize machine utilization minimize the idle

time of the processor.
To improve utilization, the concept of a batch OS was
developed.
The use of software known as the monitor.

With monitor user have no longer direct access to the machine.

Simple Batch Systems

23

Monitors:
Software that controls the running programs
Batch jobs together
Program branches back to monitor when finished
A part of the monitor call Resident monitor is in main
memory and available for execution

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Simple Batch Systems

25

How monitor works:

Monitor reads jobs one at a time from the input device

Monitor places a job in the user program area
A monitor instruction branches to the start of the user program
Execution of user program continues until
End of program occurs
Error occurs

This will cause the CPU to fetch its next instruction from monitor.

With each job, instructions are included in a primitive

form of job control language (JCL)

Special type of programming language used to provides instruction

to the monitor
what compiler to use
what data to use

Simple Batch Systems

26

Example of job format using FORTRAN language:

$JOB
$FTN

FORTRAN Program

$LOAD
$RUN

DATA

$END

With JCL:
Each read instruction (in user
program) causes one line of
input to be read
Causes input routine (OS) to be
invoke
Checks for not reading JCL line
Skip to the next JCL line at
completion of user program

Instruction starts with a $ is a JCL language

Simple Batch Systems

27

With JCL:
Each read instruction (in user program) causes one line of
input to be read
Causes input routine (OS) to be invoked
Checks for not reading JCL line
Skip to the next JCL line at completion of user program

Simple Batch Systems

28

In summary, the monitor or batch OS:

It is a computer program
Relies on the
ability of the processor to fetch instructions from the various
portions of the main memory to alternately seize and relinquish
control.
available hardware to effectively alternate execution from various
parts of memory

Simple Batch Systems

29

Desirable hardware features for batch OS:

Memory protection
Do not allow the memory area containing the monitor to be altered by
users programs.
If it happens, processor should detect an error and transfer control to
the monitor.
Monitor will abort the job, print out error message and load the next
job.

Timer
Prevents a job from monopolizing the system.
Timer is set at the beginning of each job.
An interrupt occurs when time is expired.

Simple Batch Systems

30

Privileged instruction
Can be executed only by the monitor
An interrupt occurs if a program tries these instructions.
E.g. I/O instructions.
Interrupts
Provides flexibility for relinquishing control to and regaining
control from user programs

Multi-programmed Batch System

31

Simple Batch OS implement uniprogramming

technique
Uniprogramming:

Processor execute a job, when job need for I/O, processor must
wait for I/O instruction to complete before proceed execute the
same job

Multi-programmed Batch System

32

Multiprogramming:

Processor execute a job, When job needs to wait for I/O, the
processor can switch to the other job

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Example:
JOB1
Type of job
Duration
Memory required
Need disk?
Need terminal?
Need printer?

Heavy compute
5 min.
50K
No
No
No

35

JOB2

JOB3

Heavy I/O
15 min.
100 K
No
Yes
No

Heavy I/O
10 min.
80 K
Yes
No
Yes

Effects of multiprogramming:
Uniprogramming
Processor use
Memory use
Disk use
Printer use
Elapsed time
Throughput rate
Mean response time

22%
30%
33%
33%
30 min.
6 jobs/hr
18 min.

36

Multiprogramming
43%
67%
67%
67%
15 min.
12 jobs/hr
10 min.

Time Sharing
37

A need to provide a mode in which the user interacts

directly with the computer

Transaction processing

Batch multiprogramming does not support

interactions with users

Time sharing extends multiprogramming to handle
multiple interactive jobs.
It is called time sharing because the processors time
is shared among multiple users.

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Evolution of Operating Systems

39

Both batch OS and time sharing implement

multiprogramming.
The differences between batch OS and time sharing
is shown below:
Batch
Multiprogramming

Time Sharing

Principal objective

Maximize processor use

Minimize response time

Source of directives to
operating system

Job control language

commands provided with
the job

Commands entered at the

terminal

Major Achievements
40

OS is the most complex pieces of software ever

developed.
Five major theoretical advances in the development
of OS:

Process
Memory Management
Information protection and security
Scheduling and resource management
System structure

Process
41

Introduced to obtain a systematic way of monitoring

and controlling program execution.

