Handouts in SCIENCE

SCIENCE the pursuit and application of

knowledge and understanding of the natural
and social world following a systematic
methodology based on evidence.

then another scientific hypothesis is

formulated
based
from
the
experiments.

TECHNOLOGY - the application of scientific

knowledge for practical purposes, especially
in industry.
"advances in computer technology"
- machinery and equipment developed
from the application of scientific
knowledge.
the branch of knowledge dealing with
engineering or applied sciences.
- It is often credited to an Italian
Physicist, Galileo Galilei and the
English Philosopher, Francis Bacon.

FACT a close agreement by competent

observers who makes a series of observations
of the same phenomenon.
LAWS/PRINCIPLES the relationship among
natural quantities are tested over and over
again and not contradicted.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD - a body of techniques

for investigating phenomena, acquiring new
knowledge, or correcting and integrating
previous knowledge.
1. Observation - the act of a human being
of receiving knowledge from the
outside world by the use of the senses
(taste,
sight,
smell,
touch
and
hearing).
2. Problem - a question proposed for
solution or discussion.
3. Hypothesis - an educated guess that is
not fully accepted until demonstrated
by experiment.
4. Experiment
hypothesis

to

test

scientific

5. Collect and Analyze the Data

the

result

of

an

7. Verifying the conclusion through sets

of experiment.
8. If these sets of experiments arrive at
the same answer, then the scientific
hypothesis became scientific theory.
a. Another sets of experiments to
prove the scientific theory to be
a scientific law or scientific
principle.
If these sets of experiments arrived at
different answer with irregularities,

SCIENTIFIC THEORY a synthesis of a large

body of information that encompasses welltested and verified hypotheses about certain
aspects of the natural world.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE
Analytical Thinking
Creativity
Intellectual Honesty
Curiosity
Objectivity
Open-mindedness
Patience
Perseverance
Humility

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES
Inferring
Collecting/gathering
Observing
Analyzing
Concluding
Hypothesizing
Predicting
Experimenting
Classifying
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE

a. Qualitative Data Data can be

observed but not measured.
Colors, textures, smells, tastes,
appearance, beauty, etc.
b. Quantitative Data - Data which
can be measured. Length,
height, area, volume, weight,
speed,
time,
temperature,
humidity, sound levels, cost,
members, ages, etc.
6. Conclusion
experiment

a. Another set of experiments

to prove the scientific
hypothesis.

1. Natural Science - studies the physical

and natural world or the events that
happen in nature.
a. Biological Science living
things
i. Biology
ii. Ecology
iii. Microbiology
iv. Genetics
v. Taxonomy
b. Physical Science non-living
things
i. Chemistry
ii. Physics
iii. Astronomy
2. Social Science - a particular area of
study that relates to human behaviour
and society
a. Psychology
b. Politics
c. Ethics
MEASUREMENTS made by comparing a
quantity with a standard unit.

Handouts in SCIENCE
Conversion Factor - a ratio written in fraction
form that can express the same value or
quantity in two different units.
Accuracy the closeness of a measurement to
the accepted value for a specific physical
quantity.
Precision - the agreement among several
measurements that have been made in the
same way.

Metric System standard unit

Variation:
1. MKS meter, kilogram, second
2. CGS centimetre, gram, second
SI Metric Basic Units
Length
Mass

meter

m
kg

Time
Electric Current
A
Temperatre
Amt. of Substance
mol
Luminous Intensity
cd

kilogram
second

ampere

Kelvin
mole

s
K

candela

English/British System
1. FPS foot, pound, second
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION the use of power of
ten in writing a very large or very small
numbers.
A x 10n
A number having a single non-zero digit to
the left of the decimal point
n positive or negative numbers
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES digit that express
value of measurement that are known with
certainty plus the first uncertain digit.
RULES:
1. ALL non-zero numbers
(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) are ALWAYS
significant.
ex. 89463869 8 sf
2. ALL zeroes between non-zero numbers
are ALWAYS significant.
ex. 405 3 sf
45.001 5 sf
4.0507 5 sf
3. ALL zeroes which are SIMULTANEOUSLY
to the right of the decimal point AND
at the end of the number are ALWAYS
significant.
4. ALL zeroes which are to the left of a
written decimal point and are in a
number >= 10 are ALWAYS significant.
ex. 0.001000 4 sf
10.00 4 sf

SCIENCE LABORATORY APPARATUS

Test tube - use for combining chemicals
Crucible - used to head substances at a very
high temperature
Pipette
- used for accurate measurement of substanc
es
Wire gauze - used to spread heat
Burette - measures volume of solution
Clay triangle - wire frame with porcelain
used to support the crucible
Forceps - used to hold small amount of
solution
Graduated cylinder - measure approximate
volume
Graduated pipette - measure solution's
volume
Condenser - used in distillation
Wash glasses - holding small samples or for
covering beakers
Wash bottles - used to dispense water
Tong - used to pick large amount of solution
Mortar and Pestle - used to grind paste or
powder
Beakers - are useful as a reaction container
or to hold liquid or solid samples. They are
also used to catch liquids from titration and
filtrates from filtering operations. Used to
measure approximate volume.
Volumetric flasks - are used to measure
precise volumes of liquid or to make precise
dilutions.
Glass funnels - are for funneling liquids from
one container to another or for filtering when
equipped with filter paper
Clay triangles - are placed on a ring
attached to a ring stand as a support for a
funnel, crucible, or evaporating dish
Bunsen burners - are sources of heat
Plastic syringe - measures small volumes
of liquid.
Gas syringe- it is usually made of glass.
Test tube holder - it holds a test tube.
Test tube brush use in cleaning the test
tube
Erlenmeyer flask - used in applications
where solutions must be mixed multiple
times.
Florence flask - (also known as a boiling
flask) is a type of flask used as an item
of laboratory glassware. It can be used as a
container to hold solutions of chemicals
Round bottom flask - used as laboratory
glassware, mostly for chemical
or biochemicalwork.
Watch glass - used inchemistryas a surface
toevaporatea liquid, to hold solids while being
weighed, or as a cover for a beaker .
Evaporating dish - used to heat
and evaporate liquids.
Thermometer - use to measure temperature
Stirring rod - used to mix chemicals and
liquids for laboratory purposes.
Tripod - used to keep things above bunsen
burners when you need to heat something
Dropper - used for administering liquid
medicines, especially one for dispensing
medications into the eye.
Centrifuge - used to separate suspensions in
liquids.

Handouts in SCIENCE
Reagent bottle - used to hold liquid
chemicals.
Filter paper - use to separate the solid
particles from the solution
Microscope - used for magnifying small
objects.
PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE

Eyepiece Lens: the lens at the top that you

look through. They are usually 10X or 15X
power.
Tube: Connects the eyepiece to the objective
lenses
Arm: Supports the tube and connects it to
the base
Base: The bottom of the microscope, used
for support
Illuminator: A steady light source (110
volts) used in place of a mirror. If your
microscope has a mirror, it is used to reflect
light from an external light source up through
the bottom of the stage.
Stage: The flat platform where you place
your slides. Stage clips hold the slides in
place. If your microscope has a mechanical
stage, you will be able to move the slide
around by turning two knobs. One moves it
left and right, the other moves it up and
down.
Revolving Nosepiece or Turret: This is the
part that holds two or more objective lenses
and can be rotated to easily change power.
Objective Lenses: Usually you will find 3 or
4 objective lenses on a microscope. They
almost always consist of 4X, 10X, 40X and
100X powersThe shortest lens is the lowest
po.wer, the longest one is the lens with the
greatest power The high power objective
lenses are retractable (i.e. 40XR

Rack Stop: This is an adjustment that

determines how close the objective lens can
get to the slide. It is set at the factory and
keeps students from cranking the high power
objective lens down into the slide and
breaking things.
Condenser Lens: The purpose of the
condenser lens is to focus the light onto the
specimen. Condenser lenses are most useful
at the highest powers (400X and above
Diaphragm or Iris: This diaphragm has
different sized holes and is used to vary the
intensity and size of the cone of light that is
projected upward into the slide.

BIOLOGY science that deals with the study

life.
Aristotle Father of Biology
Carl Linnaeus Father of Taxonomy
Charles Darwin Theory of Natural Selection
CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS IN LIVING
SYSTEM
1. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS compounds consist of carbon atoms
that are bonded together with
hydrogen.
a. Proteins the most abundant
organic compounds in living
cells.
The fundamental
constituents of the
protoplasm.
Made up of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen.
Large molecules
consisting of long
complex chains of amino
acids linked by strong
peptide bonds. (Bonds
are formed by
dehydration synthesis
that links an amino
group of one kind of
amino acid to the acid
(carboxyl) group of
another, resulting of the
removal of water.)
AMINO ACIDS building
block of protein
GENERAL FORMULA FOR AMINO ACID

H
RCCOOH
NH2

H
RCC
NH2

O
OH

Importance of Proteins
Proteins are essential in building and
repairing body cells and tissues.
Most enzymes are proteins, and they
aid in speeding up the building and
repairing of almost all tissues.
Proteins bring about individual
differences.
Proteins serves as transport molecules,
it reserves food, and provides
protection as antibodies.
b. Enzymes - special proteins
that are catalytic in action.
they hasten or speed up
chemical reactions
without being directly
used up in the reaction

Handouts in SCIENCE
c. Nucleic Acids (DNA and
RNA) large complex organic
molecules composed of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
phosphorus.
o DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Describe as a double
helix by James D.
Watson (American
Biochemist) and Francis
Crick (British
Biophysicist /Geneticist)
Consist of two strands
wound around each
other and held together
by weak hydrogen
bonds.
Complementary base
pairing (A-T) adenine
thymine, (G-C) guanine
cytosine.
Sugar content
deoxyribose
o

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Sugar content ribose
Single stranded
Can be found in both
nucleus and cytoplasm
Complementary base
pairing
(A-U) adenine uracil,
(G-C) guanine
cytosine.

Importance of Nucleic Acids

DNA serves as the genetic materials of
all living things.
DNA provides the instruction in making
proteins and enzymes in living
systems.
RNA is synthesized from DNA and is
responsible for protein synthesis.
DNA and RNA control the organization
of enzymes.
d. Carbohydrates composed of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
where the proportion of
hydrogen atoms to oxygen
atoms is two to one CN (H2O)N.
The chief energy sources
in all organisms.
Importance of Carbohydrate
It serves as the backbone of other
molecules.
It serves as stored energy.
It is the most common source of
energy in the body.
It combines with protein to form
structural components of living cells.
Classification of Carbohydrate
Monosaccharide simple
sugars that consist of only one
sugar molecule.
o Glucose (dextrose or
sugar in blood),
galactose, fructose (corn

sugar, the sweetest

sugar)
Disaccharide composed of
two monosaccharide molecules.
o Sucrose (glucose &
fructose) table sugar
o Lactose (glucose &
galactose) milk sugar
o Maltose (two glucose)
malt sugar
Polysaccharide a complex
form of carbohydrates that
consist of three or more
monosaccharide molecules.
o Starch stored
carbohydrates in plants.
o Cellulose insoluble
carbohydrate abundant
in tough outer wall of
plant cells.
o Glycogen stored
carbohydrates in
animals
o Chitin

e. Lipids includes fats and

fatlike molecules. They are
insoluble in water.
Importance of Lipids
It serves as the highest energy-giving
foods in the body.
It acts as insulators by protecting
animals from extreme cold.
It serves as a constituent of the
protoplasm of living cell.
It forms a part of the structure of the
cell membrane.
It serves as a building block for many
steroids.
Forms of Lipids
Fatty Acids solid, saturated at room
temperature (margarine, animal fats)
o Liquid, unsaturated at room
temperature (vegetable oil,
corn oil)

Phosphoglycerides (phospholipids)
- important component of plasma
membrane and other biological
membranes.
o Example: Lecithins (egg yolk,
brain, yeast, liver) and Cephalin
(brain tissue)

Sphingolipids can be found in the

brain, lungs and nerve tissues.
o Example: Sphingomyellin

Waxes composed of fatty acids but

are combined with much longer
alcohol molecule.

Terpenes do not contain fatty acids

but considered lipids because they are
insoluble in water.

Steroids no fatty acids.

o Example: Cholesterol, Bile salt,
Estrogen & androgen

Handouts in SCIENCE

2. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS compounds without carbon atoms.

a. Water - most abundant
molecule in all organism. pH
value 7
i. Ability to dissolve
substances.
ii. Hydrogen-bonding
ability
iii. High specific capacity
iv. High heat of
vaporization
v. High heat of fusion
b. Acids - sour taste, react with
active metals to form hydrogen
gas. Releases hydrogen ions in
a water solution. pH value 1-6.
c. Bases substances that yield
hydroxide ions in a water
solution. Bitter in taste, and feel
slippery. pH value 8-14.
d.

