Materials and Manufacturing

Chapter 2
Mechanical Properties
The objective for this chapter is to understand the following topics:
2.1 Introduction to mechanical properties
2.2 Stress-strain relationships
Tensile, compression, bending, shear
2.3 Hardness
Hardness vs. strength
2.4 Effect of Temperature
2.5 Other properties: fatigue, impact and creep.
Textbook: Chapter 3; Reference 2: Chapter 6 and Chapter 8
Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi
2.1 Introduction to Mechanical Properties

Mechanical properties are concerned about material behavior
when subject to mechanical stress (force), including
- strength, modulus of elasticity, ductility, hardness.
On one hand, design objective is to produce the products that can
withstand high force without significant change in geometry and
surface, meaning high strength, modulus and hardness.
On the other hand, manufacturing objective is to apply sufficient
force so that the material can be cut or deformed to alter its
shape. Usually, high strength materials are difficult and expensive
to manufacture.
Hence, mechanical properties are an important factor for both
design and manufacturing.
2.2 Stress-Strain Relationships

Stress (unit area force) = Force / Area
Strain (unit deformation) = Deformation / Length
Stress-strain relationship indicates how much a material will deform
under a given force
independent of size
L
Lo
Lo
Stress and Strain Calculation

(Engineering) stress-strain (theoretical)
Stress:
= F/Ao
MPa (psi)
where F - applied force in N (Ib); Ao - original area in mm2 (in2).

1 psi (lb/in2) = 6895 Pa (N/m2)
Strain:
e = (L Lo ) / Lo (dimensionless)
where Lo - original length in mm (in); L - length at any point.

Hookes Law:
= Ee
(in elastic region)
where E - modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus) in Pa (psi).

inherent material stiffness.
Stress-Strain Curve
TS
=K
slope = E
= Ee
Material Strength
The Elastic Limit (E.L.) is the limit of elastic
deformation, below which the material will
not be permanently deformed. Since it is
difficult to determine this limit, the yield
strength is used instead.
Yield strength (Y or YS) is defined as the
stress at which a material deforms from the
elastic region to the plastic region.
Y is determined as the stress at which a
0.2% strain offset from the straight line has
occurred.
Yield point
elastic
plastic
0.2%
Material Strength
(Ultimate) Tensile Strength (TS) is defined as the maximum
stress. After this point, a localized elongation, known as necking,
occurs.
TS = Fmax/Ao
Fracture Strength (FS) is the stress at fracture point.
FS = Fat fracture /Ao
Plastic region
Example 2-1: Tensile Testing

Given:
Lo=125 mm, Ao= 62.5 mm2 (lab measurement)
Test data: (lab record data)
Load (N)
17793
23042
27579
28913
27578
20462
Length (mm) 125 125.23 131.25 140.05 147.01 153.00 160.00

The maximum load is 28913, and the final load data is recorded
immediately prior to fracture.
Problem: It is required to determine the following
(a) Plot the stress strain curve
(b) Y (Yield strength)
(c) E (Youngs modulus)
(d) TS (Tensile strength)
Tensile Testing Machine

Extensometer 2
Solution to Example 2-1

Plot using Excel.
Y = 290 MPa, at 0.0038 after offset 0.2%
E = 284.688 / 0.00184 = 154721Mpa
TS = 462.608
462 608 MPa,
MP FS?
load
length
stress Mpa
125
17793
125.23
284.688
0.00184
23042
131.25
368.672
0.05
27579
140.05
441.264
0.1204
28913
147.01
462.608
0.17608
27578
153
441.248
0.224
20462
160
327.392
0.28
= F/Ao
strain
e = (L Lo ) / Lo
S tre ss M P a
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Strain
Solution to Example 2-1

400
350
290
Stress MPa
300
250
200
150
100
50
tan-1 E
0
0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
Strain
Offset 0.2%
True Stress-Strain Relationships

True stress-strain (for manufacturing)
Stress:
= F/A
MPa (psi)
where F - applied force in N (Ib); A - instantaneous area in mm2 (in2).

Strain:
d = dL /L
=
dL / L = ln L/Lo
Lo
where L - length at any point in mm (in), i.e. instantaneous length,

L = Lf at fracture.
dL
True Stress-Strain Relationships

In the elastic region, engineering and true stress-strain are identical,
and E is applicable to both cases.
H k L
Hookes
Law:
=E
(i elastic
(in
l i region)
i )
In general, they are related as

= ln (1+e) = ln L/Lo
Prove: since e = (L-Lo) / Lo = L/Lo-1, then 1+ e = L/Lo
=
e(1+e) =
F/A
Prove: (F/Ao)(1+ (L-Lo) / Lo) = F/A
Ao/A 1 = (L Lo)/Lo = L/Lo-1
Since no volume change, then AL = AoLo

