Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contextual Outline
When physiological processes malfunction, the body tries to repair the damage. The
process is similar in all living things and it is only when the process fails to contain the
damage that disease can be recognised.
Humans have long recognised the symptoms of disease both in themselves and the
animals and plants around them. Since the beginnings of recorded history, they have
noted the signs that reveal that the body is malfunctioning. Increasing understanding of
the causes of disease together with accompanying advances in technology have
changed approaches to treatment and management of disease.
The search for measures to treat and manage diseases of humans and other organisms
continues and this search is paralleled by continued refinements in technology.
This module increases students understanding of the history, nature and practice of
biology, the applications and uses of biology, and the implications of biology for society
and the environment.
Discuss the difficulties of defining the terms health and disease.
Things to consider:
- What does discuss mean?
- Underline key words
- Be succinct
Defining the term health is not easy as there are many components which fall under
health and some of these components are very subjective. According to the World Health
Organisation, (WHO) health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well
being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. This basically means that good
health revolves around a biological, psychological and social well being.
Biological health: being active and free from pain.
Psychological health: feeling happy, not depressed.
Social well being: interrelating within the community.
Each of the above factors would all have slight different meanings to different people
making the term health harder to define.
Disease is also another word which is hard to define. Disease as a definition is a state of
impaired functioning by interfering with the structure of organs, tissues or cells or by
altering normal metabolism. This definition is subjective to the functioning of each
individual. Meaning that one person may feel that they are sick while another person
with the same symptoms does not feel sick.
Outline how the function of genes, mitosis, cell differentiation and specialisation assist in
the maintenance of health.
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- Underline key words
- Ensure you write about each of the key components that assist in the maintenance
of health.
The function of genes, mitosis, cell differentiation and specialisation all assist in the
maintenance of health. They are outlined as follows:
Genes:
Genes assist in the maintenance of health by ensuring that the correct proteins are
produced in a cell. This enables all other cellular processes to continue and to maintain
health within the organism.
Mitosis:
Mitosis assists in the maintenance of health by ensuring that genetic material is copied
accurately when new cells are formed. These new genetically correct cells enable the
organism to grow as well as repair any damaged cells or tissue. This therefore maintains
health for the organism.
Cell differentiation/specialisation:
During the development of a cell the cell differentiates and becomes a specialised cell
for a specific function. Genes release certain proteins which enable the cell to have a
specialised function. Cell differentiation and specialisation is important in the
maintenance of health as these cells enable the organism to grow as well as repair
damaged cells or tissues. Cells may become specialised to fight of infection such as
macrophages.
Use available evidence to analyse the links between gene expression and maintenance
and repair of body tissues.
Things to consider:
- What does analyse mean?
- What is gene expression?
- Underline key words and understand what the question is asking before you
answer.
- Draw a link between gene expression and repair of body tissue.
Gene expression: is the entire process that takes the information contained in genes
on DNA and turns that information into proteins. (The process of transcription and
translation.)
To maintain a healthy lifestyle the appropriate genes during mitosis must be expressed.
If there is damage or no damage to cells or tissue it is still necessary for the appropriate
genes to be expressed efficiently in order for necessary compounds to be produced and
therefore a healthy existence.
Example:
During mitosis cells differentiate to have a specialised function. For example in order for
muscles to contract they need the proteins called actin and myosin. The gene
responsible for these proteins is switched on. The cell differentiates and becomes a
specialised muscle cell. This relates to gene expression and the repair of body tissue in
the sense that the gene responsible for the expression of actin and myosin was
triggered. This resulted in the development of a specialised muscle cell, which in turn
repaired the muscle tissue.
Distinguish between infectious and non infectious disease.
Things to consider:
- What does distinguish mean?
- What are infectious and non infectious diseases?
Be succinct
Health
Disease
Causes of Disease:
1) Infection by parasitic pathogens (or infective particles)
a) Microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans or (prions, a
proteinaceous infective particle).
b) Macro organisms such as:
i) endoparasites (flukes, tapeworms, round worms)
ii) ectoparasites (lice, fleas, mosquitoes, ticks, mites).
