A Remote Sensing Analysis of Land Cover Changes in the Usulutn Department of

El Salvador
Aimee Teaby
California State University Monterey Bay
With Team El Salvador of the
Monterey Institute of International Studies
Series Editor: Adele Negro, Program Director

January 2014

Table of Content

Acknowledgements......................................................................iv
Executive Summary......................................................................v
1 Introduction.............................................................................6
2 Project Components.................................................................6

2.1 Remote Sensing, Part 1: Land Cover Classification..........................6

2.2 Remote Sensing, Part 2: Ground Validation Data Collection.............6
2.3 Mangrove Extraction Site Mapping................................................7

3 Objectives................................................................................ 7

3.1 Part 1...........................................................................................7

3.2 Part 2: Ground Validation Data Collection.......................................7
3.3 Mangrove Extraction Site Mapping................................................7
3.4 Study Area...................................................................................8

4 Methodology............................................................................9

4.1 Part 1: Land Cover Classification....................................................9

4.2 Part 2: Ground Validation..............................................................9
4.3 Mangrove Extraction Site Mapping...............................................10

5 Results and Discussion............................................................10

5.1 Land Cover Change Analysis........................................................10

5.2 Functionality of the Classified Land Cover Map.............................12
5.3 Mangrove Extraction Site Mapping...............................................13

6 Recommendations..................................................................14
7 Conclusion.............................................................................15
8 References.............................................................................15
9 Appendix A - Glossary.............................................................15

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my group, Team Mangle, at California State University Monterey Bay, John Urness, Devon
Warawa and Dan Orr, for developing the project and assisting me with all preparatory work before my trip to El
Salvador, and to our project advisor, Dr. Fred Watson, who added this additional project to his already incredibly full
plate. I would like to thank Adele Negro, the Faculty Director for Team El Salvador from the Monterey Institute of
International Studies, for her continued and excited support from the beginning and working so diligently to bring
me on board with Team El Salvador at the last minute. I would also like to thank EcoViva and the Mangrove
Association for providing excellent ground support while I was in El Salvador, as well as Spanish translation
whenever possible. A special thanks to the Federal Government for letting me take out loans to fund my trip to El
Salvador.

Executive Summary
In order to better understand how land use changes and resource management are affecting the environment, my
team and I partnered with two non-governmental organizations, EcoViva (United States based) and the Mangrove
Association (El Salvador based) to create a project that would spatially quantify changes in land cover in the
Department of Usulutn, El Salvador. The initial component of the project was developed based on the needs of

these two organizations and was conducted as part of a remote sensing class assignment. Upon realizing the
necessity for ground validation data, I took advantage of the opportunity to go to El Salvador with Team El Salvador
(TES), a sustainable development practicum of the Monterey Institute of International Studies. The second part of
the project was a collaboration with a project team of TES 8 working on the Local Plan for Sustainable Resource
Use (PLAS), which includes a mapping effort to spatially identify the specific location and extent of mangrove
extraction sites used by communities governed by the PLAS.
The objectives of these projects were to provide a more thorough, quantitative understanding of how land cover has
changed over time as well as to spatially assess the sites of mangrove extraction and how the PLAS could be
affecting the use of this resource. This type of analysis can assist with the development of improved land use
policies and conservation and restoration efforts.

Introduction

EcoViva, a US-based non-governmental organization (NGO), partners with community-led organizations in Central
America to achieve environmental sustainability, economic and social justice, and peace. Since the mid-1990s, they
have been working with the Mangrove Association (Asociacin Mangle) (MA), an NGO based in the rural part of
Usulutn Department in El Salvador. The MA was established to support the grassroots social movement by
engaging in socio-economic and ecosystem management. In an effort to conserve El Salvadors largest protected
area and UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, the Bay of Jiquilisco, EcoViva and the MA collaborate with several USbased academic institutions and nonprofit organizations to utilize voluntary labor and technical expertise.
One such collaborative agreement, now in its eighth year, engages graduate students from the Monterey Institute of
International Studies (MIIS) in a sustainable development practicum, also known as Team El Salvador (TES). TES
engages in projects that assist EcoViva and the MA with addressing socio-economic and environmental challenges.
One project that the TES has been working on is the development and implementation of the Local Plan for
Sustainable Resource Use (PLAS), a community plan for the sustainable use of mangrove resources. Understanding
the location and abundance of land cover, such as mangroves, can assist with the management efforts of the PLAS as
well as development policies.
This project was developed at the request of EcoViva, and based on the needs of the MA, along with the cooperation
of TES 8. It provides a quantitative analysis of land cover changes within Usulutn Department as well a spatial
understanding of mangrove extraction sites

Project Components

This project includes three components, described below.

