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immerses the learner in Old Norse and Icelandic sagas, eddas, and myths
The Old Norse Reader includes:
Scandinavian Mythology, the Norse Gods and Goddesses, life in the Viking
Age, descriptions of the dwarves gold and the ring that inspired Tolkiens
Lord of the Rings and Wagners Ring Cycle
The Tale of Audun From the West Fjords and the Bear
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VIKING LANGUAGE 2
THE OLD NORSE READER
JESSE L. BYOCK
www.vikingnorse.com
www.vikinglanguage.com
2012921210 (LCN)
Printed in Calibri
Cover Picture Permission: Cf24063_C55000_100_VSH: Vikingskipshuset, det akademiske
dyrehodet fra Oseberg Kulturhistorisk museum, Universitetet I Oslo / Ove Holst
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OLD NORSE/ICELANDIC ALPHABET AND SPELLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE MOST FREQUENT WORDS IN THE SAGAS: A LEARNING STRATEGY FOR OLD NORSE . . . . . . .
14
18
20
21
CHAPTER 1
READINGS FROM THE FAMILY AND KINGS SAGAS
1.1 LONDON BRIDGE PULLED DOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
London Bridge from The Saga of St. Olaf (lfs saga helga, Heimskringla)
lfs saga helga (Chs 12-13) from Heimskringla
1.2 CHIEFTAINS AND FAMILIES FROM NJALS SAGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Icelandic Chieftains: The Opening Chapter of Njals Saga
Brennu-Njls saga (Ch 1)
Vikings Attack Njals Sons Off the Coast of Scotland
Njls saga (Ch 84)
1.3 GIFT-GIVING IN THE SAGAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 A GIFT IN NJLS SAGA, GUNNARS FAITHFUL HOUND: FOUR SAMPLE TRANSLATIONS . . . .
Njls saga (Ch 70)
26
29
33
34
3
36
41
CHAPTER 2
CREATION OF THE WORLD:
YMIR, YGGDRASIL, AND ASGARD
Mythological Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eddic Poems Cited in The Prose Edda
2.1 CREATION: YMIR, AUDHUMLA, AND ODIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ymir (the Primordial Giant), Auhumla (the Fertile Cow), and the Birth of
inn and His two Brothers Vili and V (Gylfaginning 6)
Bergelmir and the Second Race of Frost Giants (Gylfaginning 7)
The World Created from Ymirs Body (Gylfaginning 8)
Askr and Embla, The First Humans (Gylfaginning 9)
2.2 The Norse Cosmos and the World Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Ash Yggdrasil, the Norns, and the Three Wells (Gylfaginning 15)
More About The Tree and its Creatures (Gylfaginning 16)
The Norns Heal the Tree (Gylfaginning 16)
2.3 LOKI AND SVADILFARI THE WALLS OF ASGARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loki ok Svailfari (Gylfaginning 42)
CHAPTER 3
RAGNAROK: THE BATTLE AT THE WORLDS END
46
47
50
54
58
CHAPTER 4
GODS AND GODDESSES
4.1 The sir and the Vanir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
War Among the Gods (Ynglinga saga Ch 4)
Peace Between the sir and the Vanir The Mead of Poetry (Skldskaparml 1)
Kvasir and the Mead of Poetry (Skldskaparml 2)
4.2 ODIN THE ALFATHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Odin (Gylfaginning 3)
Odins Many Names (Gylfaginning 20)
Odin Hanged on the Tree (Hvaml, The Sayings of the High One)
Hvaml 138-139
Odin and Magic (Ynglinga saga 7)
Odin and Asgard (Gylfaginning 9)
4.3 THOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thor (Gylfaginning 21)
Thors Possessions and Weapons (Gylfaginning 21)
4.4 TYR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tr, The One-handed (Gylfaginning 25)
4.5 GODDESSES AND SUPERNATURAL WOMEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 FRIGG AND THE GODDESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Frigg Knows the Fates of Men (Gylfaginning 20)
The Goddesses (Gylfaginning 35)
4.7 FEMALE DIVINITIES AND VALKYRIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hel Thrown into Niflheim (Gylfaginning 34)
Valkyries (Gylfaginning 36)
4.8 BALDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Baldr the Beautiful (Gylfaginning 22)
The Death of Baldr (Gylfaginning 49)
Baldrs Funeral Pyre Gods, Giants, and the Ring Draupnir (Gylfaginning 49)
Hermods Ride to Hel (Gylfaginning 49)
4.9 THE VANIR NJORD, FREY, AND FREYJA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Marriage of Njrr and Skai (Gylfaginning 23)
Freyr and Freyja (Gylfaginning 24)
67
69
74
75
76
76
