Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Department of Geotechnics
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
2014. May
Foundation Engineering
Department of Geotechnics
CONTENTS
Preface
1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1
1.2
GROUND INVESTIGATION...................................................................................................................... 6
2.1
Direct processes............................................................................................................................. 7
2.2
2.3
Settlements ...................................................................................................................................33
3.4
Foundation Engineering
Department of Geotechnics
Stability of shallow foundation ..................................................................................................56
4.2
4.3
CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS................................................................................................78
5.1
Retaining structures.....................................................................................................................78
Foundation Engineering
Department of Geotechnics
Preface
This Foundations note is aimed at helping the International and Hungarian university students
conducting their studies in English at BUTE recalling the pieces of information mentioned at
lectures and getting ready not only for exams but for real technical professional life.
The subject through this note presents a corner stone of geotechnics, showcasing the calculation of
soil load bearing capacities, the preliminary design of shallow foundations, the problems that may
arise during construction and their solutions as well as basic technical correlations and
technological processes.
Because of the wide scope of foundations of buildings and the diversity of the material to cover in
this subject, some questions are often discussed at a very basic, somewhat superficial level.
Therefore, the note is to the point, containing only the essence every civil engineer is supposed to
be well aware of while practicing their profession.
We do hope however, that in spite of all these, the material covered in lectures and included in the
note will be able to make the university students be interested so that later on, as an engineer
throughout their professional career they constantly acquire new knowledge in connection with
geotechnics.
We hereby would like to say thank you to dm Kapcsos who largely contributed to the creation of
this very note with his excellent command of English.
Foundation Engineering
Department of Geotechnics
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The role and function of the foundation
Every structure transmits its self weight and the imposed loads onto the subsoil therefore the
stability and structural strength is predominantly the function of how successfully this
connection between the structure and the soil has been established. The structure, more
precisely, its foundation generates stresses (Figure 1.) and deformations in the soil. The soil is
compressed, the substructure settles. Uneven settlements create forces, stresses in the
superstructure that may result in cracks, yielding and passing Serviceability Limit State. In
extreme case,-due to overloading, even soil failure can take place in the soil layer below the
foundation. Numerous national and international cases could be mentioned from various
historic eras when the connection between the structure and the soil was not properly designed
(e.g.: Leaning tower of Pisa, Transcona silo, fermentation tanks of Nagykanizsa, etc.). The
foundations are- usually subterranean- load bearing and load transmitting structural members
of buildings that transmit the loads of the whole structure to the soil.
Figure 1.: Stresses generated in the soil layer below the foundation
The function of the foundation: Transmitting the loads to the soil without damage sustained.
There can be shallow and deep foundations moreover we can speak of intermediate solutions
as well. The method of foundation depends on:
- the subsoil;
- the groundwater;
- neighbouring buildings;
- the structure type of the building;
- thermal effects;
- the circumstances of the construction
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Uneven
settlement
GROUND INVESTIGATION
Adequate foundation can only be constructed if the parameters of the soil and that of the
groundwater are known on the site. For a geotechnical designer these are as essential input data as the
function, capacity and site coverage of a building is for an architect. While for the structural engineers
the mechanical properties of concrete and steel are given, used as known factors in calculations, the
first step of geotechnical design is getting known the soils of the site and producing mechanical
parameters for them.
On the basis of the aforementioned, it is obvious that without proper soil exploration the
design of a foundation is impossible furthermore; an economical design can only be produced via
profound knowledge of soil properties.
The subsoil and groundwater parameters can be determined by on-site (in-situ) ground
investigation. The ground investigation can be split into two groups on the basis of direct and indirect
processes. In case of direct processes the soil stratification is explored directly, samples are taken from
each layer further examined in laboratories. In contrast, in case of indirect processes soil properties
and stratification is deduced from a know parameter.
The advantage of the direct process is that samples can be taken with which further
examinations in laboratories are possible however, with this method by all means the original
structure of the soil is changed to some extent moreover laboratory tests bring in additional disturbing
factors into the results. The essence of the indirect processes is to get the soils examined in their
original, in-situ state hence the examination can take place having their natural layout and original
stress states. Although, in that case pieces of information regarding soil properties can only be
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obtained indirectly by using an empirical correlation therefore sometimes the computed results are not
of appropriate accuracy. Nowadays, when indirect processes are more and more widespread and
available methods of soil exploration, I suppose, that the best option is to use the direct and indirect
processes together thus getting the most accurate picture of the examined site at hand.
The direct processes of soil exploration are the followings:
test pit
drillings:
small diameter
large diameter
The indirect processes of soil exploration can be classified as follows:
sounding processes:
standard penetration test (SPT)
dynamic probe test (DPL, DPM, DPH)
cone penetration test (CPT)
vane shear test (VST)
flat plate dilatometer test (DMT)
pressuremeter test (PMT)
geophysical processes
geoelectrics
radioisotope process
georadar
radio frequency processes
cross-hole, down-hole
refraction processes
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The test pit, in which the tilting of the soil layers is visible by naked eye, their thickness can be
measured precisely and ideal for taking undisturbed sample, is obsolete as a method. Although
nowadays large amount of soil is excavated by machines being more effective than manual digging
previously, the stability of the test pit and the extent in case of a sloped pit raises concerns regarding
costs.
Additional disadvantage being its limited depth, as most excavators can only dig down to 3-5 m of
depth which value is further reduced by the presence of groundwater, below whose level a test pit
cannot be deepened. Do not construct test pits below the designed building. Because of recompaction
issues test pits are to be excavated outside of the contour of the designed building. In recent times, test
pits can only be found at foundation explorations at existing buildings.
Soil mechanical drillings can be done by drilling apparatus of small and large diameter. The
advantage of the small diameter drill is its portability and that it can be operated in areas inaccessible
for vehicles such as cellars and patios. The shipment of this tool is manageable by an average
passenger car which implies a great cost reduction.
Obviously, the classic manual drills have already been replaced by machines of various
manufacturers and brands. In Hungary, the small diameter drilling has been affiliated with the
apparatus manufactured by the firm Borro, therefore it is referred to as Borro-drilling in professional
circles.
Although the portability of the small drilling tools has its back draws coming mainly from the
limited power (energy output) and downward force exerted by people. The method leads to the
drilling grinding to a halt in case of hard and dense soils consequently in many cases only a limited
depth can be reached. This kind of halt is also frequent in soils having considerably large grain size
diameters. Basically, this method is applicable for drillings between 3 and 8 meters of depth. During
the drilling, a spiral of 63 mm in diameter is utilised and the opportunity is there for taking samples of
moisture content, which enables the soil identification procedures in laboratories. Its scope includes
dwelling houses, industrial facilities of smaller scale, linear structures.
Foundation Engineering
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The large diameter drills step over the limitations of small diameter drills, being usually truck
or lorry mounted drilling towers, having the self-weight of the truck as a reaction force and being
capable of exerting larger torque in drilling due to the high performance engines. Several alternative
type of this drilling method is known depending on the desired depth, the expected soil layers and the
method of sample taking. With the help of large diameter drills tens or hundreds of meters of depth
can be reached, the standard drill diameter ranging from 100 to 300 mm. When carrying out large
diameter drillings, undisturbed samples are available usually of 90-160 mm diameter alongside with
moisture content samples.
Advantages can sometimes turn to disadvantages as big machinery means big cost, bigger
crew and less number of accessible places. French and Italian firms are pioneers in manufacturing
medium self-propelled caterpillar drilling machines between large and small diameter. These
machines are capable of drilling large diameter boreholes and taking undisturbed samples from couple
of tens of meters of depth, thus are applicable in case of the majority of engineering structures. Such
smart machine is shown in the picture (Figure 7/b.)