Salts - when an acid and base

combine. (neutralization)

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

(LIFE)
1. Composed of cells and exhibit
organization even at cellular level.
2. Require a constant supply of energy.
3. Need supply of water as a vital
component of the cell.
4. Maintain a state of stability
(Homeostasis)
5. Growth and development
6. Respond to environment
7. Capable of movement
8. Can reproduce and transmit genetic
characteristics to their offspring.
9. Adapt and evolve to survive.
ORGANIZATION OF LIFE
1. Sub-atomic particle parts of an atom
2. Atom smallest unit of element
3. Molecule two or more elements
joined together through chemical
bonding
4. Organelles parts or compartments
that make up of a cell
5. Cell basic and smallest unit of life
6. Tissue composed of a group of
specialized cells
7. Organ composed of a group of
tissues performing a similar task
8. Organ System consist of groups of
organs performing a common task
9. Multicellular Organism an individual
composed of many cells that form
tissues and organs
10. Population composes of a group of
individuals of the same species living
in the same area
11. Community consist of groups of
different species living in the same
area
12. Ecosystem composed of community
and its physical environment
13. Biosphere consist of regions on earth
where living things are found

CELL AND ITS COMPONENTS

HISTORY
ROBERT HOOKE (1635-1703) examined a
thin slice of cork, with tiny compartments that
resembled little rooms with surrounding walls
called cells.
ANTON VAN LEEWENHOEK (1632-1723)
observed RBC, sperm cells, and multitude of
single-celled organism in ponds.
ROBERT BROWN (1773-1858) discovered
nucleus
FELIX DUJARDIN (1802-1860) living cells
contain internal substance sarcode.
JAN EVANGELISTA PURKENJI (1787-1869)
made thorough investigation of the internal
substance and called it protoplasm.
MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN (1804-1881) plant are
composed of cells
THEODOR SCHWANN (1810-1882) animals
are composed of cells.
RUDOLPH VIRCHOW (1821-1902) theorized
that all living cells come from pre-existing
living cells.
CELL THEORY
1. All living things are composed of one
or more cells and cell products.
2. All living cells come from other living
cells by the process of cell division.
3. Cells are the basic units of structure
and function in organisms.
CELL FUNCTION
1. Nutrition cells obtain food molecules
to support their activity
2. Digestion food particles are broken
down with the help of enzymes into
smaller, soluble units suitable for cell
use
3. Adsorption cells absorb from their
environment essential to life
4. Biosynthesis cells organize complex
chemicals from simple building units or
substance
5. Excretion cell by-products that are
not needed for further cell functioning
are eliminated
6. Egestion insoluble, undigested
particles are eliminated by the cell
7. Secretion substance that are
synthesized by the cells are expelled
from elimination process
8. Movement locomotion of cells
9. Irritability - respond or react to
external factors or conditions around
them
10. Respiration breaking down food
molecules into chemical energy that
cells need to function
11. Cellular reproduction cell copies or
replicates its DNA and increases in
number by cell division
EUKARYOTES presence of well-defined
nucleus bound by a double nuclear membrane

Handouts in SCIENCE

PROKARYOTES - lack membrane-bound cell

structures
- bacteria
PARTS OF A CELL
CELL MEMBRANE plasma membrane
- Composed of layer of phospholipid
molecules (made of glycerol,
phosphate group and two chains of
fatty acids)
- Semipermeable or selectively
permeable (only chosen substance to
enter and leave the cell)
- Gives form to cells.
PROTOPLASM jellylike, colourless or
somewhat greyish, translucent, viscous
substance that is capable of flowing.
- Colloid that it can change its state
from semisolid gel to semi liquid
solution
- 20% carbon, 10% hydrogen, 62%
nitrogen, 5% trace elements
Cytolplasm - protoplasm lying outside the
nucleus
Karyoplasm/nucleoplasm protoplasm inside
the nucleus
MITOCHONDRIA Powerhouse of the Cell
- Center of cellular respiration
- Produces ATP (adenosine
triphosphate)- a high energy
compound
RIBOSOMES Protein Factories of the Cell
- Composed of nucleic acids (RNA) and
proteins
- Manufacture great amounts of proteins
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
Manufacturer and Shipper of the Cell
- Long strands of membrane which
forms a network of tiny canals through
the cell
- Connects the nuclear membrane and
the plasma membrane
- Passageway for food substances
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) outer
surfaces of the membrane are lined with
ribosomes
aid in protein synthesis

Water bag, storage of excess water or

nutrients.
Storage of large amount of water
(Plants)

LYSOSOMES Suicide Bags of the Cell

- Rich in strong hydrolytic enzymes
- Capable of breaking down and
destroying a number of important
cellular constituents
- Destruction of microorganism (Bacteria
and other harmful foreign bodies) and
destroy old cells.
CENTROSOMES and CENTRIOLES Helpers in
Cell Division
Centrosomes mass dense protoplasm with
structures at the center (centrioles)
Centrioles duplicate and form at the center
for spindle fiber formation during cell division.
CYTOSKELETON Framework of the Cell
- Supports the internal system of a cell
and also gives the cell its shape.
Microtubules provide pathways for certain
cellular molecules to move
CELL WALL rigid cell wall, composedly of
cellulose
PLASTIDS large membrane-bound organelles
CHROMOPLAST colored plastids
- Carotenoids (yellow or orange
pigments)
- Rheodoplast (red pigments)
LEUCOPLAST colorless plastids
- Serves as food storehouses in many
plant cells.
CHLOROPLAST contains chlorophlly (green
pigment)
- Essential in photosynthesis
NUCLEUS Control Center of the Cell
- Contains genetic material DNA
(determines the characteristics of a
cell and directs the production of
proteins
Chromosomes DNA molecules in the nucleus
Nucleolus chromatin material in the nucleus,
condensed into a darker region
rRNA ribosomal RNA (ribonucleic acid)
mRNA messenger RNA

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) have

no ribosome
- Synthesis of lipids, drug detoxification,
and attachment of receptors on the
cell membrane proteins

Plant Cells
- Cell wall (cellulose) outside the plasma
membrane
- Chloroplast
- One large vacuoles

GOLGI BODIES Packaging Counters of the

Cell
- Camillo Golgi (1843-1926)
- Package macromolecule for secretion

Animal Cell
- No Cell Wall
- No Chloroplast
- Many small vacuole
- Centrioles (paired)

Vesicle tiny, membrane-bound spheres

- Carry the protein to the plasma
membrane and pours out of the cell.
VACOULES Storage Tanks of the Cell

HOMEOSTASIS AND SUBSTANCES IN &

OUT OF THE CELL
STEADY STATE the flow of energy and matter
that is dynamic equilibrium

Handouts in SCIENCE

HOMEOSTASIS constant internal

environment is maintained despite external
changes
SUBSTANCE TRANSPORT THROUGH THE
CELL
1. Structure and Composition of the
Membrane
a. When a substance passes
through the membrane easily,
the membrane is permeable to
the substance.
2. Size of Molecules
a. Small molecules can easily pass
through the plasma membrane
(water, gases, and electrically
neutral molecules) whereas fat
solvents- alcohol, ether, and
chloroform can move through
the layer of protein and
phospholipids membrane.
b. Simple form of carbohydrates,
proteins and fats can also enter
the membrane
monosaccharide, amino acids,
fatty acids and glycerol.
c. Very slow uptakes in the
membrane are disaccharides.
d. Polysaccharides, proteins, lipids
and phospholipids cannot pass
through the membrane.
e. Too large substances are
packaged in membrane-bound
sacs and moved across the
membrane through bulk
transport.
3. Movement of Molecules, or
Pressure Gradient
o The movement of molecules as
it collides with the other
molecules and the plasma
membrane pressure and
molecules distribution
gradually.
a. Diffusion - the movement of
molecules from an area of
higher concentration to an area
of lower concentration.
b. Passive Transport - the
movement of molecules,
through a membrane without
energy exerted.
i. Diffusion
ii. Osmosis movement of
water molecules through
a selectively permeable
into a solution of higher
solute concentration
equalizing the
concentration of solute
on the two sides of the
membrane.
iii. Conditions for osmosis:
(1) the diffusing
substance must be
water; (2) diffusion must
be across a selectively
permeable membrane;
and (3) the diffusing

molecules must move an

area of higher
concentration to an area
of lower concentration.
c. Active Transport movement
of molecules where energy is
exerted by the cell.
i. Sodium potassium
pump process
chemical mechanism
that moves sodium (Na+)
out of the cell and forces
potassium ions (K+) into
the cell resulting a
positive charge outside
of the cell and a
gradient of electrical
charge across the
membrane. A protein
carrier molecule
(permeases) with the
help of ATP to change its
shape and for these to
happens.
ii. Transport by
Membrane Vesicles
Macromolecules
Uptake - larger
molecules may enter the
cell with energy but
without involvement of
transport molecules.
1. Endocytosis the plasma
membrane forms
an engulfing
structure to take
in liquid and
dissolved
substances.
a. Pinocyto
sis
moves
droplets of
fluid
b. Phagocyt
osispicks up
large
particles
(whole
organism)
4. Internal and External Conditions of
the Cell
Osmotic Pressure - as water
molecules continue to enter the sac
faster than they leave, pressure builds
up inside.
*As the osmotic pressure increases the
molecule inside the sac continue to
move, collide more, and push some
molecules out.
Equilibrium the amount of colliding
molecules pushed out of the sac
equals the amount of molecules
entering the sac from the outside
(stable state)

Handouts in SCIENCE
o

ISOTONIC CONDITION there is

no net gain or loss of water
content.

HYPOTONIC SOLUTION solution that contain

a lower concentration of solute or dissolved
substances than that of thee cytoplasm of a
cell.
*If the surrounding fluid contains 95% water
instead of 85%, the natural tendency is for
more molecules water to into the cell, causing
the cell to swell. If homeostasis is not
attained, then the cell will soon burst or
undergo lysis.
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION - solution that contain
more dissolved substances outside than
inside the cytoplasm.
*It is therefore natural for more water to
diffuse out of the cell than into the cell. The
cell will naturally shrink, a condition called
plasmolysis.
Turgor Pressure as water diffuses, it builds
up a pressure that maintains the firmness in
plants.
*When turgor pressure- the pressure that
tends to force water molecules out of the cellequals the diffusion pressure- the force that
causes water molecules to diffuse into the
cell- equilibrium is reached.
Guttation elimination of water through pores
at the tips of their leaves. The forcing of water
from leaves of plants usually when the
stomata are closed. The frequently occurs at
night.
CELL METABOLISM ENERGY AND
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Cellular Metabolism
Metabolism - the sum total of all chemical
processes taking place within a living system.
Catabolism - the process in a plant or animal
by which complex molecules are changed into
simpler molecules and energy is released.
Anabolism a building process. The
synthesis of complex molecules from their
simple building unit that requires energy.
ATP and Cell Energy
- Adenosine triphosphate
- Consist of adenosine, a substance
made up of purine and adenine plus a
five-carbon sugar ribose, and a
triphosphate group.
- Energy from the food
Photosynthesis and Cell Energy
Photosynthesis - a process by which living
plant cells combine carbon dioxide and water,
in the presence of chlorophyll and light
energy.

6 CO2 +12 H 2 O Light Chlorophyll C 6 H 12 O 6+ 6 O2+6 H

Root System/Xylem Vessels conducting
cells that transport water and nutrients from
the soil.
Stomata obtained carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
LIGHT REACTION PHOTOLYSIS
- occurs in the THYLAKOIDS found in the
chloroplast.
- Production of ATP and NADPH
1. Light energy strikes chlorophyll bodies,
and electrons are excited.
2. Electrons are accepted by NADP++
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate) in the electron transport
chain.
3. Light hits a second chlorophyll
molecule and splits the water into
hydrogen and oxygen. Oxygen is
released into the atmosphere and
hydrogen ions are added.
4. More H+ is carried by the electron
transport chain.
5. Energy is generated with the formation
of ATP. To summarize, the light reaction
results in the production of
a. ATP, a high-energy molecule,
and NADPH++ for use in the
dark reaction phase; and
b. Oxygen, which is released into
the atmosphere.
DARK REACTION CARBON FIXATION
- Utilized ATP and NADPH as sources of
energy to fix and reduce carbon
dioxide
- Occurs at the stroma, region within the
chloroplast.
- It can also happen in the light.
1. Carbon dioxide enters the plant. It
combines with RuDP (ribulose
diphosphate), a five-carbon sugar
molecule.
a. The process is called carbon
fixation. An enzyme, RuDP
carboxylase, catalyzes the
fixation reaction.
b. RuDP carboxylase makes up
about 25% of the total protein
on the chloroplast. The most
abundant protein on Earth.
c. The resulting product from this
fixation process is an unstable
six-carbon sugar molecule that
easily splits into two molecules
of PGA (phosphoglyceric acid),
a three-carbon molecule.
2. PGAL (phosphoglyceraldehyde) is
formed from
a. One PGA molecule combining
with a phosphate group
supplied by ATP (form the light
reaction); and
b. Another PGA molecule reacting
with hydrogen from a molecule
of NADPH+ (also from the light
reaction)

Handouts in SCIENCE
c. Glucose is formed from two
PGAL molecules.
d. Most of the PGAL is used to
regenerate more RuDP, using
the energy supplied by ATP. The
RuDP produced is reused in
another cycle of CO2 fixation.
Also PGAL is converted to other
products such as fructose,
sucrose, maltose, and starch.

4. As a result, two ATP molecules and one

molecule of NADH are generated from
every PGAL molecule as each is
converted to pyruvic acid. Since two
PGAL molecules are involved, four ATP
molecules and two NADH are
produced.

IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Oxygen is released.
2. Other organism depends on plants for
their food requirements.
3. Atmospheric concentration is
maintained.

Fermentation - a process that occurs when

an intacellular molecule (such as pyruvic acid)
which is generated by the breakdown of
glucose or another nutrient molecule
becomes the final acceptor of electrons.

RESPIRATION
A complex process by which energy in
the form of ATP is released from food
molecules that organism ingest.
- Starts through the process of
GLYCOLYSIS (a process by which one
glucose molecule is broken down into
two pyruvic acid molecules.
Two Main Types of Respiration
1. Anaerobic Respiration does not
involve the use of oxygen
2. Aerobic Respiration involves the
utilization of oxygen.
GLYCOLYSIS
- Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell
(cytosol the fluid portion of the
cytoplasm where the organelles are
embedded.
1. Glucose is phophorylated to glucose-6
phophate. The addition of the
phosphate group is termed
phosphorylation. Initially, two TAP
molecules are used in this degradation
process.
2. Glucose-6-phosphate (6-C) breaks into
three-carbon (3-C) molecules to PGAL
(phophoglyceraldehyde). Two PGAL
molecules are produced.
3. Phophorylation again transpire. This
time, ATP provides a phosphate group
to each PGAL molecule and removes
hydrogen atoms. An NAD+
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
molecule picks up the hydrogen
removed and becomes to NADH. Two
molecules of NADH are formed.

+ alcoholic CH 3 CH 2 OH +CO 2 + NAD

fermentation
++ H

Pyruvic Acid + NADH

Alcoholic Fermentation - the process
wherein the pyruvic acid is converted to ethyl
alcohol (CH3CH2OH), carbon dioxide and NAD+.
- Wine and beer
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
- Large amount of energy is released
from a glucose molecule.
- Takes place in the mitochondrions
inner membrane called matrix and in
the cristae, which consist of the inner
membrane folding.
- Occurs a series of chemical reactions
in which oxygen, which serves as the
final acceptor in the electron transport
chain is used to convert the chemical
energy stored in organic food
molecules to ATP and reduce hydrogen
(H2) acceptors.
STAGES of AEROBIC RESPIRATION
1. CONVERSION OF PYRUVIC ACID to
Acetyl-CoA
a. As oxygen enters the cells,
pyruvic acid is converted to
acetyl-CoA or acetyl-coenzyme
A. (Acetyl-CoA is a two carbon
molecule or acetyl group
essential to the metabolism of
carbohydrates, fats, and some
amino acids.)
b. During the transformation,
pyruvic acid loses H2 and
produces CO2 + NADH + H+

Handouts in SCIENCE

+
++ H
+ yields AcetylCoA+ CO2 + NADH

Pyruvic Acid +CoA+ NAD

2. THE KREBS or CITRIC-ACID CYCLE
a. The central biochemical
pathway of aerobic respiration.
b. Named after the British
biochemist Sir Hans Adolf
Krebs.
c. Consist of a series of
dehydration (removal of water),
hydration (addition of water),
decarboxylation (removal of
carbon dioxide), and
dehydrogenation (removal of
hydrogen).
d. During these processes, one
acid is transformed to another
acid.
e. Acetyl-CoA (2-C) reacts with
oxaloacetic acid (4-C), forming
citric acid.
f. Citric acid is eventually reduced
to other forms, like ketoglutaric
acid (5-C), succinic acid (4-C),
malic acid (4-C),a nd finally
oxaloacetic acid (4-C), which
becomes regenerated to start
the cycle all over again.
g. Thus for every molecule of
acetyl-CoA, produces 3
molecules of NADH, 1 molecule
of FADH2, 2 molecules of CO2, 1
molecule of ATP and 8 H2 atoms
and reduces H2 acceptors from
NAD and FAD..
h. Since 1 glucose = 2 pyruvic
acid = 2 acetyl-CoA, there are
two turns of the cycle, and all
the number of molecules
mentioned are doubled (6
NADH + H+, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2, 2
ATPs and 16 H2).

3. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

(RESPIRATORY CHAIN / CYTOCHROME
SYSTEM)
- A metabolic pathway that uses energy
to produce ATP.
- It transpires in the cristae of the
mitochondria.
- It is called oxidative because NADH
and FADH2 are oxidized to NAD+ and
FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide).
a. Electrons (H2+) that are
removed from these reduced H2
acceptors are transferred
through a series of acceptors of
lower energy levels coenzyme
to cytochromes b, c, a.
i. Cytochromes are a class
of proteins that function
as electron transporters.
b. As electrons are flown down the
energy stairs, enough energy is
released to phosphorylate ADP
to ATP.
c. O2 accepts H2 that results the
formation of H2O.
d. As the process is completed,
the final products are
i. 3 molecules of ATP from
each NADH + H+
produced
10
NADH + H+ x 3ATP = 30
ATP
ii. 2 molecules of ATP from
each FADH2
C2FADH2 x 2 TAP = 4 ATP
iii. O2 + 2H+ = H2O
Total = 34 ATP
molecules
*The total yield of 34 ATP molecules is more
common in plants. In some organisms, the
products of oxidative phosphorylation yield
only 32 molecules of ATP and water.
Lactic Acid Fermentation occurs when
there is a short supply of oxygen in the cells.
- Lactic Acid forms glucose in the liver
when pyruvic acid accepts hydrogen
from NADH+. Thus, NAD+ is released to
be reused in glycolysis.

++ H lactic acid Lactic acid+ NADH

fermentation
Pyruvic Acid + NADH
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Polypeptides protein molecule is made up
of one more polymers.
- Each consist of a specific sequence of
amino acids linked together by peptide
bonds.
DNA in Protein Synthesis
- DNA is a nucleic acid, which a complex
organic molecule composed of bound
sub-units called nucleotides.

10

Handouts in SCIENCE
-

DNA stores and transmits genetic

information from parent to offspring in
every generation.
Nucleotide is consist of a five-carbon
sugar, (deoxyribose in a DNA
molecule); a phosphate group; and a
nitrogenous base (A-T, T-A, C-G, G-C)
bonded together by hydrogen bonds.
DNA is transcribed into a RNA, and the
mRNA carries a copy of instructions
derived from DNA to the ribosomes
where proteins are manufactured.
it is the nitrogenous-base sequencing
of DNA that provides the code for the
proper sequence of amino acids to
produce a specific type of protein.

RNA in Protein Synthesis

- RNA is a polymer consisting of
nucleotides that acts as messenger
between DNA and the ribosomes and
carries out the process by which
proteins are synthesized.
- RNA is a single-stranded ribose sugar
and uracil as its nitrogenous base
instead of thymine.
Three Types of RNA
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) may be
found inside the cell nucleus and
transmits the genetic code from DNA
which serves as a pattern for the
assembly of amino acids during protein
synthesis.
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA) folded RNA
molecules in 20 or more varieties.
Each has the capacity to bond to a
specific type of amino acid among
many that are scattered in the
cytoplasm.
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) the central
component of the ribosome which
involve in the manufacture of proteins.
-

The TRANSCRIPTION process produces

mRNA from DNA.
Then, mRNA molecules are
TRANCRIBED or copied according to
the information handed down by the
base sequence of DNA.
They produce a reflected or copied
code that appears in three sequential
bases of mRNA called codon.
Each codon requires a specific amino
acid using tRNA as intermediary.
Each tRNA has one amino acid
attached to it.
The amino acids form the polypeptide
chain.
RNA polymerase, an enzyme found in
the cytoplasm, initiates mRNA
synthesis based on the DNA nucleotide
sequence.

Translation Process in Protein Synthesis

- Translation is the process of
assembling protein molecules from the
information encoded in the mRNA.
-

It starts off when the mRNA goes out

of the nucleus by passing through the
nuclear pores.
The mRNA joins a group of ribosomes
and together they align to form a
template or pattern.
Meanwhile, the tRNA with its
respective amino acids go to the
ribosomes.s
The tRNA bears its anticodon
complementary to the codon of mRNA.
One amino acid binds with another
through a peptide bond.
A polypeptide chain is formed until the
entire code is read.
The STOP codon signals the
termination of translation.

CELL GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION

Somatic cells all cells of body except sex
cells
- Diplloid number (2N)
- 46 chromosomes
Reproductive cells gametes, germ cells, sex
cells (sperm cell and egg cell)
- Haploid number (N)
- 23 chromosomes
MITOSIS cell division
STAGES OF MITOSIS
G1 Phase Presynthetic Stage (Growth occurs
as organelles double)
S Phase Synthesis Stage (DNA replication
occurs as chromosomes duplicate)
G2 Phase Postsynthetic Stage (Growth
occurs as cell prepares to divide)
MITOSIS
INTERPHASE
1. Chromosomes (chromatin) are not
seen as distinct structures.
2. Nucleolus is still visible and nuclear
membrane is still visible.

11

Handouts in SCIENCE
3. Centrioles, chromosomes, and DNA
duplicate.
EARLY PROPHASE
1. Centrioles move to each pole of the
cell.
2. Chromosomes appear as long, thin
threads
3. Nucleolus became less distinct and
nuclear membrane is still visible.
4. Asters are formed.
MIDDLE PROPHASE
1. Centrioles begin to organize spindle
fibers.
2. Sister chromatids are formed with a
centromere as their point of
attachment.

SECOND INTERPHASE (TWO-CELL STAGE)

1. Nuclear membranes are complete in
both cells.
2. Chromosomes are no longer visible.
3. Cytokinesis is complete.
4. Two new daughter cells are formed,
each with a complete set of materials
as the parent cell.
CYTOKINESIS cytoplasmic division
KARYOKINESIS - splitting of the nucleus
ASTERS - cellular structure shaped like a star,
formed around each centrosome during
mitosis in an animal cell.
SPINDLE FIBERS - aggregates
of microtubules that move
chromosomes during cell division.

LATE PROPHASE
1. Centrioles are nearly at the opposite
sides of the nucleus.
2. Nuclear membrane slowly
disintegrates and nucleolus is no
longer visible.
3. Spindle fibers attach to the centromere
of each chromosome.
4. Chromosomes move toward the
equator.

MEIOSIS cell division that occur in two

cycles of cell division where during the
formation of an ovum (oogenesis) and
formation of sperm (spermatogenesis).
- Reduction of chromosome number to
the haploid number (N)
- Begins with an original parent cell
having 46 chromosomes

METAPHASE
1. Nuclear membrane has completely
disappeared.
2. Centromere of each double-stranded
chromosome is attached to a spindle
fibril at the equator
3. Centrioles are already at opposite ends
of the poles.
4. Chromosomes line up at the center of
the cell forming the metaphase
plate.

MEIOSIS I - process by which replicated

chromosomes undergo two nuclear divisions
to produce four haploid cells, also called
meiocytes (sperms and eggs).

EARLY ANAPHASE
1. Sister chromatids separate and begin
moving toward opposite poles of the
cell.
2. Sister chromatids start to move toward
the poles, seemingly, being pulled by
the thread or fibers.
LATE ANAPHASE
1. The two sets of new, single-stranded
chromosomes start to migrate near
their respective poles.
2. Cytokinesis begins.
3. A slight cleavage furrow in the cell
membrane begins to form in the region
of the equator.
TELOPHASE
1. New nuclear membranes start to form
in each new cell.
2. Chromosomes become longer, thinner,
and less distinct.
3. Nucleolus reappears.
4. Centrioles are replicated.
5. Cytokinesis is nearly complete.
6. Spindle fibers and asters disappears.
7. The cleavage furrow becomes deepens
and the cells finally divide into two
parts.

Stages of Meiosis

Prophase I
1. Chromosomal condensation
2. Homologous chromosomes (also called
bivalent chromosomes, or bivalents)
pair laterally, or side-by-side, said to
be in synapsis.
3. During synapsis, crossovers crossconnections that form from breakage
and rejoining between
sister chromatids can occur between
the paired bivalents, leading to genetic
recombination (exchange of genetic
material) between the strands
involved. The point where a crossover
occurs is called a chiasma.

Metaphase I
1. Each pair of bivalents (two
chromosomes, four chromatids total)
align on the metaphase plate.

Anaphase I
1. Homologous chromosomes separate.

12

Handouts in SCIENCE
2. Homologous chromosomes, each
containing two chromatids, move to
separate poles.

1. Four haploid nuclei (containing

chromosomes with single chromatids)
are formed in telophase II.

3.

2. Division of the cytoplasm during

cytokinesis results in four haploid cells.

Unlike in mitosis, the centromeres do

not split and sister chromatids remain
paired in anaphase I.

Telophase I and Cytokinesis

Oogenesis - single oogonium produces one

egg cell (Ovum)

1. The homologs of each bivalent arrive

at opposite poles of the cell.
2.

New nuclear membrane forms around

each set of chromosomes.

Spermatogenesis single spermatogonium

produces four spermatozoa (sperm cell)

3. Cytokinesis then divides the cell into

two daughter cells.
4.

Each of the two daughter cells is now

haploid (n), with half the number of
chromosomes per nucleus as in
meiosis I. The cell now proceeds into
meiosis II, with the chromosomes
remaining condensed.

REPRODUCTION

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION does not

involve gametes or sex cells

Fission
Binary fission - the parent organism is
MEIOSIS II - resembles mitosis more than
meiosis I.

replaced by two daughter organisms, because

it literally divides in two.
Multiple fission - the nucleus of the parent cell

Prophase II
1. Spindle fibers reform and attach to
centromeres in prophase II.

divides several times by mitosis, producing

several nuclei. The cytoplasm then separates,
creating multiple daughter cells
Budding - The offspring organism is smaller
than the parent. The buds grow into fully

Metaphase II
1. The chromosomes align on the
metaphase plate during metaphase II
in preparation for centromeres to
divide in the next phase.

matured individuals which eventually break

away from the parent organism.
Internal budding or Endodyogeny - It involves
an unusual process in which two daughter
cells are produced inside a mother cell, which
is then consumed by the offspring prior to
their separation.

Anaphase II
1. Chromosomes divide at the
centromeres (like in mitosis) and the
resulting chromosomes, each with one
chromatid, move toward opposite
poles of the cell.

Endopolygeny is the division into several

organisms at once by internal budding
Vegetative reproduction - type of asexual
reproduction found in plants where new
individuals are formed without the production
of seeds or spores by meiosis or syngamy

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

Sporulation - These spores grow into

multicellular individuals

13

Handouts in SCIENCE
(called gametophytes in the case of plants)
without a fertilization event.

the scion (the cut portion that is joined to the

stock).

Fragmentation - asexual reproduction where a

new organism grows from a fragment of the
parent. Each fragment develops into a
mature, fully grown individual.

Budding a healthy bud is selected and

removed together with the piece of the bark
and the active cambium surrounding it.

Clonal Fragmentation form of asexual

reproduction or cloning where an organism is
split into fragments. Each of these fragments

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION involves sex cells

develop into mature, fully grown individuals

that are clones of the original organism.
Parts of the Flower
Agamogenesis is any form of reproduction
that does not

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION FOR PLANTS

Natural Vegetative Reproduction

1. Calyx collection of sepals, that

supports cover and protect the rest of
the flower
2. Corolla consist of one or more rows of
petals
3. Stamen male reproductive organ of
the flower
4. Pistil female reproductive organ of
the flower

Runners grow along the ground from the

parent plant. They formed adventitious roots
and shoots at the tips, thus giving rise to new
plants.

5. Filament slender stalk that supports

the anther
6. Anther produce grains called pollen
7. Pollen contains sperm nuclei

Tip Layering allowing aerial stems to arch

downward so that their tips touch the ground
and develop a new plant.

Leaf Reproduction new plant develop along

the margins of their leaves.

Artificial Vegetative Reproduction

Cutting portions of stems and roots are

removed and transferred to loose, damp soil
or sand.

Layering stimulates the growth of roots on a

stem.

Grafting splicing together of two stems, or

the union of their cambium layers one of the
stock (the rooted portion), and the other of

14

8. Stigma sticky top of the pistil

9. Style slender stalk which supports
the stigma
10. Ovary swollen base, ovum
11. Ovules became seeds

POLLINATION the transfer of pollen from an

anther to a stigma

Self-pollination pollen is transferred from the

anther to the stigma of the same flower or to
the stigma of another flower on the same
plant.
Cross-pollination pollination involves flower
of two separate plants

Complete flower has all parts (petals, sepals,

stamen, and pistil)

Handouts in SCIENCE
Incomplete flower may lack of sepals or
petals

FERTILIZATION the union of the sperm cell

and the egg cell

Human Development
1. Fertilization
2. Zygote the fertilized egg
3. Embryo developing zygote
4. Two-cell stage
5. Blastocyst (second day through
second week)
6.

By the end of the 2nd week, implants

itself in uterine wall ("nidation")

CAROLUS LINNAEUS (1707-1778) developed

a system of grouping organisms into
hierarchal categories.

LINNAEAN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

1. Kingdom broadest group to which a
living thing may belong
2. Phyla (phylum) groups of closely
related classes of organism
a. Sub-Phylum
3. Classes consist of orders
4. Orders consist of several families

7.

Embryo (third through eighth week),

occasional primitive heart contractions
at 2 weeks;

5. Family contains a number of

genera/genus

8.

Heart pumps blood and ECG tracing

looks normal by 4th to 5th week;

6. Genus composed of several related

species

9. Some brain activity by the end of the

6th week;
10. Normal heart functioning after the end
of the 7th week.

7. Species distinct kind or unit

Kingdom of Life

11. Fetus (9th week until birth)

a. develops fingernails, vocal
chords, taste buds, and salivary
glands and begins to urinate
(3rd month)
b. "quickening" = spontaneous
movement, between the 13th
and 20th week (3rd, 4th or 5th
month).
c. develops hair and eyelashes
(5th month)
d.