78
80
83
5
86
CHAPTER 5
THOR AND THE GIANT UTGARDA-LOKI
Thors Travels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1 THOR MEETS SKRYMIR IN THE FOREST (GYLFAGINNING 45) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 THOR REACHES THE GIANTS STRONGHOLD (GYLFAGINNING 46) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 UTGARDA-LOKI REVEALS THE TRUTH (GYLFAGINNING 47) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
89
92
94
CHAPTER 6
OTTERS RANSOM: THE DWARVES GOLD AND THE RING
6.1 Why Is Gold Called Otters Ransom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Skldskaparml (Ch 46)
6.2 SIGURD THE VOLSUNG, THE DRAGON FAFNIR, AND THE RING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
101
CHAPTER 7
SETTLING THE NORTH ATLANTIC: ICELAND
West into the North Atlantic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1 Sailing Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Landnmabk (Sturlubk 2)
Landnmabk (Hauksbk 2)
7.2 DIRECTIONS AND TIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compass Directions
Relative Directions
Telling Time (Daymarks)
7.3 EXPLORATION WEST OVER THE ATLANTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Landnmabk (Sturlubk 3)
Landnmabk (Sturlubk 4)
Landnmabk (Sturlubk 5)
7.4 ICELAND SETTLED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Settlers from Norway (slendingabk Ch 1)
105
106
107
109
110
112
CHAPTER 8
GREENLAND AND VINLAND
8.1 GREENLAND DISCOVERED AND SETTLED (THE SAGA OF THE GREENLANDERS) . . . . . . . . . .
Grnlendinga saga (Ch 1)
8.2 GREENLAND AND VINLAND DISCOVERED AND SETTLED (THE BOOK OF THE ICELANDERS) . .
slendingabk (Ch 6)
Leif Eiriksson Leaves King Olaf and Discovers Vinland (The Saga of Eirik the Red)
Eirks saga raua (Ch 5)
8.3 SEAFARING IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 GREENLANDERS SAIL TO VINLAND (THE SAGA OF EIRIK THE RED) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eirks saga raua (Ch 8)
Karlsefni in Vinland (Eirks saga raua Ch 8)
8.5 THE GREENLAND SEERESS (THE SAGA OF EIRIK THE RED) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eirks saga raua (Ch 4)
117
118
119
120
123
CHAPTER 9
THE TALE OF AUDUN FROM THE WEST FJORDS,
AUUNAR TTR VESTFIRZKA
A Tale (ttr) from the West Fjords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1 AUUNAR TTR VESTFIRZKA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER 10
HRAFNKELS SAGA,
HRAFNKELS SAGA FREYSGOA
126
127
7
138
140
CHAPTER 11
RUNES IN VIKING AND MEDIEVAL TIMES
The Younger Futhark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Additional Variants and Dotted Runes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Runic Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1 THE HRNING RUNESTONE FROM JUTLAND IN DENMARK, THE GRATITUDE OF A FREED MAN
11.1-A. Translate the Hrning Runes
11.2 TWO RUNESTONES FROM THE PARISH OF KLEPP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Tu runestone, The First Stone
11.2-A. Translate the Tu Runes
The Klepp 1 Runestone
11.2-B. Translate the Klepp 1 Runes
Connections Between the Tu and the Klepp 1 Stones
11.3 RUNES IN THE FAMILY SAGAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Runes in Icelands East Fjords (The Tale of Thorstein Ox-Foot)
orsteins ttr uxafts (Flateyjarbk Ch 202, 203)
11.4 RUNES IN EGILS SAGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Egil Skallagrimsson Curses King Eirik Bloodaxe with Runes on a Nstng
Egils saga Skallagrmssonar (Ch 57)
11.5 RUNES IN THE LEGENDARY SAGAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sigurd the Dragon-Slayer learns Runes from a Valkyrie (The Saga of the
Brynhild Tells Her Tale and Teaches Runes, Vlsunga saga (Ch 21)
11.6 MEDIEVAL RUNES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.7 MEDIEVAL RUNES FROM BERGEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.8 MEDIEVAL RUNES IN COMMERCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Bryggen Runes in Commerce Runic Indentity Tags
11.8-1AC. Rune Sticks
11.9 BRYGGEN LOVE RUNES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.9-2AB. Runes Stick Inscription
11.10 RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS IN LATIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.10-1A. AVE MARIA CARVED IN RUNES ON A WOODEN PEG FROM TNSBERG.