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Foundation Engineering
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Dynamic Probing is very similar to SPT sounding, where a special tip of 90 conical shape
and 4,37 cm in diameter located on a bar 3,2 cm in diameter is driven in by a 50 kg rammer dropped
from 50 cm of height. (DPH: Dynamic Probing Heavy) The most popular is the DPH but in the
function of the geometry of the tip of the probe and the kinetic energy of the hammer (weight and
dropping height) there exist Dynamic Probe Light (DPL) and Dynamic Probe Medium (DPM).
During the measurement the number of hammer shocks concerning 10 cm of penetration
depth is recorded and represented. Figure 9/b is depicting a sounding diagram. The resemblance of the
method SPT and DPH is showcased by the fact that the SPT30 hammer shock number regarding 30
cm penetration depth at SPT is equal to the N20 belonging to 20 cm of penetration depth at DPH
according to the literature.
Foundation Engineering
Department of Geotechnics
The counter weight necessary against the pressure is either maintained by the truck or by soil
anchors. Stress during the driving is measured at the probe tip and at the mantle of the cone that are
called tip resistance and mantle friction. The tips of some special tools of this kind are capable of
measuring pore water pressure and most recently emitting seismic waves. The measured data is
transmitted directly to computers.
The method is the
base of pile dimensioning
but more and more
correlations are concluded
regarding
the
shear
strength, the Modulus of
Elasticity or even the
yielding tendency of soils.
Figure 12. summarises the
most important data of
sounding. Figure 11.
shows a general set of data
obtainable after analysis.
Courtesy of Robertson
(Robertson 1986) even the
type of soils can be
identified from sounding
data with relatively high
precision.
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Foundation Engineering
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The Vane Shear Test is a sounding method used at soft cohesive soils and peats. With the help
of the correlations defined for this very method the undrained shear strength of soils can be
conveniently concluded in-situ. At the sounding a four-winged probe tip is rotated in the soil with
which around the mantle the soil is sheared. The force necessary for the rotation (torque) is measured
and recomputed into drained shear strength in the knowledge of the mantle surface area. The method
and the most important data is shown in Figure 12.
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Foundation Engineering
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At down-hole method, a hole is at service into which the waves are transmitted and measured
reflected. At cross- hole method, two or more parallel holes, one next to the other are there, hence the
wave generation at the same depth is measured in the neighbouring hole. A diagram visualising the
processed results and the principal of the method at hand can be seen in Figure 17.
Refraction seismic survey measures surface wave propagation. In surface wave propagation
measurement, waves are generated on the surface by hammer blows or explosions and their
propagation is observed by geophones connected in line placed on the surface. The measurement
enables the separation of layers thus the propagation velocity in individual layers can be traced back.
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Foundation Engineering
Department of Geotechnics
According to Eurocode 7, the Design Groundwater Level (GWLd) is equal to the value
of the Characteristic Groundwater Level (GWLk), which is the estimated maximum GWL
raised by 0,5 m.
0,5 ,
The water level expected during construction is called Construction Groundwater Level.
The permanent structures should be designed for the GWLd, but at the temporary structures
(e.g. sheetpile wall) can be used the construction GWL.
The chemical composition of the soil shall be defined as well.(SO4, pH, Cl).
In general-if the suitability of a dewatering system cannot be justified and its operation
maintained. The design groundwater level value can be taken as the highest level ever
recorded which may very well be identical to the surface level. The groundwater types (Figure
19.)
- 1) Free surface;
- 2) Pressure groundwater;
- 3) Lower groundwater
floor;
- 4) Water dome;
- 5) Floating groundwater;
- 6) Pseudo groundwater.
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19
Foundation Engineering
2. For raft foundation and structures with
foundation elements whose effect in
strata are superimposed on each other:
za1,5bB
where bB is the smaller side of the structure.
Department of Geotechnics
several
deeper
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6. For excavations where the piezometric surface and the groundwater tables are below
the excavation base, the larger value of the following conditions should be met:
za0,4h
za(t+2,0)m
where
t is the embedded length of the support,.
h is the excavation depth.
7. For excavations where the piezometric surface and the groundwater tables are above
the excavation base, the larger value of the following conditions should be met:
za(1,0H+2,0)m
za(t+2,0)m
where
t is the embedded length of the support,.
H is the height of the groundwater level above the excavation base.
General remark: Up to soil layer of good strength and adequate thickness shall be drilled.
Construction on bomb- site: The foundation level of the neighbouring buildings is to be
defined as well.
Floor- attachment: area and foundation level depth defined with open ditch exploration. The
product is the soil exploration report.
The recommended spacing of the investigations can be found at the Table 1.
Table 1.
Type of building
High rise buildings, industrial facilities
Buildings of big area
Linear structures (road, railroad, canals, pipelines, causeways,
retaining walls)
Special structures (e.g.: bridge, chimney, machine base)
Dams, barrages
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Foundation Engineering
Department of Geotechnics
3 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
The foundations transmit the load of the building onto the soil. If the foundation is directly
part of the whole structure, for instance placed right under the wall (as an extention), then we
are speaking about shallow foundation. Should the load bearing soil layer be situated lower
below, pile foundation or diaphragma wall (deep foundation) is necessary to be installed as
load transferring structural element.
Deepened shallow foundation: if the foundation is placed deeper than the necessary minimal
level of foundation by structural admissibility. For instance, a building having a cellar is
usually assigned with a foundation depth of 2,5-3,0 m.
Shallow foundation can be applied if:
- Near surface soil layer of adequate load bearing capacity and thickness there is;
- The layer close to surface has no big strength but deeper down the layers have no
better properties either hence the load of the building can be distributed over a
large area (slab foundation);
- The load bearing capacity of the subsoil is small but the structure imposed on it is
not sensitive to building settlements and by applying near surface shallow
foundation the costly water table sinking and deep foundations can be avoided.
Deep foundation is to be designed only in case if the shallow foundation is not feasible
technically or could only be constructed with higher costs.
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Foundation Engineering
Concrete
Concrete
Stone (rubble)
Department of Geotechnics
Floating concrete
Brickwork
Reinforced concrete
At the prefabricated (precast) columns of industrial facilities the following versions are in use.
Figure 25. The chalice foundation seen at part a) is comparatively common. The steel or
reinforced concrete columns are placed into the chalice of the prefabricated pad then
concreted in.
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Foundation Engineering
Brickwork
Department of Geotechnics
Stone (rubble)
Concrete
Reinforced Concrete
Chalice foundation
The connection of the steel column (pillar) and the concrete pad is shown at part b) the screw
connection is meant to transmit tensile stresses.
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Department of Geotechnics
Constructed if the soil is weaker or enhanced rigidity is necessary in two directions. The
material being reinforced concrete.
Flat Slab
Their construction only takes place if the loads of the building can only be transmitted over
the whole surface area otherwise the specific load would exceed the load bearing capacity of
the soil. Originating from their relatively small thickness, slabs are quite flexible in general. If
there are reinforcing bars inside the slab at the places of ribs but the thickness of the slab is the
same as the height of the ribs then the structure at hand is a concealed slab. Strength-wise the
convex vault in the bottom is more favourable though more complicated to make. At fully
cellared building if insulation against water pressure is needed as well, the slabs are
economical choices.
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3.2
Before the design of the foundation the plans of the building are to be examined from
structural and static point of view:
- How about rigidity and settlement sensitivity?
- The soil exploration and examination data possessed is of adequate kind?
The design is a question of technical and financial aspects.
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Department of Geotechnics
Frost line (freezing depth): the largest thickness of the soil layer cooled below 0 in the
winter. Under national circumstances the frost line:
- in granular soil: 0.8 m;
- Over 500 m above the Baltic Seal Level: 0.9 m;
- in cohesive soil: 1.0 m;
- in case of foundation on solid bedrock: 0.5 m.