1. ARCHAEA consist of bacteria (live in

extreme environment very hot or
very cold)
2. EUBACTERIA consist of more typical
bacteria found in everyday life. They
have cell walls made of peptidoglycan.
3. EUKARYA encompasses most of the
worlds visible living things (Protist,
Fungi, Plants and Animals)

"viability" = fetus can survive

outside the mother; occurs at
approximately the 24th week.

(By convention, "fetus" is sometimes

used generically to refer to all the
stages of pregnancy.)
BIODIVERSITY

TAXONOMY deals with the study of

identifying, grouping, and naming organism
according to their established natural
relationship.

15

Three Domain-Six Kingdom Model

Five Kingdom Classifications

Kingdom MONERA
-

Unicellular prokaryotic organism

Lacking distinct nuclei and membranebound organelles

Nutrition principally by absorption but

sometimes photosynthetic or
chemosynthetic

Handouts in SCIENCE
Division Cyanophyta blue green algae
-

Phycocyanin (blue pigment) and

Chlorophlly (green pigment)

Diatoms

Phylum Pyrrophyta (Fire) dinoflagellates

-

Peridinin, chlorophylls a and c

Unicellular, mostly marine

Division Schizopyta bacteria

-

Believed to be the most abundant

organism

Phylum Xanthopyhta yellow-green algae

They have DNA as genetic material.

Phylum Rhodophyta Red

-

Phycobilin, chlorophylls a and d

Types of Bacteria

Mostly multicellular

1. Coccus (Cocci) cells that are sphereshaped or globular

Mostly marine, land, and freshwater

Coralline algae

a. Diplococcus cells often joined

in pairs or short filament
b. Staphylococcus clusters of
cells
c. Streptococcus filaments or
strings of cells
d. Tetrad groups of four cells
arranged as a square
e. Sarcina cubes or pockets of
cells
2. Bacillus (Bacilli) cells that are
cylindrical or rod shaped
a. Diplobaccilus cells in pairs
b. Streptobaccilus cells joined
end to end forming a filament
or thread
3. Spirillum (Spirilla) cells that are in the
form of heat rods or corkscrews

Phylum Phaeophyta Brown

-

Fucoxanthin, chlorophylls a and c

Mostly multicellular

Mostly marine

Kelps and fucus

Phylum Protozoa protozoans (Trypanosoma)

Phylum Sarcodina move by means
pseudopodia
-

Feed by phagocytosis

Amoeba

Phylum Ciliophora (Ciliata)

-

Move by means of short, hairlike

projection called cilia

Paramecium

Phylum Zoomastiginia (Mastigophora)

Kingdom Protista
-

Unicellular or colonial eukaryotic

organisms with distinct nuclei and
organelle

Move by means of whiplike structures

called flagella

Mostly free-living, inhabiting

freshwater areas

Nutrition by photosynthesis,
absorption, or ingestion

Phylum Sporozoa

Phylum Chrysophyta golden algae

-

Carotene, fucoxanthin, chlorophylls a

and c
Unicellular, both marine and
freshwater

16

Have no organs for locomotion

Plasmodium

Kingdom Plantae

Handouts in SCIENCE
-

Multicellular eukaryotic organism with

rigid walls and chlorophyll
Nutrition by photosynthesis

Phylum Chlolorophyta green algae

Class Deuteromycetes
Class Ascomycetes - hyphae with septa or
unicellular septa
-

Spores budding; aquatic and terrestrial

Molds, morels, powdery mildrews,

yeast

Phylum Rhodophyta red algae

Phylum Phaeophyta brown algae
Phylum Bryophyta first land plants, but
never developed enough adaptations to land
environments as they lack root system.
-

Rootlike structure (rhizoids) which

absorbs water and minerals

Sporophyte generation

Phylum Tracheophyta groups of plants that

include ferns and seed-producing plants
-

Specialized structure called vascular

tissue with tracheid cells (transport
water from roots to leaves)

Phylum Lycopsida

Class Basidiomycetes hyphae may or may

not separate
-

Sexual: spores produced in basidium

Terrestrial

Mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs,

rusts, smuts

Class Zygomycetes hyphae without septa

-

Spores from sporangia; sexually by

conjugation (zygospores)

Terrestrial

Rhizopus, pilobus species

Class Chytridiomycota hyphae with septa

Phylum Sphenopsida

Sexual through gametes with flagella

Phylum Pteropsida

Terrestrial; Aspergillus penicillin

notatum

Sub-phylum Spermopsida
Kingdom Animalia
Class Gymnospermae naked seed
which develop in exposed positions on the
upper surfaces of the scales of cones
Class Angiospermae have seeds
enclosed within the protective wall of the
female sex organ
Subclass Dicotyledoneae seed leaves
present in the embryo of plants, that serves
as food reservoir
Subclass Monocotyledoneae single
cotyledon

Multicellular organism without cell

walls or chlorophyll

Nutrition principally ingestive. With

digestion in an internal cavity

Phylum Porifera sponges

Phylum Cnidaria stinging nettle
Class Hydrozoa

Kingdom Fungi
-

Multinucleate plantlike organism

lacking photosynthetic pigments
Nutrition by absorption

Class Scyphozoa
Class Anthozoa
Phylum Ctenophora
Phylum Platyhelminthes flatworms
Class Turbellaria planarians

Phylum Myxomycophyta
Phylum Euycophyta

17

Class Trematoda flukes

Class Cestoda tapeworms

Handouts in SCIENCE
Phylum Aschelminthes unsegmented
roundworms

Class Agnatha jawless fishes

Phylum Rotifera

Class Chondrichthyes cartilaginous

fishes

Phylum Bryozoa

Class Osteichthyes bony fishes

Phyum Mollusca soft-bodied; unsegmented

animals

Class Amphibia amphibians

Class Reptilia reptiles

Class Amphineura
Class Aves birds
Class Gastropoda
Class Mammalia mammals
Class Scaphopoda
Class Pelecypoda
Class Cephalopoda

Order Monotremata egg-laying

mammals
Order Marsupialia pouched
mammals

Phylum Annelida segmented worms

Order Insectivora insects
Class Polychaeta
Order Chiroptera
Class Oligochaeta
Order Edentata
Class Hirudinea
Order Rodentia rodents
Phylum Arthropoda joint-legged animals
with exoskeleton

Order Logomorha

Class Trilobita Olenellus terminatus

Order Cetacea

Class Crustacea crabs, lobster

Order carnivora

Class Arachnida spiders, mites, ticks

Order Proboscidea

Class Chilopoda centipedes

Order Sirenia

Class Diplopoda millipedes

Order Perrisodactyla

Class Insecta grasshoppers, butterflies,

mosquitoes

Order Artiocdactyla
Order Primates

Phylum Echinodermata Spiny-skinned

animals
Class Crinoidea
Class Asteroida
Class Ophiuroidea
Class Holothuroidea

ECOLOGY
-

Study that deals with the relationship

between organisms and their
environment.

Phylum Hemichordata
Phylum Chordata

HABITAT physical location of community

Subphylum Urochordata
Subphylum Cephalochordata
Subphylum Vertebrata

18

NICHE involves both the place where an

organism lives and the roles that an organism
ha in its habitat.

Handouts in SCIENCE
Level 3 Secondary Consumers
(Carnivores/Omnivores)
BIOTIC FACTORS life in an ecosystem (living
things)

Producers autotrophic organisms,

manufactures their own food through
photosynthesis

Level 4 Tertiary Consumers (Top

Carnivore)

Energy Pyramid relative amount of energy

available at each trophic level
-

Consumers heterotrophic organisms, most

likely a animal that gets its food from another
organism or organic matter

Only about 10% of available energy

within a trophic level is transferred to
the next higher trophic level

Biomass Pyramid represents the amount of

living organic matter at each trophic level
Decomposers breaks down the complex
compounds of dead protoplasm
Energy and biomass decrease with each
increasing trophic level.
ABIOTIC FACTORS nonliving factors in an
environment
SYMBIOSIS any relationship in which two
species live closely together
INTERACTIONS in an ECOSYSTEM
1. Biotic-biotic interactions relationships
among biotic factors in the community
2. Biotic-abiotic interactions
relationships between the community
and the physical environment
3. Abiotic-abiotic interactions
relationships among physical factors in
the environment

Food Chain series of steps in which organism

transfer energy by eating and being eaten.
-

Start with producer and end with top

consumer

Food Web network of food chains within an

ecosystem

Trophic Levels each step in a food or food

web

Ecological Interactions

1. Competition two organism of the

same or different species attempt to
use an ecological resource in the same
place at the same time.
2. Predation one organism captures and
feeds on another organism
Predator one that does the
killing
Prey one that is the food
3. Mutualism both species benefit
4. Commensalism one member of the
association benefits and the other is
neither helped nor harmed
5. Parasitism one organism lives on or
inside another organism (host) and
harms it. The parasite obtains all or
parts of its nutritional needs from the
host.

Level 1 Producers (Autotrophs)

Level 2 Primary Consumers (Herbivores)

HARMFUL ACTIVITIES OF MAN

1. Air Pollution and Acid Rain

19

Handouts in SCIENCE
2. Water Pollution
3. Destruction of Coral Reefs

CHEMISTRY the science of the fundamental

structure of matter, the composition of
substances, their transformation, analysis,
synthesis, and manufacture.

4. Forest Denudation and Wildlife

Extinction
5. Kaingin System of Farming
6. Eutrophication

Analytical Chemistry concerned with the

identification, separation and qualitative and
quantitative determination of composition of
different substances.

7. Thermal Inversion Global Warming

Qualitative Chemistry deals with

the kind of substance present and
answer the question what kind of
substance is present in the given
product.

8. Radioactive Fallout
9. Soil Erosion

Quantitative Chemistry deals with

the amount of substance present in a
given quantity and answer the
question how many or how much.

CONSERVATION utilization of natural

resources so as to derive the greatest number
of people for the longest time.

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY freedom from

population of air, water and land

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT equal concern

for environmental protection and economic
development.

Strategies Toward Environmental Protection

1. Wise use of natural resources or
CONSERVATION.
2. Preservation or Enhancement of
Environmental Quality.
3. Selective Logging
a. Careful Logging protecting
seedling or young trees from
being crushed by falling timber.

Physical Chemistry concerned with the

structure of matter, energy, changes and
laws, principles and theories that explain the
transformation of matter into another.

Organic Chemistry dealing with reactions

of the compounds of carbon (C).

Inorganic Chemistry dealing with

chemistry of elements other than carbon and
their compounds.

Biochemistry chemistry of the substance

comprising living organisms.

MATTER - anything that occupies space and

has mass.

b. Reforestation replacing a cut

tree by planting another tree.
4. Use technologies which produce little
or no waste and which do not degrade
the environment.
5. Use technologies to recover resources
recycling.
6. Avoid and Control Pollution.

Phases of Matter
1. SOLID rigid, definite size, shape and
has volume that is independents of
changes in temperature and pressure.
-

Molecules vibrates

2. LIQUID flows and take the shape of

the container

20

Handouts in SCIENCE
-

Molecules have spaces

Percentage by mass=

3. GAS takes both the shape and

volume of its container
-

mass of solute
x 100
mass of solution

Molecules have large spaces

Percentage by Volume

4. PLASMA combination of gas and

liquid or gas alone at a very high
temperature but particles carry
electrical charges.

Properties of Matter

1. Physical property characteristics

that do not involve a change in the
chemical identity of the substance.
a. Intrinsic Property - qualities
that are characteristics of any
sample of a sample, regardless
of the shape or size of the
sample. EX. Color, odor, taste,
texture, boiling, freezing and
melting point, density
b. Extrinsic Property qualities
that are not characteristics of
the substance itself. Example:
mass, weight, volume, width,
length, area, temperature

2. Chemical Properties are qualities

or characteristics of a substance that
cause it to change, either alone or
alone by interaction with other
substance and in so doing to form
different materials.

Percentage by volume=

volume of solute
x 100
volume of solution

Mass the amount of matter or substance in

the body

Weight - a force on an object toward the

earth. g 9.8 m/s2

Changes in Matter
1. Physical Change changes that do
not result in the formation of new
substance.
2. Chemical Change changes the
result in the disappearance of
substances and the formation of new
ones.

Phase Change
1. Solidification liquid to solid
2. Evaporation liquid to gas
3. Condensation gas to liquid
4. Sublimation solid to gas

Density the ration of mass per unit volume

5. Deposition gas to solid

6. Melting solid to llquid

m
V
Cooling Process evaporation, melting,
sublimation

Percentage by mass or volume of solute or

solvent in a solution

Percentage by Mass

Heating Process condensation, deposition,

solidification
-

21

Absorbs heat from the surrounding to

the environment

Releases heat from the environment to

the surroundings

Handouts in SCIENCE
produce H gas. Sour in
taste.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

PURE SUBSTANCE materials consisting of

one particular kind of matter, either be
elements or compounds

Elements simplest substances that

make up all matter. Substance that
cannot be decomposed by simple
chemical change in two or more
different substances.

Metals elements possessing

different characteristics such as
malleability, ductility, lustrous,
and good conductor of heat
and electricity.

Non-metals elements not

possessing the characteristics
of a metal to any significant
degree.

Metalloids elements
possessing both the
characteristics of metals and
non-metals. (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb,
Te, At)

Compounds - pure substances that

are made up of two or more elements
combine in definite and constant
proportions.

Bases compounds with

pH above 7. Bitter in
taste and slippery.

Salts compounds
formed when acids and
bases react with one
another.

Oxides compound of
oxygen and another
element.

MIXTURES impure substance that contain

two or more different substances/ materials
more or less intimately jumbled together.

Homogeneous Mixture refers to

material in which no differing parts can
be distinguished even with a
microscope. Appears to be one in our
naked eye.

Solution homogeneous
mixture of two or more
substance.

Solute minor components of a

solution, dissolved in the
solvent.

Organic Compounds
compound of carbon.

Inorganic Compounds
compounds normally found
outside the bodies of living
things or their remains

Acids compounds with

pH below 7. React with
metals to dissolve and

22

Solvent - usually major

component, in which solute is
dissolved.

Heterogeneous Mixture refers to

materials in which there are visible
differing parts. Also known as coarse
mixture or suspensions.

Handouts in SCIENCE
Colloid mixture containing
particles larger than normal
solutes but small enough to
remain suspended in the
dispersing medium.

a. Distillate- the substance

collected on the condenser

7. SUBLIMATION solid molecules go

directly into vapour phase
Suspension mixtures which
particles settle down slowly
when undisturbed.

8. CONDENSATION solvent is
evaporated then collected back by
condensing it on a cold surface

SEPARATING MIXTURES
1. EVAPORATION effective in separating
dissolved solid substance in a liquid.
Heating up solution to set the liquid
vaporize and leave the solidified
dissolved material on the heating
vessel.
2. FILTRATION solids actually dissolved
but simply suspended in a liquid or a
gas. Mixture is separated by allowing
the liquid o gaseous matter to pass
through a filter.
a. Filtrate material that passes
through the filter
b. Residue one that remains in
the filter

3. DECANTATION suspended materials

settle down in a liquid mixture, the
liquid portion can be drawn off without
disturbing the sediment.