11.10-1B. A LINE FROM VIRGILS AENEID
11.11 KEY TO THE RUNE EXERCISES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
165
167
167
168
169
173
174
175
178
179
180
181
182
183
CHAPTER 12
EDDIC POETRY
A Short Introduction to Old Norse Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1 EDDIC VERSE AND ITS SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Poetic Edda (The Codex Regius)
Additional Eddic Verse and The Two Eddas
12.2 EDDIC TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 EDDIC TRADITION LONG LINES AND HALF LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stanza Presentation: Two Methods of Printing Old Norse/Icelandic Verse
Vlusp (The Sybils Prophecy) Stanzas 1-13
186
190
187
191
CHAPTER 13
EDDIC METERS
JESSE BYOCK AND RUSSELL POOLE
Eddic Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alliteration
A Note of Caution
13.1 THE FOUR PRINCIPAL EDDIC METERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fornyrislag (Old Lore or Epic Meter)
Ljahttr (Chant Meter)
Mlahttr (Speech Meter)
Galdralag (Magic Meter)
13.2 EDDIC EXAMPLES FROM MYTHIC POEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vlusp: Stanza 19.-20
Thor Episode from Lokasenna (Stanzas: 57-63)
198
199
203
CHAPTER 14
THE LAY OF THRYM (RYMSKVIA):
A COMPLETE EDDIC POEM AND POETIC DEVICES
14.1 POETIC DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kennings and Heiti, A First Look
207
210
213
CHAPTER 15
RUNES AND EDDIC METER FROM SWEDEN
Eddic Verse in the Younger Futhark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.1 TWO BLLSTA RUNESTONES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Runic Poem on the Second Bllsta Runestone
15.2 THE CARVER AND THE CARVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3 A SUGGESTED TRANSLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
225
226
228
230
CHAPTER 16
SKALDIC POETRY
16.1 SKALDIC COMPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2 HEITI AND KENNINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3 KENNINGS IN HTTATAL: A SERIES OF EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.4 THREE SKALDIC FRAGMENTS ABOUT THOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Skaldic Fragment 1 by rbjrn dsarskld
231
232
234
236
10
238
239
CHAPTER 17
THE KARLEVI RUNESTONE:
A SKALDIC POEM CARVED IN RUNES
17.1 THE KARLEVI STONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part A of the Karlevi Stone: Runic Verse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part A. The Runes
Part B of the Karlevi Runestone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part B. The Runes
Key for the Runes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
244
245
247
248
249
274
2
16
26
37
39
VIKINGLANGUAGE2:THEOLDNORSEREADER
21
THEMOSTFREQUENTWORDSINTHESAGAS
ALEARNINGSTRATEGYFOROLDNORSE
PR
EV
I
EW
WordfrequencyisthekeytolearningOldNorse,andTheVikingLanguageSeriesisdesigned
withawordfrequencystrategy,concentratingonthe246mostcommonwordsinthesagas.
Inthevocabularies,thesewordsaremarkedwiththesymbol.
Thetotalvocabularyofthesagasissurprisinglysmall.1Excludingnames,thereareonly
12,400differentwordsinthecorpusofthefamilysagasoutofatotalwordcountofalmost
750,000.Ofthese12,400differentwords,the70mostfrequentcompose60%ofthetotal
wordcount.ThegreatestbenefittousingawordfrequencystrategyinOldNorsematerialis
foundbylearningthe246mostfrequentwordsdividedintopartsofspeechingroupsof50
each. This way the learner can concentrate on the 50 most frequent nouns, verbs, and
adjectives,aswellascommonprepositionsandconjunctions.
Forexample,mar(manorperson)isthemostcommonnouninthesagas,andkonungr
(king)isthesecondmostcommonnoun.Ifyouconcentrateonlearningthefiftymostcommon
nouns,youwillhavemasteredthelargemajorityofthefrequentlyusednounsinthelanguage.
Thesameforverbs.Thefirsttwomostfrequentarevera(tobe)andhafa(tohave),whenyou
becomefamiliarwiththefiftieth,youwillhaveatyourgraspthemostfrequentverbsinOld
Norse,whethersagasfromIcelandorrunicinscriptionsfromSweden.
Belowaretwolistsofthesame246MostFrequentWordsintheSagas.Thefirstlist(A)
givesthe246wordsdividedbypartsofspeechintothe50mostcommonnouns,adjectives,
pronouns,numerals,verbs,prepositionsandadverbs,andconjunctions.Thesecondlist(B)is
arrangedalphabetically.Dependingontheinformationyouseekatdifferenttimes,bothlists
areuseful.
Anaddedbenefittothislearningstrategyisthatthemajorityofthe246entriesinthelists
belowremainamongthemostcommonwordsinModernIcelandic.Forexamplemar(spelled
maurinmodernIcelandic)andskipremainamongthemostfrequentnouns,whiletheverbs
vera,hafa,andsegjaarestillatthetopoftheirfrequencylist.