On flat terrain
On sloped terrain
Concrete fill-in
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s
e
tt
l
m
e
n
t
Load
s
e
tt
l
m
e
n
t
Elastic
zone
Intermediate
zone
Plastic
zone
Elastic impact
Plastic zones
Slip surface
Later on, the penetration increases dramatically (vertical and horizontal grain particle
displacement takes place as well), and a well defined slip surface- soil failure takes form as
the loaded area loses its support. The failure does not always happen the way it was
mentioned. There is:
- general shear failure;
- local shear failure;
- impact (drilling-in).
c) Computation of the failure load
As a substructure we consider a stripe foundation with a vertical centric concentrated force on
it and a small foundation depth (t < 2b). This time, with regards to the soil mass above the
terrain being either backfill or loose surface layer; the shear strength of the soil above the
foundation level is modified in favour of safety.
Terzaghis failure stress formula is written in the following general form:
where: Nb, Nt s Nc bearing capacity coefficients, their value is the function of friction
angles computable and presentable in graphs and curves (Figure Figure 16.)
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Figure 16.: The value of load bearing capacity coefficients in the function of the friction angle
0.5
where:
A Effective area (A = B L);
B Effective base width (smaller horizontal dimension);
L Effective base length (bigger horizontal dimension);
Effective specific weight (density) of soil under the foundation level;
c Effective cohesion of the soil under the foundation level;
cu Undrained shear strength of soil under the foundation level;
q The smaller effective stress on the surface area;
N, Nc, Nq Bearing capacity coefficients;
i, ic, iq Inclined load factors;
s, sc, sq Shape factors
b, bc, bq Inclination of base
Note: The computation of the factors may differ from drained to undrained conditions.
In case of stripe foundations, a complex quadratic, in case of pad foundations a third order
equation provides the necessary base width (B).
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Flexible
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Rigid foundations
Rigid foundations are such that their plane does not deform even under load. These concrete
slabs almost identical in width and height are rigid.
At cohesive soils, according to (Figure Figure 18. (b)) a saddle like base stress body is likely
(with small sideways deviation).
In dry, granular soils (e.g.: sand), grains under the substructure can be displaced sideways
(Figure l. c.), in which case the stress under the edges (in case of t = 0) can be reduced to zero.
The stress distribution will be parabolic. The effects of foundation depth increment are
depicted in Figure d.
Foundation depth
Granular soil
Cohesive soil
Granular soil
In practice, simplifications, approximations are made in general and the work is done by the
base stress distribution shown in Figure Figure 19. The base stress distribution does not
influence the load bearing capacity of the soil since the failure takes place inside the soil mass.
Figure 19.: Base Stress distribution under stripe foundations (simplified) in case of different
eccentricities (e)
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Flexible foundations
Base stress distributions are shown in Figure Figure 20.In a sense the base stress distribution
is the mirror image of the load distribution.
k:h
1:2
1:1,5
1:1
Figure 21.
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3.3 Settlements
The settlements- as described before- are vertical displacements of buildings, foundations
related to an initial reference point in time and in space. The proper design of the foundation
includes the proof that the deformation sustained by the subsoil is of not that great of a
magnitude to react harmfully on the building.
Causes of settlements:
- static loads;
- dynamic loads and effects;
- effect of water present in the soil (fluctuation of GWL, groundwater flow, slump,
swelling, drying, pipe leakage);
- under-washing (the void creating effect of groundwater), mine, cellar, tunnel;
- landslide (near surface soil mass movement);
- chemical transformations (swelling, dissolving);
- Thermal effects (frost, cold stores, furnaces).
Only the magnitude of the expected settlements induced by static loads can be calculated with
relative precision. In the followings they will be dealt with.
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Granular soil
Normal consolidation
curves
Cohesive soil
Stress computing methods from theoretical bases are capable of computing with:
- concentrated (point) load;
- linear (distributed) load;
- lane load;
- closed areal load.
34
is valid.
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3
2
cos
In fact, the stress components have similar, more or less complicated formula as well
sx, sy, txy,
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cos
Mitchells deduction regarding stresses under the stripe foundations of walls may be seen in
Figure Figure 26.
magnitude of force is acting whose only feature in the figure is the final result. Again, of
course the greatest vertical stress is at the axis of symmetry of the lane. (Figure Figure 27. ).
The angles appearing in the formula are meant to be unit less.
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Figure 29.: Calculation of vertical stresses with the help of the graph
First of all, L/B and z/B ratios are calculated, where z is the depth under the foundation level
of the examined points (at which points stresses are looked for). The value of z/B is taken on
the vertical axis then progress is to be made horizontally towards the corresponding L/B
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curve. The point of intersection is projected to the horizontal axis where a z / p ratio can be
read from which in the knowledge of p base stress, z is computable. With the help of the
graph, the stresses under the corner points are obtainable as well.
At settlement calculation the vertical stresses (average stresses) generated in the line of the so
called characteristic point is used. Hence graphs were constructed in order to acquire the
stress generated under the characteristic point of the right angled rectangular foundations as
well (Kany) (Table Table 2.), which can be seen here in a tabular form. (B = the smaller base
width).
Table 2.: Stress determination under the characteristic point
B/L
z/B
0
0,05
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,8
1
1,5
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
16
18
20
0
1,000
0,990
0,945
0,826
0,739
0,677
0,630
0,590
0,524
0,467
0,360
0,288
0,203
0,155
0,125
0,113
0,100
0,088
0,075
0,063
0,056
0,050
0,044
0,038
0,032
0,2
1,000
0,990
0,944
0,824
0,730
0,660
0,603
0,553
0,469
0,399
0,278
0,206
0,128
0,088
0,065
0,056
0,047
0,039
0,030
0,021
0,018
0,015
0,012
0,009
0,006
0,4
1,000
0,989
0,941
0,804
0,689
0,601
0,532
0,477
0,392
0,329
0,226
0,163
0,095
0,060
0,041
0,035
0,029
0,023
0,017
0,011
0,009
0,007
0,006
0,004
0,003
38
0,6
1,000
0,988
0,932
0,770
0,637
0,544
0,477
0,425
0,348
0,290
0,193
0,134
0,072
0,044
0,029
0,024
0,020
0,016
0,012
0,008
0,006
0,005
0,004
0,003
0,002
0,8
1,000
0,985
0,918
0,731
0,593
0,502
0,438
0,389
0,316
0,260
0,166
0,111
0,057
0,034
0,023
0,020
0,016
0,013
0,009
0,006
0,005
0,004
0,003
0,002
0,001
1
1,000
0,981
0,898
0,694
0,557
0,470
0,409
0,362
0,289
0,234
0,144
0,094
0,047
0,028
0,018
0,015
0,013
0,010
0,008
0,005
0,004
0,003
0,002
0,001
0,001
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Stress reduction
2 tg
2 tg
By convention = , tg = 0.5 is assumed, but in the national practice = 30 , or = 45 is
more widespread.
b) Jkys Limiting Depth Theory
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2
up to the limiting depth (below which no stress from the surface load is generated)
Therefore at stripe foundation:
m0 = 2 B, (L )
at square pillars:
m0 = B, (L = B)
Between the verticals of the edges of the substructure (based on the principal of similar
triangles):
that is:
2
2
Having substituted z back:
c) Determination of settlements
Basic correlations
Vertical specific deformation of the medium according to the elasticity of materials:
1
1
1 2
the compression modulus directly obtained from compression curves is what the calculation is
done with, then the effect of sx, sy stresses has already been taken into account as well thus
the formula at hand is:
1
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d) Calculation in practice
Out of the three components of settlements caused by static loads, as mentioned before the
Secondary compression is neglected under normal circumstances (sm 0). The traditional
settlement calculation does not disentangle Primary compression from initial consolidation
as these two are calculated together exclusively via laboratory compression tests. At normally
consolidated materials calculated traditionally, 60-95% is consolidation (sc), while the rest
being Primary compression (sk).
Steps of the traditional settlement calculation:
- Taking up the foundation depth, taking up the area, calculation of average base
stress, sketching soil stratification;
- Fixing the standard load combination from the viewpoint of settlements;
- Determining the vertical self weight stresses with regards to GWL.