2.1

Remote Sensing, Part 1: Land Cover Classification

As part of a remote sensing class at California State University Monterey Bay (CSUMB), three of my classmates
and I conducted the first part of this project, which includes satellite imagery acquisition, land cover classification
and land cover change analysis (Appendix A).
2.2

Remote Sensing, Part 2: Ground Validation Data Collection

In order to validate the land cover classification analysis conducted in the first part of the project, we needed to
ground-truth the data by visiting random sites within the study area and verifying existing land cover. This data
would enable us to statistically calculate the accuracy of our classified land cover maps.
2.3

Mangrove Extraction Site Mapping

In collaboration with one of the project teams within TES 8, which worked on an economic analysis of the PLAS, I
digitally mapped sites of known mangrove extraction found within the area governed by the PLAS. In order to
effectively monitor the efficiency of the PLAS as well as understand the rates of extraction of mangroves, the exact
sites of extraction must be mapped. The names and locations of these extraction sites vary between those indicated
in the PLAS report, those known to the park rangers and those identified by community members. Recording and
mapping the actual location and extent of these sites could enable the MS to incorporate a cohesive monitoring
effort into the PLAS management plan.

Objectives

The objectives of this project included three components, as described below.

3.1

Part 1

The goal of this component was to accurately classify land cover classes (see Methodology) found in the Usulutn
Department in order to assess how the land cover has changed since 1986.
3.2

Part 2: Ground Validation Data Collection

The goal of this component was to collect field data that could be used to validate and statistically analyze the
accuracy of the classified land cover maps.
3.3

Mangrove Extraction Site Mapping

The goal of this component was to use local knowledge and geospatial technology to determine the location and
extent of all known mangrove extraction sites found within the PLAS area.

Figure 1. Usulutn Department is located in the southeast part of El Salvador.

3.4

Study Area

The area of focus for this study was El Salvadors largest department, Usulutn (2,700 km 2), found in the
southeastern part of the country, containing several watershed areas of the Lempa River and its delta region on the
Pacific Coast (Fig. 1). This area consists of several types of agriculture, in particular corn, sugarcane and coffee,
which are cultivated from the Pacific Coast all the way up to the string of volcanoes that bisects the department. The
Bay of Jiquilisco, located in the southern portion of the department, contains the largest mangrove expanse in
Central America. The Bay and its surrounding ecosystem were designated as a Wetland of International
Importance by the Ramsar Convention in 2005 (Ramsar 2005), and as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 2007
(ICAPO 2014). These 637 square kilometers are home to some of El Salvadors most pristine environment while
hosting the largest population of coastal marine birds and almost 50% of the known nesting sites for the critically
endangered hawksbill turtle found within the entire Eastern Pacific (ICAPO 2014).

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4.1

Methodology
Part 1: Land Cover Classification

Our project team at CSUMB used Landsat images because they provide the longest continuous record of satellitebased observations. We used a suite of Landsat imagery, which included scenes of Usulutn from 1986 to 2013,
from satellites 5 and 8 (Appendix A). All images are available with a 30-meter resolution (Appendix A). All selected
images were acquired in January or February since this is the dry season for that region. By selecting images taken
during the dry season, there was less likelihood of cloud cover, and therefore reduced obstruction for the
classification process. Maintaining seasonal consistency also provided images with less spectral variability between
each scene (Appendix A).
Our process for classifying the land cover utilized a supervised classification method, which uses Spatial Analyst
tools in ArcGIS (Appendix A). We classified six land cover classes, listed below, on which we based the mapping of
our land cover classification classes.
Land cover classes
1. Mangrove
2. Forest
3. Agriculture
4. Urban
5. Sand
6. Water

4.2

Part 2: Ground Validation

In January 2014, I spent 3 weeks in the Western Region of the Bay of Jiquilisco with TES 8, to conduct field
validation for our remote sensing project. Field validation data is a crucial part of assessing the accuracy of our
classified land cover maps. The process consists of utilizing ArcMap to randomly generate six points for each land
cover class given specific constraints (ESRI, 2013). These constraints included proximity to roads, for accessibility
reasons, and distance from each other, to gain a representative sample of the entire study area. This sampling method
enabled the data to be objectively collected. I visited each site, 40 in total, and recorded the dominant land cover
class for each site. For purposes of this analysis, pastures were included in the agriculture land cover class.
4.3

Mangrove Extraction Site Mapping

Using information acquired from three sources--the findings of the PLAS project team, testimony from local
community members, and guidance from the park rangers--I walked the perimeter of five wood extraction sites
within the PLAS area and recorded this information using a handheld GPS unit. These were the only sites that all
three sources agreed upon in terms of name, location and suitability for extraction. The field component of this
mapping project was conducted with the assistance of the park rangers, who are mostly local volunteers from the
communities within the PLAS area.