A.THE246MOSTFREQUENTWORDSINTHESAGAS(bypartofspeech)
1.
2.
3.
4.
marman,person
konungrking
skipship
mlspeech;case,
matter
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
NOUNS
sonrson
hndhand
fwealth;livestock
brirbrother
vetrwinter
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
landland
konawoman
radvice;plan
dagrday
frndikinsman
slendingasgurorstulykillogtexti:Handbk.Eds.BergljtS.Kristjnsdttir,EirkurRgnvaldsson(chief
editor),GurnInglfsdttirandrnlfurThorsson.2nded.Reykjavk:Mlogmenning,1998.
26
CHAPTER1READINGSFROMTHEFAMILYANDKINGSSAGAS
CHAPTER1
READINGSFROM
THEFAMILYANDKINGSSAGAS
PR
EV
I
EW
veitat,erreynterGrettissaga
(Itisknownwhenitistested)
Figure1.1.LondonBridgeisFallingDownafterbeingpulledapartbyattackingVikingships.Thepassage
belowfromHeimskringla,ahistoryofthekingsofNorwaywritteninmedievalIceland,describesthe
destructionofthefortifiedbridgein1013.Theevent,rememberedinEngland,isthehistoricalsource
ofthechildrenssong.
1.1LONDONBRIDGEPULLEDDOWN
LONDONBRIDGEFROMTHESAGAOFST.OLAF(LFSSAGAHELGA,HEIMSKRINGLA)1
Beginningintheyear1003,KingSveinForkbeard(SveinntjguskeggHaraldsson)ofDenmark
carriesoutadecadelongmilitarycampaignagainstAngloSaxonEngland.Duringtheconquest,
Londonbridgeispulleddown.TheDanishinvasionofEnglandincludesVikingsfromdifferent
Heimskringla,the13thcenturycollectionofsagasaboutNorwegiankings,isattributedtotheIcelandicchieftain
andmanoflettersSnorriSturluson.FormoreonHeimskringlaandSnorriSturluson,seeVikingLanguage1.
VIKINGLANGUAGE2:THEOLDNORSEREADER
27
EW
parts of Scandinavia. After years of war, England's King thelred (Aalrr konungr) is
defeatedandin1013fleesacrosstheEnglishChanneltoNormandy.2
InNormandy,thelredacquiressupportersandhiresshiploadsofmercenariesinorder
toattemptacomeback.AmongthehiredwarriorsaremanyVikings.OneisayoungNorwegian
namedOlaf(lfr)Haraldsson.KnownasOlaftheStout(inndigri),hehasalreadyfoughtfor
severalyearsagainstthelredwiththeDanesunderKingSvein.Olaf,wholaterbecomes
Norwayskingandthenitspatronsaint,switchessidesandfightsforKingthelredagainstthe
Danesinreturnforalargepaymentofsilver.
The passage below is from The Saga of St. Olaf (lfs saga helga) in Heimskringla. It
describesOlafsactionsin1013.Atthetime,OlafisleadingacontingentofVikingmercenaries
inthelredsarmyandjoinstheEnglishkinginattackingtheDanishVikinggarrisonsinLondon
(Lundn)andthemarkettownofSouthwark(Svirki).Thesetwowalledtownslieacrossfrom
eachotherontheThamesandareconnectedbyabridge(bryggja)thatcontrolstrafficonthe
river.Thebridgeisaformidableobstaclewithfortificationsbuiltuponit.Itrestsontimber
pilingsdrivenintotheriverbed.Whenassaultsonthewalledtownsfail,Olafvolunteersto
attackthebridgewithhisships.TheVikingscovertheirshipsforprotectionfromthedefenders
aboveandsucceedinlooseningthebridgespilings.
LFSSAGAHELGA(CHS1213)FROMHEIMSKRINGLA
PR
EV
I
Aalrrkonungrvarmjkhugsjkr,hvernughannskyldivinnabryggjurnar.3Hannkallaital
allahfingjahersinsokleitairsvi,hvernugeirskyldikomaofanbryggjunum.4
segirlfrkonungr,athannmunfreistaatleggjatilsnulii,5efarirhfingjarviljaatleggja.
eirimlstefnuvaratrit,ateirskylduleggjahersinnuppundirbryggjurnar.Bj
hverr6sittlioksnskip.
Translate:
NormandinOldNorse,theregionofnorthernFranceacrosstheChannelfromEnglandthatwassettledby
Northmenacenturyearlier(ca.911)andnamdafterthem.
hvernughannskyldivinnabryggjurnar:howhewouldwinthebridge(skyldi,3sgpastsubjofskulu).Hvernug
isavariantofhvernig.
hvernugeirskyldikomaofanbryggjunum:howtheywouldteardownthebridge.
leggjatilsnulii:toattackwithhistroops.