- Determining the off-load of the layers under the foundation caused by the
excavation (cellar or footing pit);
- Calculating the distribution of the vertical normal stress in the function of depth in
the axis of the substructure (under the foundation level);
- Defining the compressibility of each layer (perhaps as the sum of sub results of
layers laminated);
- Obtaining the total settlement as the sum of individual ones
The compressibility of each layer can be calculated either by compression curves or making a
good use of the compression modulus.
1. Calculation with compression curves
The essence of this method of calculation is depicted in Figure Figure 32.
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In terms of soil layers under the foundation level (1, 2, i. n.) the self weight stress diagram can
be drawn ( hi i ) as well as the diagram of stress dissipation ( z ) keeping in mind the offloading ( z 0 = p t0 ) . To the horizontal axis of the compression curve of the examined ith soil layer, the self weight stress acting in the midline of the layer is projected ( g1 , g2 , gn ) ,
taking into consideration the fact that the layer was not unloaded prior to the construction, by
that. As a continuation of gi the average stress (z1 ,z2 ,zn ) generated by the building at the
midline of the layer (in case of lamination, the sub layer) is surveyed.
Readings are made on the vertical axis showing the increment of load induced specific
deformation (1, 2, n), according which the compression of the layer:
si = hi i.
The settlement of the foundation:
Stripe foundation
As seen before:
1
This calculation is to be carried out with every layer (or/and sub layer) then summed up with
regards to compression moduli (Es):
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If the dissipation of stress is considered linear based on Jkys theory (Figure l. right hand
side), then the approximate value of the settlement is obtained easily:
.
2
e) Limiting depth
It is exclusively the Theory of Jky that delineates the depth, below which (excess) stress from
the surface load is not generated under the foundation level (m0). Practically speaking, that
means that only with that depth shall settlement calculations be carried out. In practical cases
anyway it is advisable to draw a line of depth to which extent the load creates soil
deformation. The codes of most countries regard the depth m0 the limiting depth, where:
thus the load generated stress is equal to the n quotient of geostatic pressure (self weight
stress). In the national practice, n = 5 calculating (0,2 hi i ). In Germany and in the USA
n=10 value is in use. If the width of the base is B > 10 m (slab foundation), then experiences
show that:
m0 = B B / 2
Taking up a limiting depth is justifiable (cohesive granular soils).
f) Taking collapse into consideration
It has already been learnt in the subject soil mechanics that soils having macro pores and loose
structure (loess, loose sand, fill) sustain settlements exceptionally fast slump (collapse) under
load, or wetting. With the compression curve constructed by the Oedometer slump test, the
excess settlement under the foundation level may be calculated (Figure Figure 34.).
sr = r h,
where h is the thickness of the slumping layer
This incremental settlement value shall be added to the settlement value calculated from static
loads.
Soaking
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Relative deflection
Deflection ratio
Leaning
Relative rotation
(angular distortion)
In the table of national annex NA1. (see table Table 3.) all the limit values shall be perceived
as the as the ratio of settlement differences between the critical points of a building and the
distance between these point, according to the following:
- relative rotation is to be calculated from the settlement difference between two
arbitrary,
- tilting is computable from the settlement difference of two terminal points of a
rigid building,
- the relative deflection is calculated by connecting an internal point with a terminal
one. The excess settlements of points with regards to the line set out by the above;
over the distance is the relative deflection.
- the relative inflexion is comprehended similarly to relative deflection if the internal
point remains above the line connecting the terminal points (edges).
According to Hungarian practice, the R curvature radius created by uneven settlements of
ordinary buildings is related to the L length and H height: R / (L H) as follows:
- no cracking expected even without partial defense if R / (L H) > 0,25,
- partial defense (e.g.: lower crown)prevents cracking if R / (L H) > 0,06,
- crack though appear, cause no mortal peril if R / (L H) > 0,04,
- cracks cause no mortal peril in case of partial defence R / (L H) > 0,01.
The R radius is to be determined as a circle set out by three structurally significant points.
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Nature of deformation
If the consolidation is
Fast
Buildings with
load bearing
framework
Buildings
without load
bearing
framework
0,0007
0,001
0,005
Relative rotation
0,002
Relative rotation
Relative rotation
Slow
Relative deflection
0,0007
0,001
Relative inflexion
0,00035
0,0005
Relative deflection
0,001
0,0013
Relative inflexion
0,0005
0,0006
Relative deflection
Relative inflexion
Tilting
Relative rotation
Relative rotation
0,001
0,0005
0,01 L/H
0,004
0,004
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Soft clay
Sand
Uneven soil
stratification
Hard clay
Gravel
Uneven loading
Different foundation
method
Piles
Stress superposition
Deep
excavation
Equilibrium state of an
existing building
disrupted
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Hairline cracks are spoken about if the crack width is smaller than 0,1 mm. With rendering
(plastering) cracks of 5-15 mm may be repaired. Although above 25 mm crack width
restoration or reconstruction is necessary.
Line of settlements
For long term measurements, benchmarks can be built into the walls and pillars. (Figure
Figure 39.)
Wall plain
Levelling rod position
Gypsum
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In the Figure 56. typical settlement curves can be seen. In the settlements of building (a)
standing on granular soil (sand), overwhelmingly take place during construction. In case of
cohesive subsoil (clay), settlements are significant having finished construction as well (b). In
case (c), the curve converges to a diagonal tangent, the slow deformation leads to failure.
Final (constant) load
Load
t time
Sand subsoil
Settlement
Clay subsoil
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Soft
Clay
Gravel
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Total load
The fact that the excavated excess soil mass significantly reduces settlements can be made a
good use of in designing practice. In Figure 58/a. a section of a two-storey-cellared building
can be seen. In part b. of the figure the depicted consolidation curve shows that the settlement
of the building only started when during construction a certain load level was reached.
In this way, an almost perfectly settlement free foundation can be constructed. Namely, if the
mass of the soil excavated from the place of the cellar is greater than that of the building to be
placed in then the resultant of the effective stresses on the subsoil is negative, hence the
building motionless.
c) Soil replacement
The highly compressible original soil below foundation level is excavated in part or in whole
and a replacement soil is put in its place (more favourable properties, sandy gravel or sand
usually) with proper compaction (Figure Figure 44.), and with geogrid, geoweb, geotextile or
composite separating layer if possible.
Compressible
Soft
Clay
Well
compacted
granular
soil
Soil replacement may only be done above GWL otherwise the compaction is impossible to be
performed.
d) Restraining sideways movement
In case of loose granular and soft cohesive soils with near surface foundation level, the
sideways movement of soil particles (dodging) from under the foundation may cause
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considerable settlements.
Prevention:
- surrounding the whole foundation with steel sheet piles;
- impose surface load on surfaces about to bulge due to sideways movement.
Sheet piling is especially effective if the piles can be driven into deeper, solid soil layers and
thus a cantilever like behaviour is maintained.
e) Soil stabilisation
The artificial physical property enhancement of sub-foundation soil layers prone to settle. This
method is when certain substances are put (injected) into the voids of the soil but it is also soil
stabilisation when properties are changed for the better by compaction.
1. Mechanical stabilisation
Deep compaction is used for enhancing stability and reducing compressibility of loose
granular soils and fills. At vibroflotation also widely used in Hungary, a vibration generating
cylinder of 38 cm diameter is proceeding downwards in the soil due to its self weight. Its
motion is also helped by water grouting. In the vicinity of the hole, now created, the soil is
compacted. After that, alongside with the gradual pullout of the vibrator, gravel, grit, mine
tailings and sand is poured into the hole and is compacted by the upward proceeding vibrator
(Figure l. Figure 45.).
Extension
pipe
Slump cone
Replacement mat.
Vibrator
Compacted zone
Geodraines, more and more frequently used around the World facilitate the faster
consolidation of cohesive soils. The wick drain like a large sewing machine- grouts or
drives a rigid bar into the soil and simultaneously a polyethylene stripe (geodrain) covered in a
filtration paper (textile). After the removal of the rigid bar, the geodrains remain in (Figure l.
Figure 46.).