Ao/A = L/Lo
Ao/A 1 = L/Lo-1
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
600
500
tru e stre ss (M p a )
S tre ss M P a
True Stress-Strain Curve - Example 2-1
400
300
200
100
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
true strain %
Strain
= F/Ao; e = (L Lo ) / Lo
= F/A =
e(1+e)
; = ln L/Lo
Y? TS? FS? E?
Ductility
Ductility Measurement of flexibility and formability.
Elongation: (strain at fracture)
TS
EL = [(Lf Lo)/Lo] x 100 %

where Lf - length at fracture.
EL
Time (heat treatment)
Area reduction:
AR = [(Ao Af)/Ao] x 100 %
[1- Lo/Lf] x 100 %
where Af - cross-section area at fracture.

Metals
Ceramics Polymers
EL %
10 60
AR %
20 90
1 500
-
Plastic Deformation Strain Hardening

In the plastic region after yielding, the
stress-strain relationship
p ((for metals))
may be expressed as
Y
Y
=K
where
(flow curve)
- true stress
- true strain
K - strength coefficient (Mpa, Kpsi)
n - strain hardening exponent.
Plastic Deformation Strain Hardening

Strain hardening is to increase elastic region by permanent
deformation, with new Y determined by flow curve,
e.g. Aluminum alloy:
TS 350(Mpa) > Y = 240(0.2)0.15=188 > Y 175 (MPa)
Table 3.4 Typical values of strength coefficient K and strain hardening exponent n
for selected material
K
Material
Al, pure, annealed
Al alloy, annealed
Al alloy, heat treated
Cu, pure, annealed
Cu alloy, brass
Steel, low C, annealed
Steel, high C, annealed
Steel alloy, annealed
Steel, stainless, austenitic annealed
Mpa
175
240
400
300
700
500
850
700
1200
n
lb/in^2
25000
35000
60000
45000
100000
75000
125000
100000
175000
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.5
0.35
0.25
0.15
0.15
0.4
True Stress-Strain Curves of Metals

The lower the strength, the longer the elongation.
Type of Stress-Strain Relationship
Perfect elastic:
No yielding, only
fracture, Y=TS.
e.g. brittle materials
such as ceramic,
cast iron, and
polymers
Elastic and perfect

plastic:
Elastic and strain

hardening:
Plastic deformation
at the same level,
K=Y, n=0.
Plastic deformation
with higher stress
K>Y, n>0.
e.g. sufficiently heat

treated metals
e.g. Most ductile

metals.
Tensile Properties of Selected Materials

1200
Brittle
MPa (E-GPa)
1000
Y
800
TS
600
400
%x10
200
Al
Al
lo
y
an
ne
al
ed
Al
Al
lo
y
St
ee
la
l lo
y
Ti
ta
Ni
n
ck
iu
m
el
an
ne
al
ed
Ca
st
iro
n
Ce
ra
Po
m
ly
ic
m
er
Ny
lo
n
Brittle materials and perfect plastic materials (polymers) fracture rather than
yield.
10
Compression Properties
In the compression test, a material
specimen is squeezed.
Stress:
= F/Ao
Strain: e = (h ho ) /ho (negative)
where h - height at any point.

True stress:
= F/A
True strain:
= ln h/ho
(negative)
ho
Example: h = 0.9,
0 9 ho = 1
e = 0.9 1 = -0.1
= ln 0.9 = -0.105
Compared to tension: L=1.1, Lo=1
e = 0.1, = ln 1.1 = 0.095
Compression Properties
For almost all materials, compression
properties are derived from tensile
properties as the true stress-strain
curves for both are nearly identical
identical.
The difference is to ignore necking in
compression, as materials will not
fracture, but barreling.
11
Bending (flexural) Properties

Bending stress:
= Mc / I
where M bending moment, c distance from the center line, I moment

of inertia of the cross section.
Here,
M = F/2 x L/2 = FL/4,

e
c = t/2,
I = bt3/12
= 1.5 FL/bt2
3 point method
M
F/2
F/2
Bending Properties
The bending test (flexure test) is used to determine the transverse rupture
strength (TRS).
F rectangular
For
t
l cross section
ti
TRS = 1.5 FL/bt2
MPa (psi)
where F force, N(lb), L length, mm(in), b and t are the dimensions of

the cross section, mm(in).
For circular cross section
TRS = FL/ R3 Mpa (psi)
where I = R4/4
For brittle materials,
TRS TS
12
Shear Properties
When a material is subject to torsion by twisting, the shear stress occurs,
which is defined as
or
= F/A
MPa (psi)
= T/2 R2t
(F = T/R,
A = 2 Rt)
where F force N(lb), A area over which the force is applied mm2 (in2),
T applied torque N-mm (lb-in).
Shear Properties
Shear strain is a measure of angular
deflection defined as
=
where
/b (radians)
- deflection,
b width orthogonal to deflection.

or
R
= R /L
Example:
p R = 10,, L=1,,
= 0.01(rad)
( )
= R /L = 10 x0.01 = 0.1
Note:
- radial direction
- circumferential
13
Shear Properties
- main cutting direction
In the elastic region

=G
Mpa (psi)
where G shear modulus in MPa (psi)

(psi).
In the plastic region,
=K
(flow curve is similar to tensile)

For most materials
G = 0.4E
0 4E
Shear strength
or G = E/[2(1+v)]
S
0.7TS
Necking usually does not happen in torsion.