Bjhverr:Eachthenmadeready.
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CHAPTER1READINGSFROMTHEFAMILYANDKINGSSAGAS
EW
lfr konungr lt gera flaka stra af viartaugum ok af blautum vii7 ok taka sundr
vandahs8okltatberayfirskipsnsvvtt,attktafborum.9arlthannundirsetjastafi
svykktoksvhtt,atbivarhgtatvegaundan10okritstinntfyrirgrjti,efofanvri
borit.11Enerherrinnvarbinn,veitaeiratrrneaneptirnni.12Okereirkomanr
bryggjunum,varboritofanbiskotokgrjtsvstrt,atekkiheltvi,hvrtkihjlmar
nskildir,okskipinmeiddusksjlfkafliga.13Lgumargirfr.
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EnlfrkonungrokNormannalimehonumrrualltuppundirbryggjurnar14okbrukala
umstafina,eruppheldubryggjunum,oktku15okrrullumskipunumforstreymis,16
semmestmttueir.Stafirnirdrguskmegrunni,17allttilesser18eirvrulausirundir
bryggjunum.Enfyrirvatvpnarherrstbryggjunumykkt,arvarbigrjtmart19ok
hervpnmrg,enstafirnirvruundanbrotnir,brestaafvnirbryggjurnar,okfellrflkitmart
ofanna,enalltannatliitfliafbryggjunum,sumtborgina,ensumtSvirki.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
blautumvii:soft,greenorrawwood.
vandahs:housesconstructedofwattleanddaub,thatisfrombranchescoveredwithamixtureofmudand
manure.
okltatberayfirskipsnsvvtt,attktafborum:andhadthemcarried[placed]overhisshipssofarthat
theystretchedoutoverthesidesoftheships.
atbivarhgtatvegaundan:that[thewickershield)wasbotheasytofightunderneath.vega:tothrust
orhewwithweapons.
efofanvriborit:ifthesewereborne[thrown]downuponitfromabove.
veitaeiratrrneaneptirnni:theysetoutrowingupalongtheriver.
okskipinmeiddusksjlfkafliga:andtheshipsthemselveswereexceedinglydamaged.
alltuppundirbryggjurnar:allthewayupunderthebridges.
:referstotheropes.
Theyusedthestrengthoftheriversdownstreamcurrenttopulldownthebridge.
Stafirnirdrguskmegrunni:Thepoleswerepulledalongtheriverbed.
allttilesser:rightuptothepointwhen.
mart=margt(nnom/accsgofmargr).
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CHAPTER2CREATIONOFTHEWORLD
CHAPTER2
CREATIONOFTHEWORLD:
YMIR,YGGDRASIL,ANDASGARD
EW
FtterrammaraenforneskjanGrettisSaga
(Littleismightierthanoldlore)
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MYTHOLOGICALREADINGS.Thereadingsinthischapter
aredrawnfromTheProseEdda.Theyrecountevents
from the creation and earliest days of the world.1
Thenextchapterlookstothedoomofthegodsat
thefinalbattle.TheProseEddaisalsocalledSnorra
Edda(SnorrisEdda),becauseitisattributedtothe
IcelanderSnorriSturluson(d1241).2
The Prose Edda, along with the poems of The
PoeticorElderEdda,isourmostextensivesourcefor
Norse mythology. In straightforward prose, inter
spersedwitheddicandskaldicstanzas,itrecounts
storiesofthegods,giants,dwarvesandothermythic
and supernatural creatures. The Prose Edda also
preservesheroictalesandpartsofancientlaysabout
thestrugglesoflegendarykings,queens,andwar
riors.LikethepoemsofThePoeticEdda,TheProse
EddaincorporatesstoriesfromtheVikingAge.Some
ofthenarrativesreachasfarbackastheMigration
Figure2.1.Aoneeyedgodwhoseesall.
NineteenthcenturyNorwegianwoodcut.
ModerneditionsofTheProseEddarelyprincipallyononelargelyintactvellummanuscriptGks23674to,known
byitsLatinname,CodexRegius,orbyitsIcelandicname,Konungsbk(theKingsBook).Thisnameissharedwith
manuscriptGks23654to,whichcontainsamajorityoftheknowneddicpoetry.Manuscriptsaretypicallynamed
afteracollectionwheretheyareorhavebeenhoused.Forexample,GksisanabbreviationforGammel
kongeligsamling,(OldRoyalCollection)inCopenhagen.The4to,(quarto)inthenamereferstothesizeofthe
parchment.ManyofthemanuscriptsthatwerepreviouslyinCopenhagenarenowhousedinReykjavkatthe
rniMagnussonInstitute(AM).