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0SR8BMbOpAg
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(The geodrain stripes wrapped up on a bobbin similar to that of the sewing machine are then
cut on the surface.) In most cases, the ribbed plastic drain stripes collect the water of the
cohesive subsoil. With this method, the quick pore water pressure alleviation or permanent
elimination of cohesive soils and building settlement acceleration is obtainable. It is widely
used at motorway embankments where with preloading the desired settlement can be even
more speeded up (Figure Figure 47.).
Time
Settlement
Preloading
s
e
tt
l
m
e
n
t
Without drain
With drain, without preloading
Drain+Preload
Construction phase
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WP-4_5gMb14
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the laitance or cement + sand mortar downwards at 7-10 atm. of pressure. The voids of the
soil to be stabilised shall be bigger than the maximal grain size of the cement, therefore only
sand coarser than 0,8-1 mm or hollow, fragmented cohesive soil can be injected with it.
Injection is to be done from bottom to top as the pipe is pulled up (Figure Figure 48.).
Curtain
Upper
sealing
Places of
injection
pipes
Sealing stopple
5. Mass stabilisation
During mass stabilisation a special propeller mixer is mixing up the soil and a cementing
material of some kind. The mixing head is mountable on rotatable-frame hydraulic excavators
at the bottom which the propeller mixer is revolving about an axis. To the propeller mixer,
various blades can be installed in the function of the soil type. The cementing material is
coming from self propelled silos attached to the excavator. The adequate mixing quantity of
the cementing material is controlled and supervised via a control panel installed in the drivers
cabin which provides informative figures on the quantity stored in the silo and the actual
pressure. The propeller mixer is 1,5 m wide and 0,95 m in diameter hence at a time it is
capable of turning over ~1,2 m2. During the mix, propeller mixer is moved up and down with
cementing material continuously arriving with high pressure through the mixer. Mixing heads
can be of 3-5 m which can be further extended by 2 m with an adjustable length extension
measuring the total of 7 m in stabilised depth now. With mass stabilisation an average of 0,50,8 m3 of soil can be mixed up, turned over per minute.
The weight of the mixing head and the propeller mixer can be 5 tons that is to be pushed into
the soil consequently base machinery of 25-40 tons is necessary in order to safely operate.
The stabilisation procedure is to be started always from a stable area so that other machines
can operate and move free not bothered by the stabilisation done in front of the mixer. The
stabilised area does not immediately assume its terminal stability thus if necessary, geotextile,
geogrid or granular material is to be applied to enable the movement of the machine chain.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NW64sttpqHI&list=PL5D8CA86E166BDB26
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This technology in general is used for stabilising large areas; in the literature sometimes the
stabilisation of a couple of thousand of m2 is mentioned. The manufacturer basically
recommends the following opportunities of utilisation:
- under streets, motorways, railways,
- parking spaces sport facilities open air storage areas,
- under the foundation of dwelling house districts, industrial buildings, bridges,
- under industrial floors, industrial sites,
- at ports, under swimming pools,
- dams, slope refurbishment and stabilisation,
- at laying public works,
- in order to reduce earth pressure,
- in order to create isolating layers,
- in order to prevent liquefaction,
- at stabilising contaminated soils, or sewage sludge.
f) Application of preload
The settlement of the building is mitigated so that the majority of the compression of the
subsoil is forced to take place due to loaded surface prior to construction. The situation is
going to be somewhat similar to the behaviour of layers undergone some geological precompaction and thus became over compacted. After the preloading, a much smaller specific
compaction value shall be expected due to the superstructures weight on the foundation.
g) Application of a proper structure
Choosing the proper structural rigidity:
- either the structure should be so rigid structurally to withstand uneven settlement
stresses without damage;
- or the structure should be so flexible to follow the uneven settlement deformations
without damage.
To settlement suspicious areas statically determinate structures are to be designed.
Material: timber, brick, steel structure which is not too sensitive
4
www.allu.net
Czap Z., Dr. Szendefy J.: Mlyebb rtegek, nagy vastagsg talajtmegek stabilizcis lehetsgnek bemutatsa
szennyvziszap tmegstabilizlsval, Geotechnika 2013 Konferencia, Rckeve
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Long, non-uniformly loaded building parts are to be separated by dilatation gap (necessary
because of Thermal expansion as well). At largely settling buildings, proper connection of
public utilities is to be resolved (oval orifices, flexible pipes).
8. Correct order of construction
Parts sensitive to settlement are to be built as late as possible.
Antagonistic tendencies:
- mechanisation, tool utilisation, prefabrication all promote the acceleration of
construction,
- increment in pore water pressure dictate the slowdown of construction pace.
At structures with large live loads (silos, tanks) the loading can be controlled. The settlement
of bridgeheads can be controlled by the construction time of the backfill.
9. Designing deep foundations
A large part of the designers opt for deep foundations (pile, diaphragm wall) if the
calculations regarding the originally planned shallow foundation yield larger settlement or
settlement differences than expected. These types of foundations shall be discussed in depth in
the followings.
where
-
Hd is the design value of the horizontal force acting on the foundation level, in
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which the design value of any force coming from the active earth pressure and
acting on the foundation level is to be included.
Rd is the design value of the shear resistance restraining slip on the foundation
level, which is to be determined for short term undrained and long term drained
conditions according to principals later described.
Rp;d is the design value of the resistance against the earth pressure on the side
of the substructure.
The values of Rd and Rp;d shall be in sync with the magnitude of the displacements of the
examined limit states, thus in case of large displacements the behaviour of the exceeded shear
resistance is going to be representative. At the value of Rp;d it should be considered that for
instance, from the sidewall of the substructure, erosion or human intervention can remove the
soil or it can be detached by itself in case of the seasonal moisture content fluctuation of clay
soils.
The design value of Rd according to EN 1997-1 can be calculated by soil property or soil
resistance partial factors. The Hungarian national annex follows the DA-2* design method
which prefers the latter and gives the partial factor to mind (Table Table 4.).
Table 4.: MSZ EN 1997-1 table NA3, NA4, NA5, NA6, NA8, and NA9.
Bored
CFA
s,t
1,25
1,1
Base resistance
Shaft resistance of pile in
compression
Combined/total resistance of pile
in compression
Shift resistance of pile in tension
Base resistance
1,2
1,0
1,1
1,0
1,2
1,0
s,t
B
1,25
1,2
1,1
1,0
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Shaft resistance of pile in
compression
Combined/total resistance of pile
in compression
Shift resistance of pile in tension
Prestressed
anchor
Temporary
Permanent
Retaining structures
Stability of slope and nay other
structure
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1,1
1,0
1,15
1,0
s,t
a,t
a,p
R;v
R;h
R;e
1,25
1,1
1,1
1,4
1,1
1,4
1,1
1,0
1,0
1,0
1,0
1,0
R;e
1,0
where
-
where
-
It may happen, that void is formed between the foundation and the subsoil, (water or air can
get to the foundation level surface) therefore the following restriction shall be checked:
0,4
(That means that larger shear resistance (strength) shall not be expected than the forty
percentage of the vertical load on the foundation.)
The aforementioned requirement can only be ignored if the suction of the soil prevents
the formation of such voids even there where the positive base stress cannot be maintained.
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Large, horizontal forces not only can cause slip but if work high enough eccentricity as
well. The code even emphasises that safety measures shall be introduced if the eccentricity of
the load transmitted through the foundation level; exceeds 0,6 times the radius in case of
circular foundations and 1/3 of the width of the foundation in case of right angled rectangular
foundations.
Such safety measures can be:
- Recalculating the design values of the loads under the term of EN 1997-1 2.4.2.;
- Designing the edges of the substructure with regards to construction accuracy.
Unless extreme construction precision is expected, overdesigning by 0,1 m is
advisable.