4. CENTRIFUGATION settling of
suspended particles in a mixture could
be made faster by subjecting the
system to a force that tends to impel
the particles outward from a center of
rotation.

5. CHROMATOGRAPHY process of
separating mixtures of solutions or
gases by selective adsorption on
materials.

6. DISTILLATION mixture is heated to a

precise temperature so that only the
substance which has the lowest boiling
point evaporates.

23

ATOMS the smallest particle of an element.

Development of Atomic Theory

1. Thales of Miletus (624-546 BC) the

world was created form the waters.
2. Anaximandros of Miletus (610-546 BC)
agreed with Thales that the world is
made of some basic elements
o

Element was some

undetermined material called
apeiron - the boundless

3. Anaximeres of Miletus (585-525 BC)

claimed that air (pneuma), not water,
is the element material.
4. Heraclitus (in Ephesus in 484 BC)
consist of fire or some other single
material and that is changed by
internal flux.
5. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (500-428
BC) the world is essentially complex
and divisible seed controlled by mind
(nous)
6. Empedocles (490-444 BC) thought
there were four original elements:
Earth, Air, Fire, Water
7. Leusippus of Miletus (460-420 BC)
first atomic theorist. His theory was
the reaction to the theories of
PARMENIDES and his pupil ZENO
the formative substance of the
universe was the one, an infinite, all
encompassing, motionless mass that
contained no empty space.
8. Democritus (460-370 BC) - first
atomic theorist. Atoms are eternal
and indivisible; absolutely small, so

Handouts in SCIENCE
small their size cannot be diminished atomos
9. Plato (427-347 BC) proposed a
mathematical construction of the
elements earth, air, fire, water.
10. Aristotle of Stageira (384-322 BC)
added the fifth element (ther) to
account for the material of heavenly
objects.
11. Epicurus (341 BC) the universe as
infinite and eternal and as consisting
only of bodies and space.

21. Joseph Priestly (1733-1804)

discovered a new gas
(dephlogisticated air) and described its
role in the process of respiration and
combustion.
22. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794)
discovered that combustion was
achemical reaction between burning
and a component of air.
23. Pierre Simon Marquis de Laplace
realized the oxygen was the substance
necessary for respiration.
o

12. Titus Lucretius Carus ( ca.99-55 BC)

wrote a poem De Rerum Natura or
On the Nature Things suggest that
all knowledge is derived from the
senses.
13. Jabir ibn Hayyan (721-815 AD) also
known as GEBER. Wrote the book
Summa Perfectionis
14. Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya alRazi (865-925 AD) discovered al-qili
ashes of the saltwort plant

Considered 33 elements as
CALORIC (unweighable
substance of heat, and possibly
light)

24. Guyton de Morveau (1755-1809) &

Comte Claude Louis Berhollet (17491822) theories on chemical affinity
and reversibility of reactions.
25. Antoine Francois de Fourcroy (17551809) stressed of integrating
medicine and surgery.

15. Abu Ali al Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina

(980-1037) De Mineralibus gave a
clear account of accepted theories and
classified Mercury as metals.
16. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) believed
in atoms, although he seemed to
confuse the idea of physical
indivisibility with that of having zero
spatial extent.
17. Johan Joachim Becher (1635-1682) &
Georg Ernst Stahl (1660-1734)
explain the phenomenon of
combustion
18. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) considered
to be one of the founders of modern
scientific method. First chemist to
isolate and collect gas. Improved the
air pump, and Boyles Law. Wrote the
book The Sceptical believed that
matter is made up of tiny particles
called corpuscles .
19. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-17270
postulated the small particles of bodies
act upon one another by attractions of
gravity, magnetism and electricity.
20. Joseph Black (1754) discovered
carbon dioxide (he called fixed air),
latent heat 9amount of heat energy
required to cause a substance to
change its state).

24

DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY

-

John Dalton (1766-1844) - believed

that in a mixture of gases, each gas
act independently of each other.

MODERN ATOMIC THOERY

1. Substances are composed of indivisible
particles called atoms.
2. Atoms cannot be created nor
destroyed.
3. All atoms of the same element are
identical. Different elements have
different types of atoms.
4. Chemical reactions occur when atoms
are rearranged but atoms are never
created nor destroyed during the
reaction.
5. When elements combine to form a
compound, the smallest portion of the
compound is a group containing a
definite number of atoms of each
element.

Handouts in SCIENCE
o

Quantum Mechanics electron

can only exist in specified
energy states

Orbital region around the

around the nucleus where in
electrons are likely to be found

Modern Atomic Structure

1. Daltons Atomic Theory The Solid

Sphere Model
2. Joseph John Thompsom - The Raisin
Bun Model

Plum Pudding Model

Discovered the negatively

charged particle (electron)

The negatively charge electrons

were embedded in a loaf of
bread (maybe similar to a
cookie).

Robert Milikan (1868-1953)

determine the charge of an electron
(oil-drop experiment) 1.60 x 10-19 C.

3. Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)

Nuclear Model of an Atom
o

Gold Foil Experiment

Discovered nucleus

The model is resemblance to a

miniature solar system.

Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908)

radioactivity

Marie & Pierre Curie Uranium and

radioactivity
o

Hans Geiger (1882-1945) Geiger

counter for detecting radioactivity

Ernest Marsden (1889-1970)

James Chadwick (1891-1974)

discovered nucleus

4. Neils Bohr (1885-1962) - Planetary

Model of an Atom

Energy Levels electrons can

only exist in specific energy
state.

Electrons do not orbit the

nucleus in neat planet-like
orbits but move at a high
speeds in an electron cloud
around the nucleus.

Radiation transmission of an element into

gaseous form of matter

Radioactivity spontaneous emission of

alpha, beta and gamma rays by the
disintegration of the nuclei of atoms.
a. Alpha particles helium nuclei
(2 protons and 2 neutrons)
b. Beta particles fast moving
electron or positron
c. Gamma Rays high-energy
electromagnetic radiations

COMPONENTS OF THE ATOM

PROTONS - p+ and stable by itself. Fairly

heavy particle and resides in the dense
nucleus of an atom. Positive Charge

ELECTRONS e- and smaller than neutrons

and protons, revolving around outside the
nucleus with a mass approximately 1/1836 of
the mass of proton. Negative Charge

NEUTRONS n0 has no electric charge inside

the nucleus.

Electrons move in circular orbits

within specific energy level

5. Erwin Schrodinger Electron Cloud

Model

25

Polonium and radium

6. Neils Bohr and Arnold Sommerfeld

Bohr-Sommerfeld Atomic Model
(Modern Atomic Model)

Smaller Building Blocks

1. Quarks

Handouts in SCIENCE
2. Gluons carrying the strong
nuclear force between quarks
3. Leptons

CATIONS ion with positive charge, and

formed when electron is removed from an
atom

d-orbital (2) 10

f-orbital (3) 14

Magnetic Quantum Number (ml) describes the spatial orientation of an

electron in a space or magnetic field.
(1,0,-1) (2,1,0,-1,-2) (3,2,1,0,-1,-2,-3)

ANIONS ions with negative charge, and

formed when electrons is added to an atom

Electron Spin Quantum Numbers (ms)

specifies the way the electron spin or rotates,
either clockwise or counter clockwise. (1/2,
-1/2)

ATOMIC NUMBER (Z) number of protons and

electrons
MASS NUMBER/ATOMIC MASS (A) sum of
the numbers of protons and neutrons in an
atom

A = p+ + n0

ISOTOPES atoms of the same element may

have the same atomic number but differ in
atomic mass.

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
-

The probable distribution of electrons

around the nucleus among the orbitals.

Shorthand representation on how each

electron is arranged among the
orbitals, levels, and sublevels based on
the stated principles.

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p
7s 5f 6d 7p 8s

QUANTUM NUMBERS
-

Used to describe an electron in an

orbit or atomic orbital, the region in
space with the greatest probability of
finding the electron in an atom.

Paulis Exclusion Principle states that no

more than two electrons in an atom can
occupy an orbital.

Hunds Rule states that for a set of orbitals,

electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy
Principal Quantum Numbers (n) designates the energy level of each atomic
orbital in which the electron moves.
Number of electrons = 2n2

Aufbau Principle states that electrons fill the

orbitals of the lowest energy (ground state)
until any added electrons occupy the
available orbital of higher energy (excited
state).

Azimuthal Quantum Numbers (l) angular momentum number or subsidiary

number
The PERIODIC TABLE
-

Describes the way the electron moves

around the nucleus

26

s-orbital (0) 2

p-orbital (1) - 6

The arrangement of elements in

patterns paved the way to the
tabulation of the elements according
to its chemical and physical properties

Handouts in SCIENCE
Origin of the Periodic Table

7. Moseleys Works on Atomic Numbers

o

According to increasing atomic

masses

1. Antoine Lavoisier
o

Arranged the list of his 33

elements into four categories:

Periodic Table

Simple Substance

Increasing atomic numbers

Oxydable and acidifiable

simple substances not
metallic (non-metals)

Each element is identified by its

symbol, atomic number and atomic
mass.

Oxydable and acidifiable

simple metallic bodies
(metals)

Salifiable simple
earthsubstances

The Groups or Families vertical column

-

The elements in each column have

similar chemical properties due to their
similarities in the number of electrons
in their outer shells or in their highest
principal energy level.

2. Johannes Wolfgang Dobereiner

o

Dobereiners Triad

Three elements and noticed

similarities among the
properties of metals

Group A: Representative Elements

Group IA Alkali Metal

Group IIA Alkaline Earth Metals

3. A. E. Beguyer de Chancourtois
o

De Chancourtoiss Telluric Helix

Plot the elements in spiral

around the surface of the
cylinder divided into 16 vertical
sections, according to the
elements atomic mass

Group IIIA Aluminum Group/Boron family

Group IVA Carbon Family
Group VA Nitrogen Family
Group VIA Oxygen Family/Chalcogens
Group VIIA Halogens
Group VIIIA Noble/Inert Gases

4. John Newlands
o

Newlands Octaves

Arranged all elements known at

that time in order of their
atomic masses.

Group B: Transition Elements

Lanthanides
Actinides

5. Mendeleevs Periodic Table and

Meyers Periodic Property Graph
The Periods or Series horizontal rows
6. William Ramsays Works on Noble
Gases

27

Seven periods (1,2,3,4,5,6,7)

Handouts in SCIENCE
1- Two elements corresponding to the
number of electrons in the s-sublevel

Electronegativity - the attractive force of

an atom for shared pair of electrons when
chemically combined with another element.
-

Increases from left to right across the

period

Decreases from top to bottom

2 and 3 Eight elements corresponding to

the eights electrons in the s- and p-sublevels

4 and 5 - Eighteen elements corresponding

to the eighteen electrons in the s-, p- and dsublevels

6 32 elements corresponding to the 32

electrons in the s-, p-, d- and f-sublevels

7 - includes 14 elements which were placed

at the bottom of the periodic table to form the
actinide series.

TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

Atomic Radius the radius of an atom (size)

-

Decreases from left to right across the

period.

The Way Atoms Combine

Chemical Bonds are the forces that

maintain the attraction that holds atoms
together in compounds.

Types of Bonds

1. Ionic Bond or Electrovalent Bond

the chemical bond that results when
electrons are transferred from a metal
to non-metal. Electrons transfer from
metal to non-metal.
2. Covalent Bond a bond that results
from sharing of one, two, or three pairs
of valence electrons between atoms.

Increases from top to bottom

3. Bond Energy - the amount of energy

given off during bond formation, and
require the same amount of energy to
break the bond apart.

Ionization Energy - energy required to

remove an electron from isolated, gaseous
atom or ions in its ground state.

4. Polar Covalent Bond two opposite

poles are formed and develops due to
unequal sharing of electrons by 2
atoms.

Increases from left to right across the

period

Decreases from top to bottom

Metallic Property - ability of atoms to lose

electrons.
-

Decreases from left to right across the

period

Increases from top to bottom

Non-metallic Property ability of atoms to

gain electrons.

28

5. Metallic Bond- the electrostatic force

that binds the positive ions of a metal
lattice together by means of a sea
valence electrons.

Lewis Electron Dot Structure - diagrams

that show the bonding between atoms of a
molecule and the lone pairs of electrons that
may exist in the molecule.

PHYSICS science that deals with the study

of matter and energy and their relationship.

Handouts in SCIENCE
Classical Physics Mechanics,
Thermodynamics, Electromagnetism, Light,
Waves, Sound, Optics

ADDITION OF VECTORS
1. Same direction: Add the magnitude of
the vectors. Direction is the same.

Modern Physics Atomic/Nuclear, Quantum

and Relativity

2. Opposite direction: Subtract the

vectors with opposite direction.
Whatever be the sign of the minuend
determines the direction of the vector.

MOTION
-

Change in position with respect to a

reference point

Sign Convention
Positive Sign (+) North or East

Scalar Quantity magnitude (number + unit)

Negative Sign (-) South or West

1. Distance total path travels.

Odometer
2. Speed distance per unit time
a. Instantaneous Speed
speed at an instant.
Speedometer
b. Average Speed whole
distance travelled per unit
time (m/s)

average speed=

total distance covered

totaltime interval

Vector Quantity magnitude + direction

1. Displacement a straight line from
the starting point to the end point

3. Vectors acting in Any Direction: Find

for the x and y component of each
vector using trigonometric functions.
a. Graphical Method using the
coordinate system. Plotting the
vectors with proper
measurements and scaling.
b. Parallelogram Method two
vectors plotted in a coordinate
plane and forming a
parallelogram. The diagonal
from the origin is the resultant
vector.

c. Analytical Method
soh cah toa

2. Velocity displacement per unit

time (m/s)
a. Instantaneous Velocity
how fast an object moves at
each instant of time and the
direction of that motion.

displacement
velocity=
elapsed time

sin = o/h
tan = o/a

cos = a/h

Find for the sum of the x

component, as well as the ycomponent.

R= (R x )2+( R y )2
Parts of a Vector
1. Arrowhead indicates the direction
2. Length of the Arrow magnitude of the
vector
3. Tail origin of the vector

29

Handouts in SCIENCE

WN

EN
NE

NW

v f 2=v i2 +2 ad

Opposite side

Where:

Adjacent side

SW

ES

WS

SE

vf final velocity
vi initial velocity
a acceleration
d distance/displacement
t time

Two Types of Motion

1. Uniform Motion both speed and
direction of the moving body remain
the same. Constant velocity.
2. Accelerated Motion motion with
changing velocity.

Free Fall - motion of an object under the

influence of gravitational pull only.
-

Downward speed increases at a rate of

9.8 m/s2.