ThemainreasonforassumingSnorri'sauthorshipofTheProseEddaisthefollowingshortpassagefromthe
CodexUpsaliensis,anearlyfourteenthcenturyIcelandicmanuscript,whichtodayisinUppsalaUniversityLibrary.
Thepassagereads:ThisbookiscalledEdda.SnorriSturlusoncompiled[literally,assembled]itinthewaythat
itisarrangedhere.Firstittellsaboutthesir[thegods]andYmir[theprimordialgiant],thencomesthepoetic
dictionsectionwiththepoeticnamesofmanythingsandlastlyapoemcalledHttatal(ListofMeters)which
SnorricomposedaboutKingHakonandDukeSkuli.SnorreSturlusonsEdda:UppsalaHandskriftenDG11.Vol
II. Transcribed by Anders Grape, Gotfried Kallstenius and Olof Thorell. Uppsala, 1977, p. 1. For a modern
transaltion,seeSnorriSturluson,TheProseEdda:NorseMythology.PenguinClassics.
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Period,thetimeinNorthernEuropefromthefourthtosixthcenturiesADwhentheRoman
Empirewascollapsed,andnorthernclansandtribesmovedfromtheirhomelandsintoregions
oftheEmpire.
ThecentralgroupofmythologicalstoriesinTheProseEddaiscalledGylfaginning(The
DeludingofGylfi).GylfaginningiswrittenasadialoguebetweentheSwedishKingGylfiand
threeformidablegodlikefigures,High,JustasHighandThird(Hr,Jafnhr,andrii).Seeking
knowledge,GylfidisguiseshimselfasatravelernamedGangleri(meaningstrider,walker,
orwanderer)andjourneystovisitthesir,amysteriouspeoplesaidtobenewlyarrivedin
theNorth.Inthemajesticbutillusoryhallofthesir,Gangleri/GylfimeetsHighandhistwo
companions,whositonthrones,oneabovetheother.ThethreearemanifestationsofOdin.
FromthemGangleritriestodiscoverthesourceofthesirspower,andheprobesthesesir
withquestions.Storybystory,thethreerevealwhattheyknow.
GanglerisdialoguewithHigh,JustasHighandThirdresemblescontestsofwisdomfound
ineddicpoemssuchasTheLayofVafthrudnir(Vafrnisml),whereOdinpitshismastery
ofmythicknowledgeagainstthegiantVafthrudnir.Suchwisdomcontestswereadversarial,
andGangleriistoldatthestartofthecontestthathewillnotleaveunharmedunlesshegrows
wiser.
EDDICPOEMSCITEDINTHEPROSEEDDA.ThemythicstoriesretoldinTheProseEddarelyona
numberofeddicpoems.Someofthesearenowlost.Forexample,Chapter27ofGylfaginning
mentionsHeimdallsChant(Heimdallargaldr),butthiseddicpoemislost.Manyeddicpoems
aboutthegods,however,surviveinThePoeticEdda.Belowisalistofthemythologicalpoems
fromThePoeticEddawhicharecitedinGylfaginning.
TheLayofFafnir(Ffnisml)
TheLayofGrimnir(Grmnisml)
TheLayofHyndla(Hyndlulj)
TheLayofSkirnir(Skrnisml)
TheLayofVafthrudnir(Vafrnisml)
LokisFlyting(Lokasenna)
TheSayingsoftheHighOne(Hvaml)
TheSibylsProphecy(Vlusp)
TheShorterSibylsProphecy(Vluspin
skamma)
Attimes,stanzasfoundinThePoeticEddavaryfromtheircounterpartsinTheProseEdda.
ThedifferencesofwordingbetweenlinesfoundinTheProseEddaandThePoeticEddacanbe
significant.
2.1CREATION:YMIR,AUDHUMLA,ANDODIN
The Norse gods live in a world of constant danger, and their actions frequently have
unanticipatedconsequences.InthecreationstorytoldinGylfaginning,Odin(inn)andhis
twobrothers(ViliandV)3slayYmir4theprimordialgiant.Ymirisafrostgiant,ahrmurs,and
thegodsuseYmirsbody,togetherwithhisbones,andblood,tocreatetheworldbyfilling
KnownalsoasViljiandVi.
Ymir:alsomir.
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CHAPTER2CREATIONOFTHEWORLD
Ginnungagap,thegreatvoid.Theslayinggivesrisetolife,butitalsounleashesthepowerof
thegiants,thegodsenemies.Inthefollowingpassage,GangleriquestionsHighaboutYmir,
afterHightellshim:Hinngamlihrmurs,hannkllumvr5mi.