2) Heredity
inherited on
3) Nutrition
insufficient
4) Physiological malfunction
Infectious Diseases: are caused by pathogens which invade the body then grow and
multiply in the tissues
Student worksheet
Health
= ........................................................................................................................................
Disease
= ........................................................................................................................................
Causes of Disease:
1)
Infection by
5) Environment
a) Pre-natal environment
b) Post-natal environment
Infectious Diseases:
INFECTIOUS
Infectious diseases are caused by an
infecting organism which usually
invades the body.
Infecting organisms can microscopic
or macroscopic.
A pathogen is an example of an
infectious organism. They include;
prions, viruses, bacteria, protozoans
and fungi.
NON - INFECTIOUS
Non infectious diseases are not
caused by a pathogen and cannot be
passed on from person to person.
Non infectious disease are usually
the cause of genetic inheritance,
nutritional deficiency and
environmental factors. Examples
include Down syndrome (genetic),
anorexia (nutritional) and skin
cancer (environmental).
Explain why cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene practices assist in control of
disease.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Underline key words.
- Understand the question before answering
It is important that food, water and personal hygiene practices are maintained in order to
assist in control of disease. Food is easily contaminated by visible applications such as
dirt or insects or microscopic by micro organisms such as salmonella. Hygienic handling
of this food controls the spread of disease. Hygienic practices include; using clean
utensils, not sneezing/coughing over food, not using food that has fallen on the floor,
washing hands after being to the toilet, covering cuts and abrasions before preparing
food and always placing perishable foods in the fridge/freezer. If these general hygienic
practices were not followed populations could suffer from food poisoning and disease. It
is these simple practices that control disease. Water is easily contaminated by pathogens
such as Giardia and cryptosporidium. These pathogens are controlled by Sydney Water
by constant water testing as well as being filtered and chlorinated before reaching the
household. Sewage is also disposed of in a safe manner in order to control the spread of
disease. Personal hygiene refers to the nature of keeping oneself clean. This includes
washing hands after using the toilet, washing hands before preparing food, showering
regularly and washing hands after you have been in contact with something dirty or a
sick person. If this personal hygiene was not kept in order people would easily contract
disease from infectious pathogens. Therefore it is important to maintain cleanliness in
food, water and personal hygiene to assist in the control of disease.
Identify the conditions under which an organism is described as a pathogen.
Things to consider:
- What does identify mean?
- What is a pathogen?
An organism that causes disease is known as a pathogen. For the pathogen to cause
disease it must have the right conditions in order to multiply and transmit itself from
organism to organism.
Pathogens can come in the form of prions, viruses, bacteria, protozoans, fungi and
parasites. These pathogens can either be microscopic or macroscopic, meaning they can
be seen by the naked eye.
RESULTS:
NO. OF
COLONIES
LOCATION
COLOUR
TEXTURE
BRIEF DRAWING
Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe ways in
which drinking water can be treated and use available evidence to explain how these
methods reduce the risk of infection from pathogens.
Things to consider:
- What does gather, process and analyse mean?
- What does explain mean?
- Underline key words
- Understand what the question is asking before answering.
Water is treated to remove impurities and microbes from causing disease to the general
public. To prevent the spread of disease water companies take the following steps to
prevent the spread of disease:
- Coagulation and sedimentation
- Filtration
- Disinfection
Coagulation involves adding certain chemicals to the treated water such as alum. The
coagulating material causes dirt, plant debris and other organic matter to clump
together and form what is known as a floc. As the water flows through the tanks the floc
settles to the bottom and is removed.
Filters are used to remove small particles such as viruses and protozoans, for example
Giardia. Filters are usually comprised of a specialised membrane, a sand pebble mixture
or activated carbon.
The final step is to disinfect the water. Chlorine is the common chemical used in the
disinfection stage. Ozone and U.V. radiation can also be used. Fluoride in some countries
may be used to prevent tooth decay. Once disinfected, water is piped to homes and
businesses.
These are the main methods to reduce the risk of infections from drinking water. Not only
are these steps followed but Sydney Water also incorporates strict controls on N.S.W
drinking water. These include; fences around major dams to prevent contamination from
animals, adequate distance from farming communities and distance from sewerage
systems. These steps all prevent infection from pathogens.