Gravity decreases its speed as it goes

upward.

ACCELERATION change in velocity divided by

the time required for that change. (m/s2)
a = change in velocity

g 9.8 m/ss

time

V V i
a= f
t 2t 1

Final Velocity

Initial Velocity

max. he

0 m/s spee

EQUATIONS FOR LINEAR MOTION WITH

CONSTANT ACCELERATION

v f =v i+ at
Initial Velocity

max. velocity after release / before

Final Velocity

1
d= ( v f + v i ) t
2

1
d=v i t + a t 2
2

30

Projectile Motion - an object that moves

through space under the influence of the
earths gravitational force. Moves both
horizontally (x) and vertically (y) through air.

Handouts in SCIENCE

F g=G

m1 m2
r

Contact Force force on objects with

physical contact

Normal Force the force that a

surface exerts on an object with which
it is in contact. Perpendicular to the
surface.

Time Needed to Reach the Maximum Height

t=

v o sin
g
Frictional Force force that is
parallel to the surface when the
objects moves along the surface.

Range horizontal displacement

R x=

Static Friction force on

objects that are at rest.

v o2 sin 2
g

s coefficient of static friction

FN normal force
MAX

fs

Maximum Height

H y=

v o2 sin
2g

Kinetic Friction force on

moving objects that are in
contact
k coefficient of kinetic friction

*A projectile goes farthest when fired at 450

angle to the horizontal.

FN normal force

f MAX
=k F N
k

FORCE - a push or pull

Tension Force forces are often

applied by means of cables or ropes
that are used to pull an object.

Non-contact force action at a distance

force. Objects exert forces on one another
even though they are not touching.

NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION

Gravitational Force weight

-

Fg is directly proportional to the

masses of two object and inversely
proportional to the square of the
distance between them.

LAW OF INERTIA
-

G = 6.673 x 10

31

=s F N

-11

Nm /kg

A body at rest remains at rest and a

body in motion remains in motion on a
straight line path unless acted upon by
a net force.

Handouts in SCIENCE

Inertia the tendency of a body to remain at

rest or in motion at constant speed on a
straight line. Mass is the quantitative measure
of inertia.

When the car starts suddenly, we are

thrown backward against the seats.

When the cars stops suddenly, we find

ourselves thrown forward.

Acceleration toward the center

(Centripetal Acceleration)

Force toward the center (Centripetal

Force)

Centripetal Acceleration acceleration on a

circular path toward the center.

ac =

v2
r

Centripetal Force force on circular path

toward the circular path
LAW OF ACCELERATION
-

a=

Acceleration is directly proportional to

force and inversely proportional to the
mass.

F
m

Fc =

m v2
r

Period (T) time required to travel once

around the circle, that is to make one
complete revolution.
The greater force exerted the greater
the acceleration. The lesser the force
the lesser the acceleration.

T=

1
f

The greater the mass the lesser the

acceleration. The lesser the mass the
greater the acceleration.
Frequency (f) number of revolution on a
given time

LAW OF INTERACTION (ACTIONREACTION)

-

F =F
Action and reaction force dont cancel
each other because they act
differently.

Action: tire pushes on the road

Reaction: road pushes the tire

CIRCULAR MOTION motion of a body along

a circular path.
-

1
T

For every action, there is an equal but

opposite reaction.

f=

Constant speed, with changing

direction

Velocity on a Circular Motion

v=

2 r
T

MOMENTUM (p)- measure of how hard it is

to stop a moving body. Moving mass.
p = mv

IMPULSE (I) - the product of the force acting

on an object and the time during contact.
I = Ft

Impulse-momentum Theorem

32

Handouts in SCIENCE
-

Impulse is equal to the change in

momentum

Mechanical Energy sum of the

kinetic and potential energy of a
system
M.E. = K.E. + P.E.
M.E. = mv2 + mgh

I = p
Ft = mvf - mvi

Conservation of Linear Momentum

-

In absence of unbalanced force acting

on a system, the linear momentum of
the system is conserved.

pbefore collision = pafter collosion

Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy

the sum of kinetic and potential energy
in a conservative system is constant and
equal to the total mechanical energy of
the system.
M.E. before = M.E. after
mgh1 + mv21 = mgh2 +
mv22

Potential Energy energy possessed

by objects at rest.
o Gravitational Potential
Energy
Energy possessed by
an object due to its
position.

m1 b v 1b + m2 b v 2 b=m1 a v 1 a +m2 a v 2 a

Collision any interaction of particles in

which momentum is exchanged or
transferred.
Elastic Collision - collision in which
colliding objects rebound without lasting
deformation or the generation of heat or
no kinetic energy is lost.
Inelastic Collision collision in which the
colliding objects become distorted and
generate heat during the collision. Kinetic
energy is not conserved. Maximum kinetic
energy loss occurs when the bodies stick
together.
WORK AND ENERGY
WORK DONE a force when it moves an
object through a distance in the direction
in which the force is acting.
- Newton meters (Nm) or Joules (J)

P . E ./G . P . E .=mgh
3. Kinetic Energy energy possessed
by moving objects.

1
K . E .= mv 2
2

4. Thermal Energy sum of kinetic and

potential energy of the internal
motion of particles that make up an
object.
5. Heat transfer of energy from higher
temperature to lower temperature
Law of Conservation of Energy
energy cannot be created nor destroyed,
it only transform from one form to
another.
-

WAVES
A disturbance that transfers energy
through a medium or space.

Work = force x displacement

W = Fd

Mechanical Waves waves that travel

through a medium

If theres an angle between the

force and te displacement.

Electromagnetic Waves waves that do

not require a medium

Work = force x displacement x cos

W = Fd cos

Wave Pulse single wave or single

disturbance
Wave Train continuous disturbance

Power the time rate of work

- J/s or watts

Power=

work
time

Energy capacity to do work

- Can be converted into work
Types and Forms of Energy
33

Types of Waves
o Longitudinal Wave propagated when
the energy exerted on the medium is
in the same direction as that of the
direction of the wave.
Compression section where the
molecules of the coil are
compressed.
Rarefactions section where the
molecules of the coil are apart.

Handouts in SCIENCE

2.

Transverse Wave propagated when

the energy on
the medium are at
right angles to the direction of the
wave.

Characteristics
Reflection rebounding of wave from
the surface of a medium.
o When a wave passes
through a medium and hits a
barrier it bounces back.
angle of reflection = angle of
incidence
2. Refraction when there is a change
in the speed and the wavelength of
the wave as it passes from one
medium to another.
- Bending of light wave as it enters
obliquely to another medium of
different density.

sin reflection v reflection

=
sin incidence v incidence
3. Diffraction a change in direction of
the waves as they passes through an
opening or around a barrier.
Scattering of white light behind an
obstruction.
4. Interference the change in the
wave as it meets another wave
travelling through the same medium.
Superimposition of two waves of
light producing a loss of energy in
certain areas and an intensification
of energy in others.
o Constructive Interference
the two wave pulse having
the same displacement meet
at a point in the medium and
the resulting displacement is
greater than the two
individual wave pulse.
o Destructive Interference
when two interfering waves
have displacements in
opposite directions. That is a
crest meets a trough.

Wavelength distance between crest to

crest or through or through
Amplitude distance between the crest to
the equilibrium position or trough to the
equilibrium displacement.
Frequency the number of crest or trough
that pass a point per second.
- Hertz (Hz) or cycle per second or
vibrations per seconds

f=

1
T

Period the time for one complete cycle

or vibrations

T=

1
f

Speed of a Wave
- wavelength
T period
v speed or velocity

v=

Standing Waves the interference

phenomena with a pattern, when the
waves of the same frequency,
wavelength, and amplitude travel as
incident waves and reflected waves along
the disturbance.
Nodes zero amplitude
Antinodes vibrates the highest
amplitude or displacement.

Parts of the Waves

-

34

SOUND
Longitudinal waves wherein the
particles vibrate back and forth
parallel to the direction of the
waves.
Sound waves with high amplitude
have larger compressions of air
particles while those with low
amplitude have small compressions
of air particles.

Handouts in SCIENCE

Cannot travel in a vacuum.

Can be transmitted through solid,
liquid and gas.
Sound travels fastest in dense
media.
Sound travels fastest in solid, then
liquid lastly to gas.
Sound travels 346 m/s in air at 25
0
C.
Sound travels 331.5 m/s at dry air.
The speed of sound depends on the
atmospheric pressure,
temperature, and humidity of the
medium.
V = 331.5 + 0.6 T

Resonance occurs when the frequency

of a forced vibration of an object matches
the natural frequency of the object
increasing the amplitude of the wave,
thus making the sound louder.
- Resound
-

LIGHT
Light is wave when it travels on a
medium.
Light is a particle when it interact
with another matter.

Photoelectric Effect when a metal of

light hits a metal, electrons were emitted
from it.

V = speed or velocity
T temperature in 0C
Characteristics of Sound
1. Reflection bouncing back of
sound
a. Echo reflected sound
b. Reverberation continuous
reflection of sound that can
be heard a certain length of
time after the production of
sound.
2. Refraction bending of sound due
to uneven temperature
a. Sound travels faster on
warmer near the earths
surface then will move
slower as it moves through
the cooler air above. The
waves move upward. (hot
summer day)
b. The waves move downward.
(cool night)
c. The sound travelling against
the wind is bent upward
whereas when with the wind
is bent upward, the sound is
bent downward.
3. Interference of Sound Waves
a. When two sound waves, one
compression and the other is
rarefactions, meet, the net
effect is zero displacement.
(No sound is heard.)

Illuminated object reflect the light they

receive from luminous object.

Pitch the frequency of sound

Audible 20 20,000 Hz
Ultrasonic frequencies above
20,000 Hz
Infra Sound Waves lower than 20
Hz

Plane Mirrors reflect the image in its

exact size depending on how far it is from
the object.
- Same size, same distance, virtual,
laterally inverted

Loudness the sensation that is

perceived by the human ear.
Intensity can be measured using an
instrument
- Energy per unit per area
- Decibel scale

35

Luminous object emits light on its own.

Transparent object objects readily let
light pass through.
Translucent object objects transmit light
but scatter or diffuse it which makes it
difficult to distinguish objects behind it.
Opaque object do not let the light to
pass through

Properties of Light and Its

Application
1. Reflection bouncing back of
light
Regular reflection incident rays are
equal to reflected rays
Diffused reflection incident rays are
reflected in any directions
Mirrors most highly polished a surface
that forms images by the regular
reflection of light.

Handouts in SCIENCE

Curved Mirrors resemble a small section

of a sphere.
Parts of Curved Mirrors

Formation of Image in Curved

Mirrors
Ray Diagram on How Image Formed
in Plane Mirrors

Principal Axis - a line passing through the

center of the sphere and attaching to the
mirror in the exact center of the mirror.
Center of Curvature/Radius of Curvature the point in the center of the sphere from
which the mirror was sliced.
Vertex - the point on the mirror's surface
where the principal axis meets the mirror.
Focal Length - the distance from the
mirror to the focal point.
- the midpoint of the line segment
adjoining the vertex and the center
of curvature, the focal length would
be one-half the radius of curvature.
Types of Curved Mirrors

1. Light parallel to the principal axis will

be reflected toward the focus.
2. Light passes through the focus will be
reflected parallel to the principal axis.
3. Light strikes the vertex will be reflected
same as the incident rays.
4. The point where all light rays meets,
formed the image.
Concave Mirrors
a. Objects at infinitely great distance
- Image formed at the principal
focus.

Concave Mirrors mirrors curve inward

and the inner surface is the reflective
surface.
- Converge light on the focus.
-

Convex Mirrors reflective surface on the

outside and curve outward toward the
object.
- Diverge light but converge the
extended reflected imaginary on
the imaginary focus.

b. Object beyond the Center of

Curvature
- Image is smaller size, inverted,
real, between F and C

c. Object at C
- Image is same size as the object,
inverted, real, at C

d. Object is between F and C

36

Handouts in SCIENCE

Image is larger in size, inverted,

real, outside C

e. Object at F
- No image formed.

f.
-

Object at F and the lense

Image is larger in size, virtual,
upright, behind the mirror

Centre of curvature - the centre of sphere

of part of which a lens is. One centre of
curvature is usually denoted by C1 and
second is denoted by C2.
Focus - point at which parallel rays of
light converge in a concave lens and
parallel rays of light diverge from the
point. These are represented as F1 and
F2.
Principal Axis - imaginary line that passes
through the centres of curvature of a lens
is called Principal Focus.
Optical centre - the central point of a lens.
A ray passes through optical centre of a
lens without any deviation.

Convex Mirrors
- Object is placed anywhere in front
of the mirror, the resulting image is
always behind the mirror,
virtual, upright, and smaller
than the object.

Radius of curvature - the distance

between optical centre and centre of
curvature, which is generally denoted by
R.
Focal Length - the distance between
optical centre and principal focus. Focal
length of a lens is half of the radius of
curvature.
Types of Lenses

Diverging Lens thicker at its edge

than on its middle. Diverge light
toward the focus. Convex lens.

Converging Lens thicker in the

middle. Concave lens.

2. Refraction of Light bending of

light
Index of Refraction (n) the ratio of the
speed of light when it passes from a
vacuum into another medium.

n=

speed of light a vacuum

speed of light other material

n1 sin 1=n2 sin 2

LENSES transparent material with two
nonparallel curved surfaces, or lone plane
surface and one curved surface.
Parts of the Lens

Ray Diagram on Images Formed on

Lenses
1. Incident ray parallel to the principal
axis will refract toward the focus.
2. Incident ray passing through F1 will
refract parallel to the principal axis.
37

Handouts in SCIENCE

3. Incident ray passing through the center

of the lens will pass through the lens.
4. Refracted rays meet is where the
image formed.

f.
o

Object between F1 and the

lense
Image is on the same side of
the lens as the object,
enlarge, virtual and erect

Convex Lense (Converging Lense)

a. Object at infinity
o Image at F2, highly
diminished, point-sized,
inverted and real.

Concave Lense (Diverging Lense)

the image is located on the object'
side of the lens, virtual, upright,
and reduced in size (i.e., smaller
than the object).

b. Object beyond 2F1 or C1

o Image is between F1 and 2F1
or C1, real and inverted
3. Diffraction of Light light hits
an obstruction
4. Interference of Light when
two or more light meet
c. Object at 2F1 or C1
o Image is at 2F2 or C2, same
size, inverted and real

Constructive Interference light waves

intensify each other and results in
brighter light
Destructive Interference light waves
weaken each other they will produce
dimness or darkness.

d. Object is between 2F1 and F1

o Image is outside 2F1, larger
is size, real and inverted

Polarization manipulating light waves,

making them vibrate in the direction that
we want.
A light wave that is vibrating in more
than one plane is referred to
as unpolarized light.

e. Object is at F1
o Image is at infinity, infinitely
large, real and inverted

The Human Eye and Camera

38

Handouts in SCIENCE

Correction :This defect can

be corrected by
using
a concave (diverging) lens. A concave
lens of appropriate power or focal length
is able to bring the image of the object
back on the retina itself.