The precondition of the necessity of safety measures means that half of the foundation level is
not working. In case of the application of DA-2* design method, the eccentricity shall be
obtained via the characteristic values of the loads unmodified by partial factors. With this
approach the above criterion is rather not strict. In Hungarian practice, so far this demand
was met and applied on the extreme value of loads. These limits were set for the extreme
values while for the base value of the loads the only requirement was that the whole
foundation level shall work (eccentricity was limited in B/6 )(Figure Figure 50.). Because
of all these, safety measures having been listed are especially justifiable; from which the first
is to be comprehended as the examination of the magnitude and position of horizontal effects.
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be kept in mind.
Design GWL
Design GWL
The stability of a structure or a low permeability soil layer against uplift shall be
checked by comparing the permanent stabilising effects (self weight, friction on sidewalls)
with the sum of the permanent and temporary water and other load related destabilising
effects. Figure Figure 52.shows such cases where checking for uplift is a must.
Safety against uplift
;
must be checked with the above inequality applying the partial factors shown there. In this, the
design value of the of the vertical component of the stabilising force (Gstb;d) is for example the
weight of the structure and the soli layers, while the design value of the resistance (Rd) is for
instance, any (Td) friction force and the sum of all anchor forces (P). The latter can be
regarded as stabilising permanent vertical effect (Gstb;d). The resultant of the vertical
component of the design value of the destabilising permanent and temporary loads (Vdst;d) is
the permanent and varying parts of ground water pressure and the sum of all the other forces
pointing upwards. In simple cases, it is allowable to substitute the forces in the above
correlation with the total stress and pore water pressure.
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Figure 52.: EN 1997-1 10.1 depiction: Examples for situations threatening with uplift
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Earthquakes
In 85% of the cases, the cause is tectonic (sudden rupture of the solid crust, puckering of the
fault); the rest 15% being volcanic.
Richter, an American seismologist measured the energy released (magnitude: M). The MSK-64
scale uses 12 grades to characterise the intensity (strength) of the earthquake. The respective grades are
denoted by roman numbers.
In the early 1990-s the European Seismological Commission (ESC) used up the principals laid by the
MSK-64 scale to work out the European Macroseizmological Scale (EMS).
Now the EMS 1998 determines the intensity on the bases of three factors:
a) Effect on human body;
b) Effect on object and nature;
c) Building damage.
In all three correlations there is the resonance factor (), thus a simple grade contains the measure of
shaking. 12 grades of intensity were also determined by the Centre of European Geodynamics and
Seismology (CEGS) (e.g.: I. Not perceivable; V. Strongly observable; XII. Totally destructive).
The design of facilities for extraordinary seismic loads shall be carried out under the term of EC8 for
earthquakes reoccurring with 10 % probability within 50 years. (Figure Figure 53.) shows the seismic
activity of Hungary region by region with their respective aGR horizontal soil acceleration values. The
MSZ EN 1998-1:2008 (EC 8) classifies seven soil class by seismic behaviour, which can be seen in
Table Table 5.
Table 5.: Subsoil classes under the term of EC8
Subsoil
class
Parameters
NSPT
vs,30 [m/s]
[blow/30cm
]
62
Cu
[kPa]
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S1
S2
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>800
360-800
>50
>250
180-360
15-50
70250
<180
<15
<70
<100
(cautionary
value)
10-20
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Rip surface
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Autumn
Elevation
Months
Settlement
Spring
The swelling (building elevation) usually in the spring, the shrinkage (settlement) in the
Autumn takes place (Figure Figure 55.). Building damages by volume change can be avoided
by considering the following experiences and rules:
- The foundation level shall not be closer to the surface than 2-2,5 m;
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low loading buildings shall be cellared in whole (partially cellared buildings are the
worst solution);
No damage is experienced at buildings higher than three storey;
The load bearing capacity of the soil is to be exploited fully (small base width);
The foundation shall bear the bending and tension coming from the volume change
thus the substructure shall be reinforced, not the primarily the superstructure,
Landscaping is to be performed around the building, drainage is a must;
Careful delivery of roof water (precipitation);
1,0-1,5 m wide sidewalk sloping outwards around the building;
Low loading level building extensions leaning out of the main body of the building
is to be avoided;
There shall be no tree of large water demand (poplar, birch) int he vicinity of the
building,
The connections of the so called "wet" public utilities shall be orthogonal with the
wall. Also the opportunity to relative displacement shall be provided.
Dry loess
Wet loess
Collapse by inundation
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Peat
Figure 57.: Small depth shallow foundation in case of covering layer in good condition
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4 DEEP FOUNDATIONS
In the case, when the soil near the ground level has not enough bearing capacity, or shallow
foundations cannot fulfill the requirements, an additional element is built between the superstructure
and the deeper, suitable soil layers. This element is called deep foundation.
They can be classified into the following groups:
- pile foundation,
- diaphragm wall foundation,
- cylinder and box caisson foundation.
There exist solutions between the shallow and the deep foundation techniques; however it is nontrivial
to determine the borders of the groups (e.g. pier).
Deep foundations will be applied in the following cases:
- the soil layer with a reliable bearing capacity lies in the deep,
- the shallow foundation would be more expensive due to high level of groundwater,
- the shallow foundation would be able to slide,
- settlement would reach the 'not allowed' level in case of shallow foundations,
- it is more economic.
4.1.1
Classification of piles
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Lifting
Erecting
The long steel bars have to be designed to be able to bear the bending moment arising from the weight
of the pile, when lifted. The stirrups are included to bear the cross-directional tension during the
hitting. The hooks for lifting and standing are depicted as well. Factories deliver the piles with two
different reinforcement cage:
- normal version for average soil conditions: 4-10 m length,
- strengthened version for tough soil conditions: 8-12 m length.
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The high pressure fluid flow demolishes the soil structure in its environment, and fills it with
stiffening material. The technology can be applied in almost all kinds of soils.
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c ,cal
qb ,cal . Ab D hi .q s ,cal ,i
i 1
where
qb,cal
Ab
qs,cal,i
hi
calculated unit base resistance of the soil under the pile toe
cross-section area of the pile toe
calculated unit shaft resistance in the different soil layers, but max. 120 kPa
thickness of the different soil layers.
qcIII ,
qb ,cal b b 0,5 cI
2
where:
b
coefficient depending on the technology
base resistance factor depending on the type of the pile
b
qcI.
the mean of the qc values over the depth running from the pile base level to a level
(critical depth) which is at least 0.7 times and at most 4 times the pile base diameter deeper,
(critical depth: where the calculated value of qb,cal becomes a minimum)
the mean of the lowest qc values over the depth going upwards from the critical
qcII
depth to the pile base
qcIII.
the mean value of the c values over a depth interval running from the pile base level
to a level of 8 times the pile base diameter higher . This procedure starts with the lowest qc
value used for computation of qcII (but qcIII < 2000 kPa)
Unit shaft resistance:
q s ,cal ,i s ,i q ctl,i
Rb ,cal
Rs ,cal
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Rb ,k
Rs ,k
where:
(mean / min)
s,i
s
b
correlation coefficient,
shaft resistance factor depending on the type of soil
partial coefficient of shaft resistance
partial coefficient of base resistance
It is important to note that the partial coefficient of the shaft resistance differs for piles under tension
and compression.
The width of the diaphragm walls usually fells into the domain of 40-120 cm. The length of a section
built at a time is maximized at 8-10 m. Also the continuous version is built in sections (Figure 78).
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Hydrofraising technology
It is available since the 1980s, and is widely used around the world (e.g. Hong Kong, Australia, M4
Budapest). The machines (Figure 80) are built based on a French patent; therefore they can only be
driven by Frenchmen.
It enables the construction of diaphragm walls in wide variety of soils, for example in grainy soil with
low cohesion, or with really hard stones. Its main advantage is that there is no need for stop ends
between two wall elements; the water insulation is automatically solved. It can be used in residential
areas as well, due to its low vibration. An average hydrofraiser can work up to 60 m depth, but a
special version was used in Japan once, which was able to dig up to 150 m, meanwhile it could
support the walls against collapse.
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The technology was used in Hungary for the first time during the construction of the stations 'Szent
Gellert ter' and 'Fovam ter' of metro line M4 in Budapest.