Describe the contribution of Pasteur and Koch to our understanding of infectious
diseases.
Things to consider:
- What does describe mean?
- Who are Pasteur and Koch?
- Ensure you understand their work as scientists are regularly referred to in the HSC.
Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch played a pivotal role to our understanding of infectious
diseases. Louis Pasteur a French chemist discovered that most infectious diseases are
caused by micro organisms, or germs. This became known as Germ Theory. Through
Pasteurs research on fermentation he was able to identify and describe the micro
organisms that cause fermentation. During this research Pasteur also disproved the
theory of spontaneous generation.
Due to Pasteurs knowledge of microbes and fermentation he was involved in many
industries including the wine industry. Pasteur showed that microbes, which caused wine
to spoil, could be killed by heating the wine to 55oC. This process was also applied to milk
and beer and is now known as pasteurisation.
Pasteur also demonstrated that anthrax a disease that affected cattle, sheep and horses
was caused by a bacterium known as Bacillus anthracis. He developed a technique by
weakening a strain of this bacterium and injecting it into certain animals. On one
occasion he took 50 sheep and injected 25 of them with the weakened disease. Several
days later he injected all 50 of the sheep with a strong dose of the disease. Pasteur
predicted that 25 of the sheep would die. Subsequently 25 sheep did die and 25
survived. Today this process is commonly known as vaccination. Pasteur developed
many vaccines including vaccines for anthrax, chicken cholera and swine erysipelas.
Robert Koch was also heavily involved in microbial work, in particular anthrax. Koch was
successful in isolating the bacterium from the blood of dying animals. He examined the
blood under the microscope and identified active rod shaped cells and resting spores.
He concluded that all infected organisms contained these microbes, while healthy
organisms did not. Koch also found that if blood taken from an infected organism was
injected into another organism it would contract the disease. To prove that it was not
another component of the blood Koch extracted the bacteria only and injected it into a
healthy organism, subsequently causing the disease. From this research Koch provided
step by step guidelines to prove that a particular micro organism causes a particular
disease. These are known as Kochs postulates and are as follows:
1. The specific micro organism must be present in all infected organisms.
2. The specific micro organism must be isolated from the host and grown in a pure
culture.
3. A healthy organism is then injected with the micro organism. This organism must
develop the same symptoms as previous infected organisms.
4. The specific micro organism must be isolated from the second host and be the
same species of micro organism as the one originally injected.
It was through the work of Pasteur and Koch, which laid the foundations for scientists to
study micro organisms. This has led to a greater understanding of infection control and
hygienic practices.
Perform an investigation to model Pasteurs experiment to identify the role of microbes
in decay.
Things to consider:
- What does perform mean?
- What does identify mean?
Refer to page 260 to 261. Modelling Pasteurs experiment.
Distinguish between:
- Prions
- Viruses
- Bacteria
- Protozoans
- Fungi
- Macro parasites
And name one example of a disease caused by each type of pathogen.
Sarcinae
(packets of 8)
Rods called bacilli
Curves called spirilla
Comma shaped called vibrios
Reproduce asexually by binary fission, can multiply as short as every 10 minutes
i.e. in 24 hours (1440 minutes) one bacteria can multiply (2144) to 2.230072 X 1043
in number!
Protozoa
Unicellular
Mostly microscopic 2.0 - 1000m size
Cell membrane
No cell wall
Mostly heterotrophic
Classified on basis of locomotion (see figure 3.15 p267 & figure 3.16 p268 BIF)
o Flagellates e.g. Trypanosoma (African sleeping sickness)
o Ciliates
e.g. Paramecium
o Amoeboids e.g. Amoeba such as amoebic dysentry
o Sporozoans non-motile e.g. Plasmodium malaria, cryptosporidium
Reproduce asexually, sexually or both
Require moist habitat
May be:
o Free living (no host)
o Commensalistic (one benefits, host unharmed)
o Mutualistic (both benefit)
o Parasitic (one benefits at the expense of the other)
Prions
Infective agents that cause brain disease and death in mammals e.g. mad cow
disease, Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (CJD) in humans, scrapie in sheep.