Example: 2024-O: 0.7x27000 = 18900 psi
18000
Mechanical Properties Aluminum
Alloy
2014
2017
2024
2117
Tensile
Yield
Shear
strength strength Y, Elongation Hardness strength
Temper
TS, psi
psi
%
HB
S, psi
O
27000
14000
18
45
18000
T4,T451
62000
42000
20
105
38000
T6,T651
70000
60000
13
135
42000
O
26000
10000
22
45
18000
T4,T451
62000
40000
22
105
38000
O
27000
11000
20
47
18000
T3
70000
50000
18
120
41000
T36
72000
57000
13
130
42000
T4,T351
68000
47000
20
120
41000
T6
69000
57000
10
125
41000
T81,T851 70000
65000
6
128
43000
T86
75000
71000
6
135
45000
T4
43000
24000
27
70
28000
Fatigue
limit, psi
13000
20000
18000
13000
18000
13000
20000
18000
20000
18000
18000
18000
14000
14
Example 2.2 Mechanical Properties: Tension

Problem: for given D and d of Al, find the
required force for extrusion/drawing.
Chamber
Solution:
Since
Ram
= ln L/Lo = ln Ao/A
A = d2/4; Ao = D2/4
Then
F, v
d
Die
= 2 ln (D/d) = 2ln2 = 1.386
Shrinking tube
In plastic region,
=K
Drawing:
n=
240(1.386)0.15 = 252 Mpa
= F/A
Extrusion:
= F/Ao
F=
F=
d2/4
D2/4
Example 2.3 Mechanical Properties:Shear

Problem: for given Al sheet metal of width (w) and thickness (t), determine
the cutting force (t =1/4, and w = 6)
Solution:
Force = S x A = S x w x t = 18000 psi x x 6x12 = 324,000 lbf = 1.44 MN
(1 lbf = 4.4482N) (how to reduce force)
15
2.3 Hardness (friction, grinding)

Hardness is a measure of the material resistance to scratching and
wear. It is proportional to TS.
For example,
p , HB of ferrous materials can be approximately
pp
y related to
TS as
TS
where
Kh HB
Kh = 3.45, TS in MPa;
Kh = 500, TS in psi.
Example: 2024-O:
Estimated TS: 47x500 = 23500 psi
Actual TS:
27000 psi
Hardness Testing Methods

Various hardness testing methods may be classified into:
1) Size of indentation
Brinell low to high hardness
Vickers (research too), Knoop
2) Depth of impression
Rockwell A K
3) Other
Scleroscope (rebound of a ball) (shore
diamond dart dropped
from a standard height
not accurate, portable),
Mohs (scratch)
16
Hardness Testing Methods

soft
D(D D2 d2 )
H
K
60
150
HRH
HRK
Brinell Test
Brinell Hardness number = HB
For harder materials over 500 HB, the cemented carbide ball is
used
d iinstead
t d off the
th steel
t lb
ball.
ll
Also, high loads (1500 and 3000 Kg) are typically used for harder
materials.
It is considered good practice to indicate the load used in the test
when reporting HB readings.
17
Rockwell Test
Rockwell = HRA HRK
Apply a minor load (10 Kg) first, then a major load (50 150).
Indentation HR = E - e = t
Different indenters with different loads for different materials.
Commonly used Rockwell scales
Rockwell A carbides, ceramics
B (non) ferrous metals (soft)
C ferrous metals
metals, tool steels
E - softer
2.4 Effect of Temperature