Definitions of process:

A program in execution
An instance of a program running on a computer
The entity that can be assigned to and executed on a processor
A unit of activity characterized by a single sequential thread of
execution, a current state, and an associated set of system
resources

Process
42

Three major lines of computer system development

created problems in timing and synchronization that

contributed to the development:

Multiprogramming batch operation

Time sharing

processor is switched among the various programs residing in main

memory
be responsive to the individual user but be able to support many users
simultaneously

Real-time transaction

a number of users are entering queries or updates against a database

Process
43

Difficulties with Designing System Software

Improper synchronization

Failed mutual exclusion

more than one user or program attempts to make use of a shared resource at
the same time
only one routine at time allowed to perform an update against the file

Nondeterminate program operation

a program must wait until the data are available in a buffer

improper design of the signalling mechanism can result in loss or duplication

program execution is interleaved by the processor when memory is shared

the order in which programs are scheduled may affect their outcome

Deadlocks

it is possible for two or more programs to be hung up waiting for each other
may depend on the chance timing of resource allocation and release

Process
44

A component of a process:
An executable program
Associated data needed by the program
Execution context of the program
it is the internal data by which the OS is able to supervise and
control the process
includes the contents of the various process registers
includes information such as the priority of the process and
whether the process is waiting for the completion of a particular
I/O event

45

Memory Management
46

Five principle storage management responsibilities:

Process isolation
Automatic allocation and management
Support for modular programming
Protection and access control
Long-term storage
The key contribution is virtual memory and file

system facilities.

Information Protection and Security

47

Protection of information is needed since the growth in

the use of time-sharing systems and computer network.

Work in security and protection as it relates to OS can be
roughly grouped into four categories.

Availability

Confidentiality

Assures that user cannot read data for which access is unauthorized

Data Integrity

Protecting the system against interruption

Protection of data from unauthorized modification

Authenticity

Proper verification of identity of users and the validity of messages or

data

Scheduling and Resource Management

48

Main task of the OS is to manage the various resources

available and to schedule their use by the active process.

Resource allocation and scheduling policy must consider
three factors:

Fairness

Differential responsiveness

give equal and fair access to all processes

discriminate between different classes of jobs

Efficiency

maximize throughput, minimize response time, and accommodate as

many uses as possible

System Structure
49

Because of its enormous complexity, the OS can be

viewed as a series of levels

Each level performs a related subset of functions
Each level relies on the next lower level to perform
more primitive functions
Well defined interfaces: one level can be modified
without affecting other levels
This decomposes a problem into a number of more
manageable sub problems

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51

Developments Leading to Modern OS

52

New design elements for OS were introduced recently that

create a major change in the nature of OS.

Why? In response to

New hardware developments

New Applications

multiprocessor systems
high-speed networks
faster processors and larger memory
multimedia applications
Internet and Web access
Client/Server applications

New Security Threats

Viruses, worms
Hacking techniques

Developments Leading to Modern OS

53

Changes not only in modification and enhancement

to existing architectures but also in new ways of

organizing the operating system.
Much of the works fits into:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Microkernel architecture
Multithreading
Symmetric multiprocessing
Distributed OS
Object-oriented design.

Microkernel Architecture
54

Only a few essential functions in the kernel

primitive memory management (address space)
Inter-process communication (IPC)
basic scheduling
Other OS services are provided by processes running

in user mode (servers)

Such as device drivers, file system, virtual memory

Provide more flexibility, extensibility, portability

Multithreading
55

A process is a collection of one or more threads that can run

simultaneously
Useful when the application consists of several tasks that do
not need to be serialized

E.g. database server that listens for and processes numerous client
requests

Gives the programmer a greater control over the timing of

application-related events
All threads within the same process share the same data and
resources and a part of the processs execution context
It is easier to create or destroy a thread or switch among
threads (of the same process) than to do these with processes.

Symmetric Multiprocessing
56

Refers to a computer hardware architecture and also to

the operating system behaviour that reflects that

architecture.
Standalone computer system with the following
characteristics:

A computer with multiple processors

These processors share the same main memory and I/O facilities,
interconnected by a communication bus or other internal connection
scheme.
All processor can perform the same functions
Existence of multiple processors is transparent to the user.

Symmetric Multiprocessing
57

Advantages over uniprocessor architecture:

1)
Performance
2)
Availability
3)
Incremental Growth
4)
Scaling

Distributed OS
58

Distributed OS is a collection of independent

computers that appears to the users of the system as

a single computer.
Provides the illusion of a single main memory and
single secondary memory space, i.e. appearing as a
single system to the user.
E.g.. Cluster computer.

Object Oriented Design

59

Used for adding modular extensions to a small

kernel
At the OS levels an object-based structure enables
programmers to customize an operating system
without disrupting system integrity
Eases the development of distributed tools and fullblown of distributed OS.