Diseases caused by prions are called spongiform diseases because the brain tissue
becomes full of holes like a sponge.
Are proteins that have been altered from their normal shape, but are chemically
the same.
A prion can convert other similar but normal proteins into abnormal prion shape
(fig 3.8 p263 BIF)
Can be passed from one animal to another i.e. are infective.
Rickettsias (not in syllabus)
Smaller than bacteria 0.2 1.0m long but classified into a different group because
they cannot survive outside living cells
Procaryotic, gram negative, non-motile, non spore forming type of bacteria
Oval-shaped
Intracellular parasites
Have cell walls
Cannot grow outside of living cells
Transmitted by arthropods (fleas, ticks, lice)
Student Worksheet
Summary of some features if microorganisms
Microb Size
Structure
Method
Reproduc
e
(m)
of
tion
classificat
ion
Virus
Bacteri
a
Protoz
oa
Fungi
Prion
Transmiss
ion
Comment
examples
TYPE OF
PATHOGEN
Prions
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE(S)
Viruses
Bacteria
Pneumonia, Cholera,
legionnaires disease,
diphtheria and tetanus.
Protozoans
Fungi
Macro parasites
Fascioliasis, Schistosomiasis,
hydatid disease, taeniasis,
enterobiasis, scabies, house
dust (mites).
Bacteria
Diphtheria
Whooping cough
Tetanus
Tuberculosis (TB)
Syphilis
Gonorrhoea
Cholera
Legionnaires
disease
Salmonella
(food
pois.)
Botulism
(food
pois.)
Gas gangrene
Gastroenteritis
Rheumatic fever
Scarlet fever
Typhoid fever
Bacterial meningitis
Bacterial
conjunctivitis
Golden staph (food
pois)
Domestic animals
Bubonic
plague
Foot
&
mouth (bacillis)
disease
Brucellosis
Blue tongue
Dysentery
Rinderpest
(bacterial)
Distemper
Pneumonia
Rabies
(bacterial)
Erysipelas
Impetigo
Leprosy
Campylobacter
Shigella
Yaws
Yersinia
Tonsillitis
Anthrax
Fungi
Tinea
Candidiases
(Thrush)
Ringworm
Dandruff
Prions
Mad cow disease,
Creutzfeldt-Jacob
disease (CJD) in
humans
Scrapie in sheep.
Protozoa
Malaria
African sleeping
sickness
Amoebic dysentery
Chagas disease
Giardia (flagellate
diarrhoea)
Cryptosporidium
Cyclospora
Leishmaniasis
Toxoplasmosis
Rickettsias &
mycoplasmas
Trachoma
Venereal disease
Forms of pneumonia
Typhus
Cause
HIV
(human
immune
deficien
cy virus)
Transmission
by direct contact
of body fluids,
e.g. through
sexual contact or
blood transfusion
or dirty needles
used by drug
addicts
chicken
pox
herpes
varicella
-zoster
virus
cold
sores
herpes
simplex
type 1
virus
genital
herpes
herpes
simplex
type 2
virus
measles
morbilli
virus
in air droplets
rubella
(German
measles)
rubella
virus
glandular
fever
EpsteinBarr
virus
hepatitis
A virus
direct contact
(touching);
indirect contact
(for example,
bedding); in air
(coughing,
sneezing); via
placenta to foetus
direct contact
including saliva
infective
hepatitis
(hepatitis
A)
hepatitis
B
hepatitis
B virus
contaminated
food or water
sexual
intercourse;
contaminated
injection needles
Symptoms
fatigue, loss of
appetite and
weight;
diarrhoea;
infections and
other diseases
such as Kaposis
sarcoma (a skin
cancer)
pink spots that
become itchy,
blister and burst
sores on mouth
or lips that form
blisters
sores on the
genital area
rash on body;
nausea;
headache; fever
sore throat; fever;
headache; rash
(rash less severe
than measles)
fatigue;
headaches; limb
pains
fever alternated
with shivering;
pains in limbs;
jaundice
(yellowing of
skin); fatigue;
headache
nausea; fatigue;
jaundice
influenza
influenz
a virus
there
is a
family of
these
viruses
in air from
sneezing,
coughing or
breathing
headache; pain in
limbs; respiratory
tract infection;
fever
Symptoms
f ever;
coughing lung
congestion
cholera
Vibrio cholera
(bacterium)
in water
contaminate
d with
sewage; in
contaminate