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5.1

Results and Discussion

Land Cover Change Analysis

Based on our classified land cover maps, we were able to assess how land cover has changed in this area since 1986
(Fig. 2) and how it appears as of January 23, 2014 (Fig. 3). By focusing on the extent of mangroves, forest/non-

mangrove vegetation, agriculture and urban areas, we were able to identify the changing trends for each land cover
class. The ground validation data confirmed our results with an accuracy of 85%. Consistent with another study that
assessed land over for the entire country of El Salvador (Hecht and Saatchi 2007), we found an overall increasing

Hectares(in1000s)

150

Agriculture

Forest

Mangrove

100

50

0
1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

Year

Figure 2. Changes in land cover from 1986-2014 in Usulutn Department

trend for the extent of forested/non-mangrove vegetation. Given the history of this region, the increasing extent from
1986-1990 coincides with the civil war during that time. Agricultural activity decreased as a result of the emigration
of a large portion of the population, which attempted to escape the war. Once the civil war was brought to an end
with the Peace Accords in 1992, many people resettled the lands and restarted their agricultural practices, which in
turn caused a decline in forest vegetation. Most of these agricultural and forested land cover changes occurred in the
mountainous rural areas where the villages were especially affected by the economic hardships of the civil war. A
land cover change analysis shows a decline in agricultural lands once again from 2000 to 2014, while forested lands
increased. These changes may in part be due to the economic market changing from agriculture to other services
such as aquaculture. The overall extent of mangroves follows the same fluctuations as the forested areas but over a
smaller area (Fig. 2). Using the classified images from 1990 and 2014, analysis shows several areas of mangroves
within the PLAS region where loss has occurred; however there are also small areas indicating new mangrove
growth. Further analysis and monitoring efforts are needed in order to validate actual regrowth of the mangroves and
potential causes. For example, to correlate areas of regrowth with the activities of the PLAS management efforts,
spatial analysis would have to be conducted to compare areas of conservation and restoration with the known areas
of regrowth. Since the PLES (original version of the PLAS) was only implemented in 2010, analysis would be
restricted to a much shorter time frame. Additional imagery with increased resolution would be required for this
analysis.

5.2

Fig
ure 3. Classified land cover map from a 2014 satellite image of Usulutn Department in El Salvador.

unctionality of the Classified Land Cover Map

The use of remote sensing techniques to classify land cover changes has the capacity to spatially quantify land cover
that is visible with satellite imagery. This tool makes it possible to identify and locate a variety of land covers, which
can then be calculated to show areas, rates and trends of change, and their proximity to development and
waterbodies. The classified land cover map from 2013 (Fig. 3) illustrates the land cover that currently exists as of
January 23, 2014. This map was calculated at a 30-meter resolution but has the potential to be reformatted to a 15meter resolution. A current map that illustrates the land cover for every 15 meters would be a very useful tool for
local municipalities that are trying to improve land use and development policies. With such a high resolution,
detailed measurements and methods of management could be established for areas of conservation, restoration,
development and resource extraction.

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Figure 4. Mangrove extraction sites located within the area governed by the PLAS in Usulutn Department of El
Salvador.

5.3

Mangrove Extraction Site Mapping

In order to better understand how the mangroves are currently being utilized and how they can be sustainably
managed as a viable resource, it is imperative to know where the extraction of this resource is occurring and at what
rate the extraction is happening. The mapping of known wood extraction sites is a first step in answering these
questions.
The mangrove extraction site mapping effort (Fig. 4) shows the perimeter of five extraction sites that are mentioned
in the PLAS report, identified by the community and verified by the park rangers. The outline indicated for the site
El Horno does not accurately represent the outermost perimeter of the area. The actual area of wood extraction for
El Horno extends 50-100 meters beyond the border indicated on the map. This discrepancy exists due to a
misunderstanding of the mapping methodologies with the park rangers.
The PLAS plan has identified specific sites and placed restrictive practices on each of these sites based on type of
wood and purpose of use. While these sites are clearly identified in the regulating legal document of the PLAS, they
do not necessarily correlate with the communitys knowledge and practices. With the assistance of EcoViva and
TES, the MA is making efforts to strengthen awareness of permissible mangrove use and methods for sustainable
practices.

