Theory of constructivism is referring to learning is an active process which learners

constructed new knowledge or concept based upon their prior or current knowledge or
experiences. Saunders (1992), defined constructivism as "that philosophical position which holds
that any so-called reality is, in the most immediate and concrete sense, the mental construction of
those who believe they have discovered and investigated it". According to Brooks & Brooks
(1993), “learning is understood to be a self-regulated process of resolving inner conflicts that
become apparent through concrete experience, discussion, and reflection”.

The theory of constructivism was started by Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. In the
eighteenth century, Locke and Kant further expanded constructivism. They believed that no
person’s knowledge could go beyond their experience. Ceccato and Dewey again developed
upon these ideas in the twentieth century (Von Glasersfeld, 1987) but the major contribution of
constructivism as a philosophy is by Jean Piaget (1930). Piaget research showed that students
learn by constructing their own understanding while doing hands on activities that are
developmentally appropriate, and by moving from concrete to more abstract ideas. He suggested
that students actively construct an understanding of a static body of knowledge at
developmentally appropriate times, and use language to express their thoughts. Jerome Bruner
(1960) developed a model of learning that is called discovery learning. He defined it as obtaining
knowledge for oneself by using one’s own mind. He agrees with Piaget that the
“importance of utilizing concrete materials as a beginning of the learning
process” (Bruner 1990).

A constructivist learning start with what student’s prior knowledge and helps they
develop on that knowledge. The teachers have to be aware what their students already know and
think at the beginning of a class. Then, teachers must find out the level of the students' prior
knowledge of a subject and learning styles in order for the teachers to modify a curriculum. The
teachers will design following lessons to help students build an understanding of the subject
matter by working with primary materials. In a constructivist setting, teachers encourage student
to ask questions, perform their own experiments, assist them to organize information, make their
own conclusions and exploring their ideas in conversation with other students in order to engage
the student's interest. The main goal in a constructivist lesson is to engage student attention on
the particular subject. The constructivist teacher design problems, monitors and guides the
student inquiry and promotes new ways of thinking.

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Brooks and Brooks (1993) suggested nine characteristics of a constructivist teacher.

1. The teachers are not the primary source of information but become one of many resources that
the student may learn from.
2. Engage students in experiences that challenge previous conceptions of their existing
knowledge.
3. Allow student response to drive lessons and seek elaboration of students' initial responses.
Allow student some thinking time after posing questions.
4. Encourage the spirit of questioning by asking thoughtful, open ended questions. Encourage
thoughtful discussion among students.
5. Use cognitive terminology such as "classify," "analyze" and "create" when framing tasks.
6. Encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative. Be willing to let go of classroom
control.
7. Use raw data and primary sources, along with manipulative, interactive physical materials.
8. Don't separate knowing from the process of finding out.
9. Insist on clear expression from students. When students can communicate their understanding,
then they have truly learned.

Brooks and Brooks (1993) have identified five principles of constructivism.

The first stage, the students identify the instructional tasks and make connections between past
and current knowledge to stimulate interest. The teachers need to ask a question, showing an
incident or acting out a scenario in order to make student focus on the tasks and grab their
attention. The second stage is exploration. Let the student have opportunity to involve with
phenomenon and materials. Teacher’s become facilitator in assisting, guiding students’ direction
and providing materials. The students' inquiry method directs the instruction during an
exploration. The third stage is encourages students to think, make discovery and valuing
students' points of view. The students support each other's and understanding as they relate their
observations, ideas, questions and hypotheses. The teachers will discuss with the students if their
hypothesis isn’t proven, then, repeat the experiment, and see why it is different or maybe there
are something new discovery.

The fourth is in adapting curriculum to tackle students' hypothesis. The teachers should first
determine the level of their student‘s prior knowledge of a subject then alter the curriculum and

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relate with students' current assumptions or hypothesis. The students developed the concepts
they have learned and make connections to other related concepts, and apply their
understandings to the real world. These will lead them to further inquiry and understandings
new knowledge. The fifth is evaluating or assessing students learning in the context of teaching
to decide whether the student has reached an understanding of concepts and knowledge. The
tools that assist in this process are rubrics (grading assignments) determined hand in hand with
the lesson design, teacher observation structured by checklists, student interviews, portfolios
designed with specific purposes, project and problem-based learning products, embedded
assessment.