d food
severe
diarrhoea and
dehydration
treatment replacement of
water and salts; drugs such
as tetracycline and
chloramphenicol
control purification of water;
food; good
sewerage system;
vaccination
legionnaire
s disease
Legionella
Through airconditioning
systems
Fever,
coughing lung
congestion
Treatment antibiotics
rifampicin and erythromycin
Control regular sterilisation
of air-conditioning systems;
isolation of patients
diphtheria
Corynebacterium
diptheriae
Direct or
indirect
contact
Spots on
throat and
tonsils;
headache;
vomiting
amoebic
dysentery
Entamoeba
histolytica
(protozoan)
giardiasis
Giardia lamblia
(protozoan)
unhygienic
food and
water
supplies;
uncooked
food
unhygienic
food and
water
supplies;
uncooked
food
Symptoms
fever,
headache;
enlarged
lymph glands;
drowsiness;
coma
fever
alternating
with shivering;
anaemia
diarrhoea;
nausea;
vomiting;
fever
diarrhoea;
nausea;
vomiting;
bloating;
flatulence
Symptoms
white patches
in mouth or
itchiness in
the vaginal
area or
inflamed skin
itching and
blisters
between
toes; skin
peels and
cracks;
treatment anti-fungal
chemicals taken orally or
applied externally
control care in drying
between the toes after
bathing;
secondary
bacterial
infections
are possible in
the cracks
Schistosoma
(blood fluke)
there are a few
different species
from water
supplies that
are
contaminate
d with the
cysts
loss of weight;
diarrhoea;
anaemia;
abdominal
pain; itchy
skin and rash
hydatid
disease
Echinococcus
granulosus
(tapeworm)
by touching
infected
dogs hair or
faeces and
transferring
the eggs to
the mouth
taeniasis
(tapeworm
disease)
Taenia solium
(pork tapeworm)
or Taenia saginata
(beef tapeworm)
by
undercooked
, infected
pork or beef
anaemia;
pressure on
internal
organs;
severe pain
and severe
shock if the
cysts burst;
death in
severe cases
loss of weight;
possibly
abdominal
pain
enterobiasis
(threadwor
m disease)
Enterobiasis
vermicularis
(threadworm)
scabies
Sarcoptes scabei
(itch mite)
house dust
mite asthma
Dermatophagoide
s usually by
indirect contact
pteronyssinus
the through bed
linen, carpets,
from bed
linen or
other items
that contain
the eggs
by direct
skin contact
from infected
people or
indirect
contact
through bed
linen
allergic
reaction;
coughing;
sneezing
bronchial
congestion
restlessness
at night; anal
itchiness
severe itching
treatment
some drugs
used in
treating
allergies are
useful control
regular
vacuuming,
airing
bedding; use
of antiallergen spray
Gather and process information to trace the historical development of our understanding
of the cause and prevention of malaria.
HISTORY SHOWING THE DEVELOPMENT OF OUR UNDERSTANDING OF MALARIA
Early 19th Century: Cause of malaria unknown. Antimalarial properties found on
cinchona tree. (Quinine)
1880: First malaria parasite seen in blood by Charles Laveran.
End of the 19th Century: Connection between mosquito and malaria parasite made by
Ronald Ross. Found that mosquitoes carrying the disease infected volunteers who were
bitten by the mosquitoes.
1898: Ross describes the life cycle of the malaria parasite.
The Beginning of the 20th Century: Chemical nature of quinine determined which led
to the synthesis of drugs. Most effective was chloroquin. Continued use of drugs led to
resistance in the malarial parasite.
1940s: Evidence to suggest that people with one gene for sickle cell anaemia are
more resistant to malaria due to shape of their red blood cells.
1990s 2000: Continued research to produce a vaccine.
LIFECYCLE OF MALARIAL PARASITE
Firstly a female anopheles mosquito bites a human using their feeding tube or stylet. On
the stylet are many sporozoites. These sporozoites make there way into the bloodstream.