YMIR(THEPRIMORDIALGIANT),AUHUMLA(THEFERTILECOW),ANDTHEBIRTHOFINNANDHIS
TWOBROTHERSVILIANDV(GYLFAGINNING6)
EW
mlirGangleri:HvarbyggiYmir?Eavihvatlifihann?Nstvarat,erhrmit
draup,6atarvarafkrserAuhumla7ht,enfjrarmjlkr8runnurspenumhennar,ok
fddi hon Ymi. mlir Gangleri: Vi hvat fddisk krin? Hr segir: Hon sleikti
hrmsteinana,ersaltirvru,9okhinnfyrstadag,erhonsleiktisteina,komrsteininumatkveldi
mannshr,annandagmannshfu,rijadagvararallrmar;sernefndr10Bri.Hannvar
fagrlitum,mikillokmttugr.Hanngatsonann,erBorrht.Hannfekkeirarkonu,erBesla
ht,dttirBlornsjtuns,okfenguaurjsonu:hteinninn,annarrVili,riiV;okat
ermntra,atsinnokhansbrrmunuverastrandihiminsokjarar.
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BERGELMIRANDTHESECONDRACEOFFROSTGIANTS(GYLFAGINNING7)
mlirGangleri:Hvatvarumeirastt,eahvrirvrurkari?
svararHr:SynirBorsdrpuYmijtun;enerhannfell,hljpsvmikitblrsrum
hans,atmevdrekktueirallritthrmursa,nemaeinnkomskundanmesnuhski;
10
vrplpronwe<acc/datoss,genvr>.
draupdrippedfromdrjpa.
Auhumla:Thegreatcowatthestartoftime.Aumeansrich,fertile,andfruitfulandhumlawithouthorns.
mjlkr(nomsgmjlk)friversofmilk.
vru3plpastofvera.
nefndrnamedfromnefna.
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CHAPTER7
SETTLINGTHENORTHATLANTIC:ICELAND
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ykkirmarviatfvssvera,
efhannkannarekkivaraenhrslandLaxdlasaga
Figure7.1.TheNorthAtlanticWorldoftheMedievalIcelanderswithlocationsalong
thesailingroutesdescribedinTheBookofSettlements.
WESTINTOTHENORTHATLANTIC
VikingAgevoyagesintothefarNorthAtlantictoIceland,Greenland,andVinlandwerepartof
anepochofseaborneexpansionthatsawScandinavianpeoplessettleinShetland,Orkney,the
106
CHAPTER7SETTLINGTHENORTHATLANTIC,ICELAND
Hebrides,Scotland,Ireland,andtheFaroeIslands.1Manylandnmsmenn(landtakersorfirst
settlers;thetermincludeswomen)camedirectlyfromScandinavia,especiallyfromNorway.
SomealsocamefromVikingencampmentsandNorsecoloniesintheCelticlands,especially
theHebridesandIreland.NorsesettlersbroughtwiththemGaelicwives,followers,andslaves.
SomecolonistswerepartorallCelt.2
7.1SAILINGROUTES
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The two reading passages below from Landnmabk describe sailing routes in the North
AtlanticfromVikingtimesthroughthethirteenthcentury.Ifallwentwell,thevoyageswere
accomplishedwithinthetimeframesgiven.Ifwindsandstormsprovedcontrary,astheyoften
did,thevoyagescouldbemuchlongerandtheseafarersmightendupinplacesasdistantas
NorthAmerica.
The manuscripts of Landnmabk have a complicated transmission history. The first
versionsarethoughttohavecomefromthetwelfthcentury,buttheseearliestvariantsare
lost.Versionsfromthethirteenthcenturyandlateroftencontainadditionalmaterialadded
byscribesandowners.
ThetwopassagesbelowcomefromtwocloselyconnectedLandnmabkmanuscripts,
HauksbkandSturlubk.ThefirstpassageisfromSturlubkandthesecondfromHauksbk.
Theyprovideexamplesofvariationsamongdifferentmanuscriptswithsimilarpassages.
Landnmabk(Sturlubk2)
Svsegjavitrirmenn,atrNregifrStaissjaudgrasiglingvestrtilHornsslandi
munsigltveratylft5fyrirsunnansland.FrReykjanesisunnanveruslandi6erfimmdgra
haftilJlduhlaups7rlandi[sur;enfrLanganesinoranveruslandier]fjgurradgra
hafnorrtilSvalbarahafsbotn.