References.

1. Ausubel, D. P. (1963). The psychology of meaningful verbal learning. New York:

Grune. Briner, M. (2005). http://carbon.cudenver.edu/- mryder/itcdatalconstructivism.html

2. Brooks, J.G., & Brooks, M.G. (1993). The case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria,
VA.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

3. Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

4. Opper, S. (1979). Development, Learning and Education. And Mathematical structures and the
operational structures of the intellect. In Lemon, W.C. (Ed.). In Concepts on constructionism.

5. Piaget, J. (1972). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books

6. Saunders, W.L. (1992). The constructivist perspective: Implications and teaching strategies for
science. School Science Mathematics, 92(3), 136-141.

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7. Von Glasersfeld, E. (1987). Learning as a constructive activity. In Jauvild, C. (Ed.). (1987).
Problems of representation in the teaching and learning of mathematics. (pp. 3-17). Salinas, CA:
Intersystems Publications.

The first objective in a constructivist lesson is to engage student interest on a topic that

has a broad concept. This may be accomplished by doing a

demonstration, presenting data or showing a short film. Ask

open-ended questions that probe the students preconceptions on the

topic. Next, present some information or data that does not fit with

their existing understanding. Let the students take the bull by the

horns. Have students break into small groups to formulate their own

hypotheses and experiments that will reconcile their previous

understanding with the discrepant information. The role of the

teacher during the small group interaction time is to circulate

around the classroom to be a resource or to ask probing questions

that aid the students in coming to an understanding of the principle

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being studied. After sufficient time for experimentation, the small

groups share their ideas and conclusions with the rest of the class,

which will try to come to a consensus about what they learned.

Appendix I contains more ideas for employing a constructivist

teaching approach.

Assessment can be done traditionally using a standard paper

and pencil test, but there are other suggestions for evaluation.

Each small group can study/review together for an evaluation but one

person is chosen at random from a group to take the quiz for the

entire group. The idea is that peer interaction is paramount when

learners are constructing meaning for themselves, hence what one

individual in the group has learned should be the same as that

learned by another individual (Lord, 1994). The teacher could also

evaluate each small group as a unit to assess what they have learned.

In summary, contructivist teaching offers a bold departure

from traditional objectivist classroom strategies. The goal is for

the learner to play an active role in assimilating knowledge onto

his/her existing mental framework. The ability of students to apply

their school-learned knowledge to the real world is valued over

memorizing bits and pieces of knowledge that may seem unrelated to

them. The constructivist approach requires the teacher to

relinquish his/her role as sole information-dispenser and instead to

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continually analyze his/her curriculum planning and instructional

methodologies. Perhaps the best quality for a constructivist

teacher to have is the "instantaneous and intuitive vision of the

pupil's mind as it gropes and fumble to grasp a new idea" (Brooks and

Brooks, 1993, p. 20). Clearly, the constructivist approach opens new

avenues for learning as well as challenges for the teacher trying to

implement it.

High school and college- Formal operational stage:

From around 15 onward, we enter the formal operational stage. Here we
become increasingly competent at adult-style thinking. This involves using
logical operations, and using them in the abstract, rather than the concrete.
We
often call this hypothetical thinking. The formal thinker can consider a
hypothetical situation and reason deductively (form general assumption to
specific implications).
Another characteristic of this stage is adolescent egocentrism. Unlike
egocentric young children, adolescents do not deny that other people may
have
different perceptions and beliefs; the adolescents just become very focused
on
their own ideas. They analyze their own beliefs and attitudes. This leads to
what
Elkind (1978) calls the sense of an imaginary audience, the feeling that
everyone
is watching. Thus adolescents believe that others are analyzing them.
Egocentrism is a normal occurrence, more common in the lower secondary
school than in upper secondary school years. Egocentricity leads some
adolescents to think they are invulnerable (Santrock, 2008).