The sporozoites need to develop. This is achieved if the sporozoites make it to the liver.
Once the sporozoites make it to the liver they are supplied with nutrients to grow and
divide. This is known as asexual reproduction and each sporozoite produces 16 smaller
spherical merozoites. They are released into the blood plasma where the merozoites
invade red blood cells. The red blood cells become so full of merozoites that they burst
causing waste product to enter the bloodstream. This causes symptoms such as a fever.
Some merozoites develop into female and male gametocytes. If a mosquito feeds on a
human suffering from malaria these gametocytes maybe transferred into the mosquito.
These gametocytes become gametes in gametes in the mosquito, they replicate and
eventually produce sporozoites, and so the cycle continues.
PREVENTION OF MALARIA
Anti Malarial drugs administered before visiting endemic areas.
Prevention aims to keep the disease at a minimum.
Breeding grounds of the vector maybe destroyed.
Draining of swamps and using insecticides.
Development of vaccines.
Genetic engineering of mosquitoes to develop individuals who will resist the
parasite.
These are some of the measures to prevent the spread of malaria.
Mucous membranes
- Production of mucus carries pathogens out of the body
- Nasal passage traps and secretes pathogens
- Respiratory system produces mucus. Reflex actions such as coughing eject the
pathogen from the body
- Urogenital surfaces can produce mucus to excrete any invading pathogens
Cilia
- Found in the nasal, throat, ear and respiratory system.
- Consists of tiny hairs
- With the help of mucus trap pathogens and secrete them out of the body
Chemical Barriers
- Stomach acid provides a lethal environment for pathogens
- Saliva and tears contain lysosomes which destroy invading pathogens
Other Body Secretions
- Other body secretions include; bacteria in intestines, wax in ears, urine and sweat.
These all prevent invading pathogens.
DESCRIPTION
Inflammation
response
Phagocytosis
Lymph
system
Cell death to
seal of
pathogens
Gather, process and present information from secondary sources to show how a named
disease results from an imbalance of microflora in humans.
Things to consider:
- What do gather, process and present information mean?
- Ensure you used a named disease
- What is microflora?
- Page 282
Microflora in humans are microbes which live in the human body without causing
disease. This is a symbiotic relationship whereby the digested food is processed by the
microbe in return for essential vitamins.
An example of a named disease which results in an imbalance of microflora in humans is
candidiasis. The following information outlines how the imbalance of Candida affects a
human:
- Candidiasis is the over population of the yeast/fungus Candida albicans.
- This yeast like organism is highly present in our mucous membranes.
- Candida albicans is controlled by lactobacilli and bifidobacteria largely found in the
intestinal tract.
- When lactobacilli and bifidobacteria numbers drop there is a sudden increase in
the numbers of Candida in the gastrointestinal tract.
- Candida then changes from a yeast like form to a fungal form. This fungal form has
root like structures which enter the lining of the gastrointestinal tract.
- This weakens the gastrointestinal tract and substances usually confined to the
gastrointestinal tract leak into the bloodstream.
- Partly digested proteins enter the bloodstream which results in the production of
antibodies from the immune system.
- This usually results in severe allergic reactions including cerebral (brain) allergies.
- Rapidly growing populations of Candida can almost relocate anywhere in the body
causing numerous amounts of problems. In children an excess of Candida usually
results in the common disease known as thrush.
It is evident that through a slight imbalance in microflora in humans may result in the
emergence of disease.
(http://www.wadsworth.org/databank/hirez/wongp1.gif)
MICROGRAPH OF CANDIDA ALBICANS
DESCRIPTION
Antibodies also known as immunoglobulins are produced in
the lymph nodes by B cells in response to a specific antigen.
Antibodies are special proteins which circulate in the blood
plasma and combine with B cells to destroy antigens. This is
called antibody mediated immunity.
T CELLS
B CELLS
Describe and explain the immune response in the human body in terms of:
- interaction between B and T lymphocytes
- the mechanisms that allow interaction between B and T lymphocytes
- the range of T lymphocyte types and the difference in their roles
Things to consider:
- What does describe and explain mean?