Well
foundation
Beam grid
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5 CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS
5.1
Retaining structures
The foundation level is situated under the ground level; therefore the soil above it is taken out. In case
of narrow excavations, they may be called as 'construction trench' or 'foundation trench' as well.
The retaining structure can be constructed as:
- slope: uncovered, covered with grass, stones or sprayed concrete
- propped wall: timber, reinforced concrete, steel, plastic
- sheet pile wall: timber, steel, reinforced concrete
- diaphragm wall
- dam
- frozen or chemically strengthen wall
- soil nailing
- gravity wall
- crib wall
- MSE wall
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Dewatering
ditch
The disposal of the excavated soil has to happen outside of the failure plane. The increase of ground
water level can result movements of the slope. Sheet pile wall or pile driving or other dynamical effect
(e. g. traffic) decreases its stability. Percy excavation water should not leak into the excavation.
5.1.2 Props
Propping means supporting the usually vertical - soil wall with sheets, wales, which are
perpendicular to the sheets, and other supportive parts. The listed items bear the pressure load caused
by the wall. The vertical wall is stable without support up to m0 depth:
m0
4c
tg ( 45 )
2
n
where
c cohesion
friction angle
unit weight of the soil
n safety factor (2-3).
Hence, the soil can be excavated up to this depth without the installation of any supporting solution.
The support, however, should be built as soon as possible. (Under groundwater level this method is
not suggested.) If m0 is greater than the depth of the excavation (H), a small propping support is
advised. The gaps between the supportive items cannot be greater than 0.5 m0.
The excavations have to be propped in any case, where the collapse of the soil wall would cause
accident or would harm something. More exactly:
- in sand, if H>0.5 m
- in transient soil, if H>1.0 m
- in stiff clay, if H>2.0 m
Propping is compulsory, if dynamical effects are present (traffic, pile driving, etc), and next to
buildings.
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Materials of props
The propping is usually made of timber or steel. Class III. Timber is used.
The planks (Figure 84/a) are usually 48 mm thick, and their width is 20 cm, length is 5-6 m. Their
ends can be tied together with hoops to avoid splitting. The diameter of props should be at least 12
cm. The wedges are manufactured from hard timber (Figure 84/b). The props and slings have to be
tied together with dog-irons, if the excavation is wider than 1.5 m.
Timber props can be substituted with screwy steel props, which can bear bigger loads. It is especially
useful in sites, where the timber props should be driven so frequently, that they would be in the way of
the workers and machines. Another advantage is that, their length can be changed, thus they can be
used for different excavation widths.
Instead of timber sheets is getting more and more popular the application of cold formed steel sheet
pile walls. They can be easily hit into the soil, can be withdrawn, and are reusable. Figure 85. collects
the properties of the two types used in Hungary.
At least
4 cm
With 3-4 cm
thick hoop
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Figure 86: Sheet pile wall as a retaining structure, Sambeek, The Netherlands
Section B-B
If the excavation is very wide, carrying out the above depicted solution would be cumbersome. The
prop diameters and lengths would be too big, or they would have to be planted so frequently, that they
would be in the way of the moving machines and workers. In this case can the solution depicted in
Figure 87/c be applied, if enough space is available in the excavation. In many cases, the base plate
can be used for supporting.
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If there is not enough space for the inclined support, anchoring will keep the vertical supporting items
in position (Figure 88). The anchoring bars are usually attached to steel beams planted distant from
the excavation.
Driven I-beam
Anchoring bar
Hardwood wedge
Steel beams with I cross section will be hit along the border of the excavation. Meanwhile the soil gets
excavated, horizontal or vertical sheet piles (in the necessary length) are slid between the beams. The
lower end of the beams lies deeper, than the bottom surface of the excavation. The upper end is either
supported by props, or anchored backwards.
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Larssen U section
Hoesch Z section
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Corner
element
The domestically manufactured (ABKSZ) sheet piles in type variants CS-1, CS-2, CS-2M, are
primarily used in defence against floods.
Driving of sheet piles
The sheet piles are driven using machines, which hit or vibrate them into the soil. The machine is
usually equipped with a crane, in order to be able to lift and set the sheet piles onto the correct spot.
During the hits, it keeps the sheet piles in vertical position, and takes part in holding the hammer.
Pressure based techniques are also getting more popular these days.
5.1.4 Anchorage
If not enough space is available for the cheaper methods (e. g. propping), or the width of the
excavation would be too wide for them, then the retaining structure is anchored backwards
into the soil behind them.
The anchor is a prestressed structure element under tension, which ensures the interaction of
the sheet piles and the soil.
The main parts of an anchor can be seen in Figure 92 92.
1. head;
2. unbounded/free length;
3. bonded/anchorage length (this part holds the anchor in place).
The anchor can serve a permanent (e.g embankment, dam), or temporary role (e.g. sheet pile
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walls).
Traditional anchorage technology
Figure 93 shows a favorable anchorage solution for sheet pile walls and Siemens proppings.
Anchoring bar
Anchorage pile
In a sufficient distance from the wall, vertical steel beams are hit into the soil, which are
connected by steel bar anchors on the ground level or near to the surface in the soil body. In
case of permanent structures (e.g. embankments), the high bearing capacity anchors (5001500 kN cap.) are tied to diaphragm wall elements. Figure 94/a depicts an example. The
anchor can be manufactured from different kind of steels, such as steel bar, hot-rolled steel
section or bar strand.
Barge
Anchor
Embankment
Figure 94: Anchorage to diaphragm walls (a) cross section; b) installing the anchors into the holes; c) anchor
placement in wide excavations; d) anchorage by jacking
Injected anchors
The body of the anchor can be manufactured:
- through a borehole, which was made cast-in-place;
- with jacking5 (a hydraulic jack presses the tube together);
5
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TnWgQxZTooA
http://www.arcelormittal.com/projects/europe/foundationsolutions/EN/driving_equipment/giken.htm
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the load bearing part is hit or vibrated into the soil, and injection on the necessary
length keeps it in position.
The steel structure may be prestressed depending on the desired bearing capacity, if necessary,
then it is attached to the supporting system. Meanwhile, this solution acts as a load test as
well. The prestressed anchor is depicted in Figure 95.
1-head, 2-frontbeam, 3-sheet pile wall or diaphragm wall, 4-unbonded length, 5-injected/bond
(active) length
It can be clearly seen in the Figure, that the injection takes place only in the last section of the
anchor, in the length of lb (bonded length). In the section lsz (unbonded length), no loads are
bore, thus this part has to be treated against corrosion only. During the stressing process, this
section may stretch. Thus, the anchor gives over the load to the soil only in the length of lb. On
the anchor body some sort of surface friction or other structural connection passes through the
force. Regarding the stressed anchors, the followings should be noted.
Body:
-
gives over the supporting force of the anchor to the retaining structure (i.e.
diaphragm wall or sheet pile wall).
Hit-injected anchors
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Their main application area is grainy and transition soils. A bordering tube is hit into the soil
using a mobile machine (Figure 96), then the anchor, which consists of several high strength
steel bars, is placed inside the tube. In the next step, the tube gets closed with a cap, and grout
is injected inside, while the tube is gradually pulled out. After the grout has stiffened, the steel
bars are stressed up to 90% of their expected load, then they get locked.
Permanent anchors have to be defended against corrosion, which can happen by:
- application of anti-corrosion material;
- placing a PVC tube around the steel bar;
- anti-corrosion grease (on bar strands).
The water-mortar ratio of the injected material should be 0.3-0.5. The drilling machine can
6
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oahj3qroyj8
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move by itself, or can require external tools to move it. The injection pressure, depending on
the environmental conditions, may be high (e.g. 5000-6000 kN/m2). The injected anchors are
stressed after 1-2 weeks using a special device, called stressing jack, then they are locked
(Figure 98). The devices usually apply a stress force around 2000 kN.