1.

Cornea behaves much like the

front lens element of a lens.
2. Lens, which is behind the iris, they
are the eyes focusing elements.
The cornea takes widely diverging
rays of light and bends them
through the pupil, the round opening
in the central portion of the coloured
iris.
3. Iris and pupil act like the aperture
of a camera. The iris is a muscle
which, when contracted, covers all
but a small central portion of the
lens, allows adjustable control of the
quantity of light entering the eye so
that the eye can work well in a wide
range of viewing conditions, from
dim to very bright light.
4.
Retina is the sensory layer that
lines the very back of our eyes. It
acts very much like the imaging
sensor chip in a digital camera. The
retina has numerous photoreceptor
nerve cells that help change the
light rays into electrical impulses
and send them through the optic
nerve to the brain where an image
(of what we see) is finally received
and perceived. As with the camera,
if the film is bad in the eye (i.e.
the retina), no matter how good rest
of the eye is, we will not get a good
quality image or picture.
Image Formed in Human Eye and the
Camera

Farsightedness
A farsighted person can only create clear
images of objects that are far away. Close
objects are brought to a focus behind the
retina, which is why they look fuzzy.
Correction:This defect can be corrected by using
a convex (converging) lens of appropriate
focal length. When the object is at N, the
eye exerts its maximum power of
accommodation. Eyeglasses with
converging lenses supply the additional
focussing power required for forming the
image on the retina.

Astigmatism,
A defect in the outer curvature on the
surface of the eye that causes distorted
vision. In astigmatism, a person cannot
simultaneously focus on both horizontal
and vertical lines.
Correction:This defect can be corrected by using
eyeglasses with cylindrical lenses oriented
to compensate for the irregularities in the
cornea.
ELECTROMAGNTIC WAVES
- It is produced by accelerating
electric charges like electron in a
simple harmonic motion.
V = f
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Nearsightedness
A person who is nearsighted can only
create sharp images of close objects.
Objects that are further away look fuzzy
because the eye brings them in to focus
at a point in front of the retina.
39

Wavelengths of Visible Light

Violet
Indigo
Blue
Green

350-400 nm
400-450 nm
450-500 nm
500-550 nm

Handouts in SCIENCE

Yellow
Orange
Red

550-600 nm
600-650 nm
650-700 nm

Types of Electromagnetic Spectrum

Power Waves 60 Hz come from current
moving back and forth in electrical
circuits.
- Few millimetres to about 10 km in
wavelength
- Low frequency have little practical
uses.
Radio and television Waves ranging
from 5 x 105 Hz to 109 Hz
- Transmitted to any region of the
earth through the ionosphere.
Microwaves frequencies in gigahertz
(GHz)
- Produced by special vacuum tubes
(klystrons and magnetrons)
- Used for communications and
radars.
Infrared Radiation freely transmitted
and is widely used for heating and drying.
- This region lies next to the low
frequency or long wavelength end
of the visible light.
- Commonly known as heat waves.
Visible light region is receptive to the
human eye.
- Region ranges from 4 x 1014 Hz to 7
x 1014 Hz.
- Wavelength about 700 to 400 nm.
Ultraviolet Radiation produced by
special lamps and very hot bodies.
- A
germicidal,
photochemical,
photoelectric
and
fluorescent
effects.
X-rays fall beyond the UV rays.
- High-energy radiations created by
a stream of high-speed electrons
bombarding a metal plate in a
vacuum.
Gamma Rays uppermost frequency
range.
- Produced in nuclear reactions,
particle accelerators and in certain
processes.
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
Temperature - the hotness or coldness of
a substance.
- The average kinetic energy of the
molecules of a substance.
Heat the energy transferred from high
temperature
to
lower
temperature
(temperature difference).
40

Thermometer an instrument
measures temperature.

that

Fahrenheit 320F freezing point, 2120F

boiling point of water.
Celsius 00C freezing point, 1000C boiling
point of water.
Kelvin standard unit for temperature.
- 273 K freezing point, 373 K boiling
point of water.
Absolute Zero - -273 K, molecules have
minimum amount of kinetic energy.
Conversion:

5
C = (0F 32)
9

F=

90
C + 32
5

K = 0C + 273
Thermal Expansion of Solids
- Applying heat on solids resulting to
agitates the molecules to move
faster through greater distance
which then expands the
dimensions of the solids.
- Change in length of an object for
every degree change in its
temperature. (Coefficient of linear
expansion)

L
L0 t

= coefficient for linear expansion

L = change in length
L0 = original length
t = change in temperature
Thermal Expansion of Liquids
- Heat is applied to liquid, there is an
increase in volume.

V=V0t

V = change in volume
= coefficient for volume expansion
t = change in temperature
V0 = original volume
Thermal Expansion of Gases
a. Charles Law at constant
pressure, the rise in temperature
due to the application of heat
makes the gas molecules move
faster and at greater distances
causing it to expand or increase in
volume.

V1 V2
=
T 1 T2

b. Boyles Law at constant

temperature, the volume of the gas
varies inversely with its pressure.

Handouts in SCIENCE

P1 V 1=P 2 V 2
c. Combined Gas Laws

P1 V 1 P2 V 2
=
T1
T2

d. Gay-Lussacs Law at constant

volume, the rise in temperature
due to application of heat makes
the gas molecules move faster
causing greater pressure.

P1 P2
=
T1 T 2

Hf latent heat of fusion

Latent of Vaporization amount of heat
absorbed to change 1 g of liquid to 1 g of
gas without changing its temperature.
- Evaporation and condensation
Q = mHv
Q - heat
m - mass
Hf latent heat of vaporization
Heat Transfer

e. Ideal Gas Law

PV =nRT

P pressure
V volume
n number of moles
T temperature
R ideal gas constant (8.31 kPa
L/mol K)

Convection the process in which heat is

carried from place to place by the bulk
movement of a fluid.
Convection current the fluid flow
itself.
o

Heat Exchange
Heat Capacity the amount of heat
required to raise its temperature by 10C.

Heat Capacity=

Q
t

Q heat
t change in temperature
Specific Heat Capacity the amount of
heat needed to raise the temperature of 1
gram of a substance by one degree
Celsius.

C=

Q
m t

Natural Convection the

temperature
difference
causes the density at one
place in a fluid to be
different
from
that
at
another.
Forced
Convection

a
external device such as a
pump or a fan mixes the
warmer and cooler portions
of the fluid.

Conduction the process whereby heat is

transferred directly through a material,
with any bulk motion of the material
playing no role in the transfer.
Thermal
Conductors

those
materials that conduct heat.
Thermal
Insulators

those
materials conduct heat poorly

Q heat
m mass
t change in temperature

Conduction of Heat through a Material

Heat
Q = mct

Q heat
k thermal conductivity
A cross-sectional area
T change in temperature
t time
L length of the material

Thermal
Equilibrium

when
two
substance of different temperatures are in
contact, heat flows from the hotter
substance to colder substance until they
obtained a common temperature.
Heat gained = Heat loss
Change Phase
Latent Heat of Fusion the amount of
heat absorbed to change 1 g of solid to 1
g of liquid without changing its
temperature.
- Melting and freezing
Q = mHf
Q - heat
m - mass
41

Q=

( kA T ) t
L

Radiation the process in which energy is

transferred of electromagnetic waves.
Perfectly Blackbody objects that absorbs
all the electromagnetic waves falling on
it.

A good absorber is a good emitter.

A poor absorber is a poor emitter.

The Stefan-Boltzmann Law of Radiation

4

Q=e T At
Q heat
t time

Handouts in SCIENCE

A surface area
T Kelvin temperature
e emissivity
5.67 x 10 -8 J/s m2 K4 (Stefan-Boltzmann
constant)
THERMODYNAMICS conversion of
thermal energy to mechanical energy and
vice versa.
System objects on which attention is
focused.
Surroundings everything else in the
environment.
Diathermal Walls wall that permit heat
to flow.
Adiabatic Walls perfectly insulating walls
that do not permit heat flow between the
system and the surroundings.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Zeroth Law Thermal Equilibrium
- No heat flow between the system
and the surroundings.
- Temperature is the indicator of
thermal equilibrium in the
sense that there is no net flow
of heat between two systems
in thermal contact that have
the same temperature.
First Law
- The internal energy of a system
changes from an initial value to a
final value due to heat and work.
- Heat is positive when the
system
gains
heat
and
negative when the system
loses heat.
- Work is positive when it is
done by the system and
negative when it is done on the
system.
U = Uf Ui = Q W
U internal energy
Q heat
W work

Thermal Processes
Isobaric Process occurs at constant
pressure
W = PV = P (Vf Vi)
U = Q - P (Vf Vi)
Isochoric Process occurs at constant
volume
- No work is done
U = Q W = Q

42

Isothermal Process occurs at constant

temperature
Adiabatic Process occurs without the
transfer of heat
- No heat flow
U = Q W = -W
Second Law
- Heat flows spontaneously from a
substance at a higher temperature
to a substance at a lower
temperature and does not flow
spontaneously in the reverse
direction.
Heat Engines - device that uses heat to
perform work.
- It has 3 essential features:
o Heat is supplied to the
engine at a relatively high
input temperature from a
place called hot reservoir.
o Part of the input heat is used
to perform work by the
working substance.
o The remainder of the input
heat is rejected to a place
called cold reservoir.
e efficiency

|Q H|input heat
|QC|rejected heat
|W |work done
e=

|W |

|QH|

x 100

|Q H|=|W |+|QC|
e=1

|QC|
|Q H|

Carnot Principle
- A reversible process is one in which
both
the
system
and
its
environment can be returned to
exactly the states they were in
before the process occurred.
- No irreversible engine operating
between two reservoirs at constant
temperatures can have a greater
efficiency than a reversible engine
operating
between
the
same
temperatures.
Furthermore,
all
reversible
engines
operating
between the same temperatures
have the same efficiency.

Handouts in SCIENCE

|QC| T C
=
|Q H| T H
TC Kelvin temperature of cold reservoir
TH Kelvin temperature of hot reservoir

e = 1.60 x 10-19 C (charge of an electron,

the same of a proton)

Efficiency of Carnot Engine

e Carnot =1

Electric Charge an intrinsic property of

proton and electrons, and only two types
of charge have been discovered, positive
and negative.
- Coulomb (C) unit

TC
TH

N=

q
e

Refrigeration process any device uses

work to extract heat from cold reservoir
and deposit heat into the hot reservoir.

N number of electron
q charge
e - charge of an electron

Refrigerators takes heat from the food

inside and deposits it into the kitchen,
along with the energy needed to do work
of making the heat flow from cold to hot.

CHARGED OBJECTS AND ELECTRIC FORCE

Air
Conditioners

same
as
the
refrigerators except that the room itself is
the cold reservoir and the outdoors is the
hot reservoir.

Law of Conservation of Electric Charge

- During any process, the net electric
charge of an isolated system
remains constant (is conserved).
-

Like charges repel and unlike

charge attract each other.

Coefficient of Performance of
Refrigerators and Air Conditioner

Coefficient of Performance=

|QC|
|W |

ENTROPY disorderliness
- Irreversible processes cause us
to lose some, but not all, of the
ability to perform work.

( QT )

S=

S change in entropy
Q heat
T Kelvin temperature

Reversible processes do not alter

the total entropy of the universe.
Any irreversible process increases
the entropy of the universe.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Stated in Terms of Entropy
- The total entropy of the
universe does not change when
a reversible process occurs and
increases when an irreversible
process occurs.
Third Law
- it is not possible to lower the
temperature of any system to
absolute zero (T = 0 K) in a finite
number of steps.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
43

Electrical Conductors substance that

readily conduct electric charge.
Electrical Insulators materials that
conduct electric charge poorly
Charging by Contact the process of
giving one object a net electric charge by
placing it in contact with another object
that is already charge.
Charging by Induction the process of
giving one object a net electric charge
without touching the object to a second
charged object.
Coulombs Law
- The electrostatic force exerted by
one point charge on another point
charge is directly proportional to
their magnitudes and inversely
proportional to the square of the
distance between them

Fe =k

|q1||q 2|
r

Fe - electrostatic force
q1 - charge 1
q2 - charge 2
r distance between them from the
center of the object

Handouts in SCIENCE

k 8.99 x 109 N m2/ C2 (1/40)

Electric Field exist at appoint is the
electrostatic force experienced by a small
test charge placed at that point divided
by the charge itself.

E=

F
q0

E electric field (N/C)

F electrostatic force
q0 test charge
Electric Field Lines proposed by Michael
Faraday
- Lines of Force
Positive Charge directed away from
positive charge
- Outward

Electric field
charges.

of

opposite

The Electric Potential Difference the

electric potential energy of a small test
charge situated at that point divided by
the charge itself.
- Energy required pushing a charge.
- Also known as Voltage
- Electromotive force (emf)
V electric potential (V or J/C)
EPE electric potential energy/ work done
on the test charge (J)
q0 - charge

V=

Negative Charge toward the negative

charge
- Inward

lines

EPE
q0

Electric Current (I) the amount of charge

per unit time
- Ampere (A or C/s)

I=

q
t

Direct Current the charges move around

a circuit in the same direction at all times.

Electric Dipole consist separated

charges that have the same magnitude
but opposite signs.

Alternating Current the charges move

first one way and then opposite way,
changing direction from moment to
moment.
Flow of Current
o

Conventional
Current

hypothetical flow of positive

charges that would have the
same effect in the circuit as
the movement of negative
charges that actually does
occur.
From a point of higher
potential toward a
point
of
lower
potential. (positive to
negative)

The
negative
electrons
emerging from the negative
terminal and moving around
the
circuit
toward
the
positive terminal.

a. Electric field lines of a proton

b. Electric field lines of the attraction
between a positively charge and
negatively charge.
c. Electric field line of positively and
negatively charge metal plate.

OHMS LAW
44

Handouts in SCIENCE

The ratio V/I is a constant (R),

where V is the voltage applied
across a piece of material and I is
the current through the material.

R=

V
I

R resistance ()
V voltage (V)
I current (A)
Resistance resist current
Resistor a device offers resistance to the
flow of charges.

R=

Series Circuit - the devices in a circuit

form a single pathway for electron flow.

L
A

R resistance
L- length of the wire
A cross-sectional area of the wire
resistivity of the material

= 0 [ 1+ ( T T 0 ) ]
temperature coefficient of resistivity
resistivity
0 initial resistivity
T final temperature
T0 initial temperature

R=R 0 [ 1+ ( T T 0 ) ]

RT =R1 + R2 + R3
I T =I 1=I 2=I 3
V T =V 1+V 2+V 3
Parallel Circuit - the devices in a circuit
form branches, each of which is a
separate path for electron flow.