- Identify the best way to answer this question.
- Understand what you are writing before you write it down.
The immune system and the components within the immune system are constantly
interacting with one another to provide the best defence against invading organisms.
One such interaction is the interaction between B and T lymphocytes (cells). T cells and
B cells work together by attacking the same antigen. Helper T cells, a special type of T
cell, stimulate the cloning of T cells and B cells to help destroy invading pathogens. T
cells can also trigger an immune response in B cells by secreting a substance known as a
cytokine. This special protein signals other cells to trigger an immune response. Although
B cells and T cells are constantly interacting there are certain mechanisms in place which
prevent these cells from attacking one another. For example if a B cell is expressing an
antigen on its membrane it is not destroyed by another T cell. The body has adapted a
mechanism whereby cells are capable of recognising self molecules. This prevents the
unnecessary destruction of the bodies own cells.
There are a range of T cells that all have a specialised function in preventing the spread
of disease in the human body. Cytotoxic T cells destroy cells that contain foreign
antigens. These non self molecules such as bacteria are destroyed by cytotoxic T cells
and are removed from the body. Helper T cells secrete a chemical known as interleukin
which regulates the function of T and B cells. Suppressor T cells regulate the activity of
B and T cells. For example cytotoxic T cells are suppressed once they have carried out
their role.
Outline the way in which vaccinations prevent infection.
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- What are vaccinations?
- Be succinct
The process of vaccination also known as immunisation is the process of making people
resistant to an infection caused by a pathogen. Vaccines can be administered in two
ways, one via injection the other via an oral dose. Vaccines are a preparation of a
weakened or dead infective micro organism. This dose is injected into the patient with
the intention of eliciting an immune response to the disease without causing any
symptoms. Some vaccines are only administered once as the patient will have immunity
for life, for example the measles vaccine. Other types of vaccines require a booster,
vaccine which is administered 5 10 years after the original vaccination. This increases
the immunity against the disease, a type of this vaccination is tetanus. Overall
vaccinations prevent disease as they enable our body to register an immune response
and build up memory cells which in turn will fight the disease if the person is ever
exposed to that disease.
Outline the reasons for the suppression of the immune response in organ transplant
patients.
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- Relate answer to the immune system.
- Understand what the question is asking before you answer.
Suppression of the immune response is a necessity after an organ transplant in order for
the new organ not to be rejected by the recipient. As some blood from the donated organ
enters the blood stream of the recipient, the body recognises the foreign tissue cells and
begins to produce antibodies in response. A number of cells such as cytotoxic T cells are
produced which could affect the implanted tissue.
The rejection of this organ is reduced by closely matching the donor organs proteins to
the recipients proteins. By doing this it allows the recipient a higher chance of accepting
the organ. The immune system is also suppressed after an organ transplant.
Antilymphocyte globulin (ALG) is a drug that suppresses the immune response. This drug
allows the recipient a greater chance of accepting the organ rather then destroying it.
A balance between suppressive drugs and monitoring increases the chances of the organ
transplant being a success.
Identify and describe the main features of epidemiology using lung cancer as an
example.
Things to consider:
- What does identify and describe mean?
- What is epidemiology?
- Be succinct.
Epidemiology is the study of disease that affects many people. These types of studies
describe the patterns and causes of certain diseases within a population. The diseases
studied can be infectious diseases such as influenza and non infectious diseases mainly
caused by lifestyle and environmental factors. Epidemiological studies have been able to
establish links between smoking and lung cancer. With this knowledge government
agencies can take preventative measures such as warnings on smoking packets or
advertisements which show the adverse effects smoking has on the human body. It is
through epidemiology scientists have been able to draw links between disease and
certain underlying factors which in turn gives rise to treatment, control and prevention.