Foundation Engineering
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dimensions: 35-45 cm thickness, 1.2-3.0 m width, as well as 6-15 m length (Figure 99).
The weight of each wall elements should remain below 200 kN (20 t).
Stiffness of the self-stiffening mortar:
After 7 days: 500-900 kPa;
After 28 days: 1600-5000 kPa.
Types of the precast diaphragm walls:
a) elements with anchors in the same dimensions (Figure 100/a);
b) columns between the plate wall elements (Figure 100/b).
The elements are lifted in the trench using a crane or the jib of the excavator. They are hanged
onto the guide wall, until the mortar stiffens.
Their advantages on cast-in-place walls:
- the inner side of the sections is smooth, no need for after-treatment;
- the sections are thinner;
- better water-tightness (5-15 cm thick continuous stiff mortar behind the wall
- concrete quality is higher and more reliable;
- the reinforcement cage is placed inside more accurately, that is why the thickness
of the concrete cover meets better the requirements
- connections between the diaphragm wall and other structural elements (e.g. floor
plates) can be placed more accurately.
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Figure 100: Precast diaphragm wall elements: a) elements with anchors; b) columns and plate wall elements
Clay
Clay
These thin walls are usually constructed with the following three technologies:
a) Excavator digs a thin trench, which is filled with a plastic material.
This plastic material can be:
- mixture of cement and clay;
- bentonite-cement mixture (100-150 kg cement /m3).
b) I-girder is hit or vibrated into the soil, which will be pulled out, meanwhile bentonite
suspension is injected into the trench (Figure 3).
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a ) Excavation
b ) Nailing
d ) Excavation
Nailing cap
Injection material
Screw
Steel bar
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cRAEZTOCBm0
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Soil
Nut
Mesh
Nail
Shotcrete
Nail &
Spacer
Spacer
Steel mesh
b ) Shotcrete
a ) Steel mesh
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This velocity is small, if the permeability of the soil is small, or the hydraulic gradient ( ) is
small. Figure 6 represents an example in case of sloped excavation.
Original terrain
Original GWL
Dewatered GWL
After reaching the groundwater level in the excavation, a ditch system with 2-3% inclination
has to be established to gather the water. The width and depth of the ditches should be 40-50
cm in the bottom (Figure 7).
Perimeter of the building
Collecting shaft
Collecting culvert
The ditches are filled with gravelly sand or crashed stone in loose soils (Figure 108).
Geodrain pipe
d=8-12 cm
Ring
Filtrating layer
Figure 8: Cross section of a drain and a sump shaft: 1-geotextile; 2-gravel; 3-PVC drain pipe
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The sump shaft has to be constructed, before the drains are built, and has to be placed outside
of the building contour. It should be sized such a way, that it can store water, if the pumps fall
out for several minutes. Its diameter is usually 80-150 cm (usually built from cylindrical
sections), and the depth is 1-2 m. In case of linear structures, a shaft should be dug every 80
m. In wide excavations a shaft should be placed every 80-100 m, possibly in the deepest areas.
The groundwater level has to be below the base plain by at least 20 cm, and kept it there, until
the danger for uplifting for the whole structure does not disappear. The drains are injected
with 1:3 cement/sand mortar subsequently. The shaft is extinguished by underwater
concreting. After finishing the construction, the drainage in the open facilities should be
buried gradually.
5.2.2 Water-pumping
Not the water in the excavation is treated, but wells are dug around the excavation, and
groundwater gets pumped from those (Figure 9).
To the pump
Suction pipe
Original GWL
Permanently at
least 20 cm
Since the depression is deeper, more water will have been pumping out, than drainage in open
technology. In case of narrow ditches (e.g laying public service pipes) one line of wells may
be sufficient for the required depression.
This method cannot be used in gravelly soils, since the water supply is usually faster, than the
pumping capacity. The drainage in the open technology is more economic in cohesive soils. It
is applied in soils, where
k = 101 107 cm / s
(medium sand, silty sand, sandy silt).
A great application area of the technology is liquefiable sands. The technology requires the
following devices:
- Wells to gather the water;
- Pipelines to transfer the water;
- Pumps, machines, engines.
Water-pumping must be done according to hydraulic and machinery plans. The lowered
groundwater level should be set to 20 cm (50 cm is required, if heavy machines are used down
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there) below the excavation level. Observation/control wells have to be dug as well. The water
level has to be logged regularly. In case of a disaster, the half-ready structure should be
defended by flooding, against uplifting. In order to be able to do so, flooding pipe system has
to be installed as well. The process can be terminated only by permission of the supervisor. In
case of a termination, not all pumps should be stopped at the same time, but they should be
switched off gradually. In the last step, the wells must be injected with cement after the
construction method.
Types:
- "Siemens" wells (if the permeability of the soil is k = 101 104 cm / s );
- Deep wells
( k = 101 103 cm / s );
- Wellpoints
( k = 101 106 cm / s );
- Vacuum wells
( k = 103 107 cm / s ).
a) "Siemens" wells
The water flow will arise due to the lower water level in the well, than in the normal
groundwater level in the soil (gravity based lowering).
Depth of wells: 8 - 12 m,
Distance of wells: 6-10 m,
Diameter of wells: 20-60 cm.
a ) Depression well
b ) Vacuum well
c ) Deep well
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A bordering tube is used during the drilling process. Filtering gravel is placed to the bottom of
the borehole. Next, the perforated filtering pipe/tube is placed centered, which is made from
stainless steel with a diameter of 3-5 mm. The filtering tube is covered by a steel grid, a
filtering textile and geotextile, secured with wires. The bottom is closed either by timber or a
steel cap. Filter gravel is placed between the filtering tube and the bordering tube. A simple
lock is installed on the top of this setup. The pipeline should have an incline towards the
puming station. This will make sure, that if air is present in the pipes, it can exit the tubes. The
pumps are usually driven by electric motors, which have full backup with a petrol engine. The
theoretical pumping height is 10 m, but due to wastes in the system, it is only 7 m in practice.
Using two lines of wells placed about 8-10 m from each other, a 3-3,5 m deep depression can
be achieved in centre line. If a deeper depression is desired, the lowering will be carried out in
a multi-stage system (Figure 11).
By deep excavations, 3 or even more stages may be introduced. In this case, if the soil is
homogeneous, the deep well system can be more economical.
b) Lowering with deep wells
The wells have a very similar setup to the Siemens filtering wells, however they are deeper,
and have a slightly bigger diameter. They are not equipped with a pumping tube, but an
individual diving pump is placed at the bottom. Figure 10/c shows an example. The wells with
80-100 cm diameter are equipped with 30-55 cm diameter filtering tube. For example,
Grundfos pumps have a 33-3500 l/min performance in 80-200 m. A big drawback of this
technology is the demand for many and expensive pumps.
c) Wellpoints
Only one tube is placed in each well, thus they serve both as filtering and pumping tubes.
They are perforated at their lower 1-1,5m long end, and are folded into geotextile or other
filtering textile (ensured with wire) (see Figure 110/b as vacuum well). The wells are placed in
every 60, 120, or 180 cm by drilling or washing out technology (Figure ). Using the latter
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method, they can be done in 5-10 minutes. The washing head has a clack, which is open while
washing, and closed, when pumping. The pumping system is very similar to the Siemens
setup, the pumps are connected through a main gathering pipeline.
d) Vacuum wells
It is very similar to the point well system, but the pumping stations are augmented with air
pumps as well. Vacuum occurs in the lower section of the well, thus the water will be pumped
not only by gravity, but air pressure as well. Due to the vacuum effect, the upper 1-1,5 m of
the filtering sand is kept in place using a clay tap (Figure 112). 4-4,5 m lowering can be
achieved this way.
Advantages:
- it can be used in cohesive soils economically;
- Shorter time is required for the depression, than by the gravity based systems;
- The sloped excavation can be steeper, due to the supporting effect of the air
pressure.
Disadvantages:
- More sophisticated machinery;
- Cannot be used in grainy soils.
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