Effect on hardness
Effect on strength
18
2.5 Other Properties - Fatigue

Fatigue failure occurs at the stress low than Y or TS of static
loading, after subject to a cyclic loading for a number of cycles.
Example: turbine blade failure (cracking).
Static Y or TS
Dynamic Y or TS
Fatigue
strength
Fatigue life
S-N curve (stress and Number)
Fatigue Test
1St, maximum stress = 2/3 (TS), the number of cycles to failure is recorded.
2nd, decreasing stress, the number of cycles to failure is recorded.
.
2/3(TS)
Time
19
S-N Behavior
Two distinct types of S-N behavior:
- Fatigue Limit (Endurance Limit): at certain N (number of cycles),
the failure stress is no longer decreasing.
decreasing
some ferrous materials, heat treated aluminum alloy, titanium
alloys.
usually, fatigue limit
25-60% TS
- Fatigue Strength: defined at N (e.g. 107cycles)

in this case, no fatigue limit, and the failure stress will decrease as
N increases.
- Fatigue Life: defined as the number of cycles at a given stress
level.
Impact - Toughness
Impact testing is a good measure of material toughness by
applying a shock loading.
Generally
Generally, materials with high strength and high ductility have high
impact resistance. (super alloys, composites)
Charpy test (ft.lb)
Izod (ft.lb)
wxtxL
20
Impact Testing
A pendulum is dropped or
swung to the specimen.
Temperature (oF)
Diff
b t
Ch
Difference
between
Charpy
and Izod test is the support of
the specimen.
Measure in energy (force x
distance)
Impact
energy
Shear
fracture
Joule (J) = 1 Nm = 0.738 ft-lbf

ft lbf
Also indication of ductile-tobrittle transition.
Temperature (oC)
Properties of Low Alloy Steels for Making

Landing Gears
AISI No Treatment
4340
Normalized
Annealed
8740
Normalized
Annealed
TToughess
h
Area
Hardness (Izod)
Y (psi) TS (psi) EL (%) reduction HB
(ft.lb)
125,000 185,500
12.2
36.3
363
11.7
68,500 108,000
22
49.9
217
37.7
88,000 134,750
16
47.9
269
13
60,250 100,750
22.2
46.4
201
29.5
ASM databook
Toughness in line with ductility, but conflict with strength and hardness.
Tough materials may be difficult to cut.
21
Creep
Creep is the permanent elongation of a component under a static load (force or
heat) maintained for a period of time.
Creep is time vs. static force, fatigue is cycle (time) vs. cyclic force. Tm creep
resistance
Examples of creep failure include gas turbine blades, jet engine components,
rocket motors.
Rupture lifetime tf,,
- long for long-life applications such as nuclear power plant components.
- short for short-life applications such as turbine blades for military aircraft.
Strain hardening
(transition)
Necking
(tension)
Strain hardening & recovery

(steady-state)
metal
Upon loading
(elastic)
Rupture lifetime tr
Residual Stress
Residual stress is caused by inhomogeneous deformation.
Residual stress remains after the material deforms and the force is
removed.
Residual stress can be relieved by heat treatment. (paper clip)
Tensile
b c
Compressive
unloading
elastic
plastic
22
Assignment 1
Problem 1
In example 2-1, i) determine EL and AR; ii) estimate G, S; iii) Is it possible
to determine K and n? If yes, how?
Problem 2
In example 2-2, If the diameter is reduced by D/d = 3, check if the material
is broken?
23

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Chapter 2

2.1 Introduction to Mechanical Properties

2.2 Stress-Strain Relationships

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

Stress and Strain Calculation

where F - applied force in N (Ib); Ao - original area in mm2 (in2).

where Lo - original length in mm (in); L - length at any point.

(in elastic region)

where E - modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus) in Pa (psi).

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

Example 2-1: Tensile Testing

Length (mm) 125 125.23 131.25 140.05 147.01 153.00 160.00

Tensile Testing Machine

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

Solution to Example 2-1

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

Solution to Example 2-1

True Stress-Strain Relationships

where F - applied force in N (Ib); A - instantaneous area in mm2 (in2).

where L - length at any point in mm (in), i.e. instantaneous length,

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

True Stress-Strain Relationships

In general, they are related as

Prove: (F/Ao)(1+ (L-Lo) / Lo) = F/A

Ao/A 1 = (L Lo)/Lo = L/Lo-1

Since no volume change, then AL = AoLo

True Stress-Strain Curve - Example 2-1

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

EL = [(Lf Lo)/Lo] x 100 %

[1- Lo/Lf] x 100 %

where Af - cross-section area at fracture.

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

Plastic Deformation Strain Hardening

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

Plastic Deformation Strain Hardening

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

True Stress-Strain Curves of Metals

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

Type of Stress-Strain Relationship

Elastic and perfect

Elastic and strain

e.g. sufficiently heat

e.g. Most ductile

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

Tensile Properties of Selected Materials

Strain: e = (h ho ) /ho (negative)

where h - height at any point.

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

Bending (flexural) Properties

where M bending moment, c distance from the center line, I moment

M = F/2 x L/2 = FL/4,

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

where F force, N(lb), L length, mm(in), b and t are the dimensions of

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

b width orthogonal to deflection.

Materials and Manufacturing (AER507), F. Xi

- main cutting direction

In the elastic region

where G shear modulus in MPa (psi)

(flow curve is similar to tensile)

Necking usually does not happen in torsion.