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Recommendations

In order to measure the effectiveness of any regulation or outreach effort, it is necessary to establish a corresponding
method of monitoring. One such method could consist of regular visual ground assessment by trained personnel.
While the park rangers are acutely familiar with this area and traverse the terrain regularly, their ability to
objectively interpret environmental features of mangrove forests, such as health, abundance and exact areas and
rates of extraction remains limited and hindered by the lack of an established monitoring plan and proper training.
With the use of GPS points and specific assessment methodologies, distinct monitoring routes can be planned, along
with defined biological inventory criteria. This would enable the park rangers to evaluate, both spatially and
quantitatively, many features within the mangroves.
Another monitoring method could involve the use of remote sensing, a tool that has already been shown to
adequately assess land cover changes for this area. Used in conjunction with ground assessment, this tool enables
users to visually and quantitatively assess the entire area at once, while also focusing on specific areas. With the use
of physically mapped boundaries and areas of interest, the extent of land cover and subsequent changes can be more
accurately observed and defined. This method requires a lot fewer man-hours in the field but a greater degree of
technical skills.
There are several ways for the MA to take immediate action regarding the monitoring and evaluation effort. By
continuing the extraction site mapping project, a complete database can be created that will spatially identify all sites
of extraction. This effort requires only a GPS unit and the knowledge and ability on the part of the park rangers and
community leaders to define such areas. In conjunction with community input, each site description should include
resources available, habitat, the proximity to unused areas and the communities who use each site. Within the entire
area governed by the PLAS, transects can be established which can then be regularly monitored by park rangers,
community leaders or community members. In order to encourage involvement by all stakeholders, the MA could
provide incentives such opportunities for community and resource benefits. There are many components here which
the expertise of Team El Salvador 9 could greatly benefit, such as assessing the feasibility of alternate resources;
establishing transects and a monitoring plan; conducting a biodiversity assessment; and collecting ground validation
data for remote sensing projects.

Conclusion

The grassroots effort of ecosystem management has been developed and maintained by the coordinated
achievements of EcoViva and the Mangrove Association and successfully functions through community
understanding and involvement. An established methodology for these efforts requires continuous monitoring and
evaluation. Remote sensing and ground-based mapping are just two of the tools that are available to assist with the
sustainable management of various resources. The recommendations provide further detail how these tools can be
utilized by the local community groups and members, as well as immediate steps that the MA should take. There are
also many functions that Team El Salvador 9 could fill to benefit the overall effort.
Traveling to El Salvador, contributing to the goals of Team El Salvador, studying the mangroves side-by-side with
members of EcoViva, the Mangrove Association and local community members, were all a part of an incredibly rich
experience, both scientifically and culturally. This type of scientific work has the potential to be an incredible
resource to propel the establishment and sustainability of ecosystem management, land use policies and coastal
development.

References

Eastern Pacific Hawksbill Initiative (ICAPO). Bahia Jiquilisco Biosphere Reserve, El Salvador. [cited 2014 March
18]. Available from: http://hawksbill.org/id68.html
[ESRI] Environmental Systems Resource Institute. 2013. ArcMap 10.1. ESRI, Redlands, California.
Ramsar Sites and Man and the Biosphere Reserves. January 30, 2013
The List of Wetlands of International Importance. Ramsar List. 14 March 2014.
http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-documents-list-mab-sites/main/ramsar/1-31-218%5E25272_4000_0__

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Appendix A - Glossary

ArcMap software used to design and manage solutions through the application of geographic
knowledge (ESRI, 2013).
Land cover class the physical material found on earths surface and grouped according to
specific features.
Land cover classification identifying information on land cover using remote sensed imagery
and organizing it according to specific features.
Land cover change analysis calculating areas of land cover and comparing how they have
changed between land cover classification maps from multiple years.
Landsat imagery imagery obtained from a satellite operated by NASA.
Resolution the number of meters each pixel contains.
Scene a unique area of land captured by a satellite and, based on the latitude, identified in the
images properties by the Path (westward) and Row (southward) number.
Spectral variability the range of colors in visible light.

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