Identify causes of non infectious disease using an example from each of the following
categories:
- inherited disease
- nutritional deficiencies
- environmental diseases
Non infectious disease is caused by many underlying factors. These factors include the
malfunction of the physiology, metabolism or structures of the body. These malfunctions
lead to the deprivation and disease for the human body. Non infectious disease falls
into three main categories. Firstly inherited disease is a non infectious disease passed
on from generation to generation through the genetic code of the family. An example of
an inherited disease is Down syndrome. Secondly nutritional deficiencies cause non
infectious disease by either malnutrition (nutrients totally unbalanced) or under nutrition (not enough food). Some examples of nutritional deficiencies include anorexia
nervosa, kwashiorkor and Aboriginal nutritional diseases. Thirdly environmental factors
cause non infectious disease by polluting the body with unnecessary and often
poisonous substances. Such substances include alcohol, tobacco, drugs and heavy
metals. These poisons can cause disease such as heavy metal poisoning, cirrhosis of the
liver or lung cancer.
Gather, process and analyse information to identify the cause and effect relationship of
smoking and lung cancer.
Ever since the introduction of tobacco and smoking, there has always been the
conception that smoking causes lung cancer. This was thought to be true as early as the
1920s. Subsequently epidemiological studies were performed between the 1930s
1960s to test whether or not smoking was the cause of lung cancer. Two significant
studies were produced by Doll (1947) and Hill (1951).
Doll used a case study report by comparing two different groups of people. The first
group of people all had lung cancer while the other group had various diseases. Both of
these groups were asked about their smoking habits. What Doll found was that a large
percentage of the lung cancer patients were smokers while the control group a smaller
percentage were smokers and it was quite possible that their illness was caused by
smoking as well. Dolls results were as follows:
CASES
TEST GROUP
CONTROL GROUP
Smokers
1350
1296
Non Smokers
7
61
Total
1357
1357
Hills cohort study involved a number of doctors across Great Britain. The study involved
the doctors answering a number of questions on their smoking habits. Those doctors who
were smokers were part of the smoking group, while those doctors who did not smoke
were part of the control group. Both groups were followed over a 10 year period. During
this period 133 people died. Of those 130 of them were smokers. The results were as
follows:
DAILY NUMBER OF
CIGARETTES SMOKED
0
1 14
15 24
25+
TOTAL
The above table indicates that the greater the number of cigarettes smoked a day the
greater chance of death by lung cancer.
Subsequently many more epidemiological studies have taken place to illustrate the
cause and effect relationship between smoking and lung cancer. This has lead to a
greater awareness of the risk factors involved with smoking.
Pages 309 to 312 contain further information about smoking and lung cancer.
Identify data sources, plan and perform a first hand investigation or gather information
from secondary sources to analyse and present information about the occurrence,
symptoms, cause, treatment/management of a named non infectious disease. (Page
318)
Things to consider:
- This will be a secondary source task. What does gather, analyse and present
mean?
- How will you present your findings?
- Choose one disease and be succinct.
DOWN SYNDROME
OCCURRENCE
SYMPTOMS
CAUSE
TREATMENT/MANAGEME
NT
Explain how one of the following strategies has controlled and/or prevented disease:
- public health programs
- pesticides
- genetic engineering to produce disease resistant plants and animals (Page 332
333)
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- You only have to choose ONE. Some knowledge on all three could be beneficial (if
you have time).
- Be succinct.
Through genetic engineering scientists have been able to produce disease resistant
plants and animals. By increasing our knowledge of certain plants and livestock, and
their genetic make up, humans have been able to increase food supplies. Genetic
engineering is a relatively new study and the full potential of this technique has not been
realised.
For example Australian scientists have produced a genetically modified pea that is
resistant to the pea weevil. The pea weevil consumes large amounts of crops every year
in Australia. The gene that confers resistance to the pea weevil was extracted from the
common kidney bean. This gene was spliced into the pea crops. The result was that the
gene produces a certain protein that cannot be broken down by the larvae and hence the
larvae die out.
A simple animal example is humans. In medicine scientists have genetically engineered
insulin using recombinant DNA to help control diabetes.
Perform an investigation to examine plant shoots and leaves and gather first hand
information of evidence of pathogens and insect pests.
Things to consider:
- What are insect pests? (Rose bush cuttings will be acquired. Look for tiny insects
known as aphids. These insects suck the sap out of the rose bush.)
- What are pathogens? (Look for discolouration of leaves or bulges/growths on
leaves and stems
- Refer to page 328 for experimental procedure. Gather your results and write your
Conclusion to your experiment.