R change in resistance
R0 initial resistance
COLOR CODES ON RESISTORS
Black
0
100
Brown
1
101
Red
2
102
Orange
3
103
4
Yellow
4
10
Green
5
105
Blue
6
106
Violet
7
107
Gray
8
108
White
9
109
Gold
10-1 +/- 5%
Silver
10-2 +/- 10%
Electric Power electric charge flows from
point A to point B in a circuit, leading to a
current, and the voltage between the
points is V, the electric power associated
with this current and voltage is

P=IV
-

Watt (W or AV)

Electric Circuit any path along which

electrons can flow.
Schematic Diagram simple diagram of
electric circuits
45

1
1 1 1
= + +
R T R 1 R 2 R3
I T =I 1+ I 2 + I 3
V T =V 1=V 2=V 3
MAGNETISM
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
The origin of magnetism lies in the orbital
and spin motions of electrons and how
the electrons interact with one another.
The best way to introduce the different
types of magnetism is to describe how
materials respond to magnetic fields. This
may be surprising to some, but all matter
is magnetic. It's just that some materials

Handouts in SCIENCE

are much more magnetic than others. The

main distinction is that in some materials
there is no collective interaction of atomic
magnetic moments, whereas in other
materials there is a very strong
interaction between atomic moments.

The magnetic behavior of materials can

be classified into the following five major
groups:
1. Diamagnetism - a fundamental
property of all matter, although it is
usually very weak. It is due to the noncooperative behavior of orbiting electrons
when exposed to an applied magnetic
field. Diamagnetic substances are
composed of atoms which have no net
magnetic moments (ie., all the orbital
shells are filled and there are no unpaired
electrons). However, when exposed to a
field, a negative magnetization is
produced and thus the susceptibility is
negative.
2. Paramagnetism - the atoms or ions in
the material have a net magnetic
moment due to unpaired electrons in
partially filled orbitals. One of the most
important atoms with unpaired electrons
is iron. However, the individual magnetic
moments do not interact magnetically,
and like diamagnetism, the magnetization
is zero when the field is removed. In the
presence of a field, there is now a partial
alignment of the atomic magnetic
moments in the direction of the field,
resulting in a net positive magnetization
and positive susceptibility.
3. Ferromagnetism - the atomic
moments in these materials exhibit very
strong interactions. These interactions are
produced by electronic exchange forces
and result in a parallel or antiparallel
alignment of atomic moments. Exchange
forces are very large, equivalent to a field
on the order of 1000 Tesla, or
approximately a 100 million times the
strength of the earth's field.
-

A simple representation of the magnetic

spins in a ferrimagnetic oxide.
5. Antiferromagnetism
MAGNETIC POLES
Like electric charges, the strength of their
interaction depends on the distance of
separation of the two magnets.
Electric charges produce electrical forces
and regions called magnetic poles
produce magnetic forces.

The end that points northward is

called the north-seeking pole.

The end that points southward is

called the south-seeking pole.

More simply, these are called the

north and south poles.

All magnets have both a north and

a south pole. For a simple bar
magnet the poles are located at
the two ends.

Like poles repel; opposite poles

attract.
MAGNETIC FIELDS - the magnetic
influence of electric currents and
magnetic materials. The magnetic field at
any given point is specified by both a
direction and a magnitude; as such it is a
vector field.
The direction of the magnetic field
outside a magnet is from the north
to the south pole.

The space around a magnet, in which a

magnetic force is exerted, is filled with a
magnetic field.
The shape of the field is revealed by
magnetic field lines.

exhibit parallel alignment of

moments resulting in large net
magnetization even in the absence
of a magnetic field.

4. Ferrimagnetism - In ionic compounds,

such as oxides, more complex forms of
magnetic ordering can occur as a result of
the crystal structure. One type of
magnetic ordering is call ferrimagnetism.
46

Magnetic field patterns for a pair of

magnets when
a. opposite poles are near each other

Handouts in SCIENCE

b. like poles are near each other

THE NATURE OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

- A magnetic field is produced by the
motion of electric charges.
- Just as an electric charge is
surrounded by an electric field, a
moving electric charge is also
surrounded by a magnetic field.
- The magnet as a whole may be
stationary, but it is composed of
atoms whose electrons are in
constant motion about atomic
nuclei.
- This moving charge constitutes a
tiny current and produces a
magnetic field.
Magnetic Domains
The magnetic fields of individual iron
atoms are strong.
- Interactions among adjacent iron
atoms cause large clusters of them
to line up with one another.
- These clusters of aligned atoms are
called magnetic domains.
- Each domain is perfectly
magnetized, and is made up of
billions of aligned atoms.
- The domains are microscopic, and
there are many of them in a crystal
of iron.

A moving charge produces a

magnetic field.
An electric current passing through
a conductor produces a magnetic
field because it has many charges
in motion.

a. When there is no current in the

wire, the compasses align with
Earths magnetic field.
b. When there is a current in the wire,
the compasses align with the
stronger magnetic field near the
wire.

If the wire is bent into a loop, the

magnetic field lines become
bunched up inside the loop.
If the wire is bent into another loop,
the concentration of magnetic field
lines inside the double loop is twice
that of the single loop.
The magnetic field intensity
increases as the number of loops is
increased.

a. a current-carrying wire
b. a current-carrying loop
c. coil of loops

MAGNETIC FORCE ON MOVING CHARGED

PARTICLES

ELECTRIC CURRENTS AND MAGNETIC

FIELDS
47

If the charged particle moves in a

magnetic field, the charged particle
experiences a deflecting force.
This force is greatest when the
particle moves in a direction
perpendicular to the magnetic field
lines.
- At other angles, the force is less.
- The force becomes zero when the
particle moves parallel to the field
lines.

Handouts in SCIENCE

The direction of the force is always

perpendicular to both the magnetic
field lines and the velocity of the
charged particle.

The force that acts on a moving

charged particle acts perpendicular
to both the magnetic field and the
electron velocity.

MAGNETIC FORCE ON CURRENTCARRYING WIRE

If the particles are inside a wire, the wire
will also move.
- If the direction of current in the
wire is reversed, the deflecting
force acts in the opposite direction.
- The force is maximum when the
current is perpendicular to the
magnetic field lines.
- The direction of force is along
neither the magnetic field lines nor
the direction of current.
- The force is perpendicular to both
field lines and current, and it is a
sideways force.
-

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
-

SIMPLE ELECTRIC MOTOR

In a simple DC motor, a permanent
magnet produces a magnetic field in a
region where a rectangular loop of wire is
mounted.
- The loop can turn about an axis.
- When a current passes through the
loop, it flows in opposite directions
in the upper and lower sides of the
loop.
- The loop is forced to move as if it
were a galvanometer.

The current is reversed during each

half revolution by means of
stationary contacts on the shaft.
The parts of the wire that brush
against these contacts are called
brushes.
The current in the loop alternates
so that the forces in the upper and
lower regions do not change
directions as the loop rotates.
The rotation is continuous as long
as current is supplied.
Many loops of wire are wound
about an iron cylinder, called an
armature, which then rotates when
energized with electric current.

Electric current can be produced in

a wire by simply moving a magnet
into or out of a wire coil.
Voltage was induced by the relative
motion of a wire with respect to a
magnetic field.

The production of voltage depends

only on the relative motion of the
conductor with respect to the
magnetic field.
Voltage is induced whether the
magnetic field moves past a
conductor, or the conductor moves
through a magnetic field.

The amount of voltage induced

depends on how quickly the
magnetic field lines are traversed
by the wire.
Very slow motion produces hardly
any voltage at all.
Quick motion induces a greater
voltage.
Increasing the number of loops of
wire that move in a magnetic field
increases the induced voltage and
the current in the wire.

Work must be done to move the magnet.

a. Current induced in the loop
produces a magnetic field
(the imaginary yellow bar
magnet), which repels the
bar magnet.
b. When the bar magnet is
pulled away, the induced
current is in the opposite
48

Handouts in SCIENCE

direction and a magnetic

field attracts the bar
magnet.

If the coil is connected to a resistor,

more induced voltage in the coil
means more current through the
resistor.
Inducing voltage by changing the
magnetic field around a conductor
is electromagnetic induction.

FARADAYS LAW
- Faradays law states that the
induced voltage in a coil is
proportional to the product of the
number of loops, the crosssectional area of each loop, and the
rate at which the magnetic field
changes within those loops.
- The current produced by
electromagnetic induction depends
upon
o the induced voltage,
o the resistance of the coil,
and the circuit to which it is
connected.
GENERATORS
- A machine that produces electric
current by rotating a coil within a
stationary magnetic field is called a
generator.
- A generator is essentially the
opposite of a motor, converting
mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
A current can be generated by plunging a
magnet into and out of a coil of wire.
- As the magnet enters, the
magnetic field strength inside the
coil increases and induced voltage
in the coil is directed one way.
- As the magnet leaves, the
magnetic field strength diminishes
and voltage is induced in the
opposite direction.
- Greater frequency of field change
induces
greater voltage.
- The frequency of the alternating
voltage is the frequency of the
changing magnetic field within the
loop.

49

COMPARISON BETWEEN MOTOR AND

GENERATOR
In the generator effect, a wire with no
current is moved downward through a
magnetic field.
The electrons in this wire
experience a force
perpendicular to their
motion, which is along the
wire.
A current begins to flow.
TRANSFORMER - transformer works by
inducing a changing magnetic field in one
coil, which induces an alternating current
in a nearby second coil.
-

a device for increasing or

decreasing voltage through
electromagnetic induction.
Voltages may be stepped up or
stepped down with a transformer.
The relationship between primary
and secondary voltages with
respect to the relative number of
turns is

Electric power is equal to the

product of voltage and current:
(voltage current)primary = (voltage
current)secondary
If the secondary has more voltage,
it will have less current than the
primary.
If the secondary has less voltage, it
will have more current than the
primary.
Power transmission uses
transformers to increase voltage
for long-distance transmission and
decrease it before it reaches your
home.

RADIOACIVE DECAY - The atoms of

radioactive elements emit three distinct
types of radiation called alpha particles,
beta particles, and gamma rays.
Particles that decay by spontaneously
emitting charged particles and energy are
said to be radioactive.

Handouts in SCIENCE

Radiation is the name given to the

charged particles and energy emitted by
an unstable nucleus or particle.

The atoms of radioactive elements emit

three distinct types of radiation called
alpha particles, beta particles, and
gamma rays.
-

alpha particles have a positive

electric charge
o made of two protons and two
neutrons and is identical to
the nucleus of a helium
atom. High- energy helium
nuclei.
o the easiest to stop. They can
be stopped by a few sheets
of thin paper. (10% of the
speed of light)
o deflects in an electric field
and a magnetic field
o travels a short range of a
few centimetres in air and
has weak penetrating power.
o Strong ionizing power- can
remove electrons from
molecules and damage living
cells.
beta particles are negative
o fast moving electrons
o about 90% of the speed of
light
o deflects in an electric field
and magnetic fields (deflects
in the opposite direction as
an alpha particle, and with a
comparatively larger degree)
o travels a longer range in air
and has higher penetrating
power
o block by an aluminum sheet
5 mm thick
o weak ionizing power
o an electron ejected from the
nucleus when a neutron is
transformed into a proton.
o go right through paper but
are stopped by several
sheets of aluminum foil.
gamma rays are electrically
neutral
o massless energy. Like visible
light, gamma rays are simply
photons, but of much higher
frequency and energy.
o An EM wave with very short
wavelength
o The speed of light (3.0 x 108
m/s)
o Does not deflect in either an
electric field or a magnetic
field
50

o
o

Travels a very long range

about a few hundred meters
in air and has high
penetrating power
Its strength can be greatly
reduced by lead about 4 cm
thick
Very weak ionizing power
the most difficult to stop and
require lead or other heavy
shielding to block them.

Radiation dose - radiation scales to

measure the amount of radiation we
receive.
- The amount of radiation energy
received per 1 kg of living
organism.
- Unit of measurement is SIEVERT
(Sv).
ISOTOPES - an element are chemically
identical but differ in the number of
neutrons.
RADIOACTIVE HALF-LIFE - of a radioactive
material is the time needed for half of the
radioactive atoms to decay.
- The radioactive decay rate is
measured in terms of a
characteristic time, the half-life.
The changing of one element to another
is called transmutation.
RADIOACTIVE TRANSMUTATION
DECAY
- A parent nucleus emits an
particle, resulting two protons and
two neutrons carried away to form
a new daughter nucleus.
A
Z

A4

X Z2Y + 2 He

Ex.
238
92

4
U 234
90Th + 2 He

- DECAY
- Involves the emission of particle
from the nucleus, a fast moving
electron.
A
Z

X Z+1AY + 10e

234
90

0
Th 234
91 Pa + 1e

+ DECAY
- Involves the emission of a positron,
a fast moving positive charge
electron from the nucleus.
A
Z

X Z1A Y + +10e

Handouts in SCIENCE

DECAY
Emission of gamma rays in an
atom which is in an excited state. It
does not change the mass number
(A) or the atomic number (Z) of the
nucleus, and no new element is
formed.
A
Z

X Z X + rays

Adds on:
Digestive system
Carbon -dioxide cyle
Nutrient cycle
Nitrogen cycle
Water cycle
Respiratory
Circulatory
Genetics
Photosynthesis

51

http://cyberbridge.mcb.harvard.edu/mitos
is_6.html
http://cyberbridge.mcb.harvard.edu/mitos
is_7.html
http://biology.about.com/od/mitosisglossa
ry/g/spindle_fibers.htm
https://www.google.com.ph/search?
q=science+laboratory+apparatus+and+t
heir+uses&oq=science+la&aqs=chrome.
3.69i57j0l5.10714j0j1&sourceid=chrome
&es_sm=93&ie=UTF8#q=asters+cell+biology&stick=H4sIAA
AAAAAAAGOovnz8BQMDw2YOlkeMaxm5B
V7uCcstZhx0pqT1xjnMHJxBWfkl7vmlWSWVA
r1MnKxQZkCXHxSXPq5gamhWaVphYaDFLZQvpcuvrJ-Tk5qcklmfl5mmpKalFiSWpKfolQWZyfEFiXmpOcX6xUDz4jNzE9NThSy4zIj
QUFKUmZ6eWpSZlx6fCrI8M7VYiYWDQYC
RR-ZrH9fKGTITPPi90zyuxyQ1pSWCwD2W0Yw0AAAAA
http://www.microscopemicroscope.org/basic/microscopeparts.htm
http://www.scribd.com/doc/33552521/Lab
oratory-Apparatuses-and-Uses
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproduct
ion