Landnmabk(Hauksbk2)
Svsegjavitrirmenn,atrNregifrStaissjaudgrasiglingtilHornsaustanveruslandi,
enfrSnjfjallsnesi8fjgurradgrasiglingtilHvarfsGrnalandi.AfHernum9afNregiskal
8
9
FormoreonthesettlementoftheNorthAtlantic,especiallyIceland,seeVikingAgeIceland,PenguinBooks,
2001,Chapter1,AnImmigrantSociety.
InthesagastherearemanyCelticnames,suchasNjllandKormkr(OldIrish,Nall[NealorNeil]andCormac).
BergeninNorway.
CapeFarewell.
tylft:fromthenumbertwelve,i.e.twelvemilesorleaguesdistant,theconnotationisahalfdayssail.
TheReykjanesPenisula.
ProbablySlyneHead.
Snfellsnes.
Hernar,nearBergen(Bjrgvin)inNorway.
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siglajafnanvestrtilHvarfsGrnlandi,okersigltfyrirnoranHjaltland,10svatvateins
sat,atallgssjvarsn,enfyrirsunnanFreyjar,11svatsjrermijumhlum,12en
svfyrirsunnansland,ateirhafaaffuglokhval.FrReykjanesisunnanveruslandier
riggjadgrahaftilJlduhlaupsrlandisur;enfrLanganesinoranveruslandier
fjgurradgrahaftilSvalbaranorrhafsbotn,endgrsiglingertilbyggaGrnalandi
7.2DIRECTIONSANDTIME
EW
rKolbeinseynorr.
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11
12
TheShetlands.
TheFaroeIslands.
Sothattheseaonthehorizonstandshalfwayupthefaceofthecliffs.
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CHAPTER7SETTLINGTHENORTHATLANTIC,ICELAND
TELLINGTIME(DAYMARKS)
EW
cardinalpoints.Forexample,theWesternQuarter(Vestfiringafjrungr,thequarterofthe
peopleoftheWestFjords)andNorthernQuarter(Norlendingafjrungr).Whentraveling
intoadifferentquarterofIceland,peopleweresaidtobetravelinginthedirectionofthat
quarterevenifthiswerenotthestrictcompassdirection.Hence,whensomeonefromthe
EasternQuarter(Austfiringafjrungr)rodewesttotheAlthing,whichwasintheSouthern
Quarter(Sunnlendingafjrungr),hewassaidtoberidingsouth.
RelativedirectionswerealsoappliedtoEurope,whichintheNorsesenseofgeographywas
dividedintocardinalquarters:norrlnd,thenorthernlands,includedScandinavia;surlnd
includedtheregionsofGermany;vestrlndincludedtheBritishIslesandFrance;andaustrlnd
encompassedeasternEurope,Russia,andtheOrient.Itwaspossibletotraveleastfrom
NorwayandarriveatConstantinople,whichwasinaustrlnd.
ForNorseseamenandIcelandicwriters,thesystemofrelativegeographydidnotconflict
withtheirabilitytoorientthemselvesbytruecompassdirections.Eventoday,ifonetravels
withinIcelandfromReykjavktothetownofsafjrurintheWestFjords,oneissaidtofara
vesturtilsafjararfrReykjavk(travelwesttosafjrurfromReykjavk)eventhoughthe
directionisstraightnorth.Similarly,ifonetravelsfromeasternIcelandtoReykjavk,atwenty
firstcenturyIcelanderwouldsayfarasuurtilReykjavkur(travelsouthtoReykjavk)even
thoughReykjavkistothewest.
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Ratherthanemployinghours,theNorsedividedthedayintodaymarks(dagsmrk)which
recorded the position of the sun over the horizon. Day marks were especially useful in
seafaring.Theycoincidedwiththecompasspointsandoftencorrespondedwithlandmarks.
Thetimewhenthesunpassedovera
daymark varied, depending on latitude
andseason.Risml(risingtime)mightbe
6:00aminwinterbut5:00aminsummer.
Dagml could vary seasonally between
8:30 am and 9:30 am, while mintti
(midnight)andhdegi(highnoon)varied
less.
Somedaymarkswereknownbymulti
plenames,muchlikethewordsnoonand
middayinEnglish.Forexample,rismlis
alsomirmorginn,hdegiisalsomirdagr
ormidegi,andeyktisalsoeyktarmrkand Figure7.3.Daymarks(dagsmrk).
nn.13Minttiisalsomintt,andttais
alsoelding,aftrelding,ormieykt.Eykt,whichispartofseveraldaymarks,refersto1/8,that
isincrementsofthreehoursoftheday.
13
NooninEnglishusageis12pm,whereasnnis3pm.
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CHAPTER9AUDUNFROMTHEWESTFJORDS
CHAPTER9
THETALEOFAUDUNFROMTHEWESTFJORDS,
AUUNARTTRVESTFIRZKA
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Erkonungsgarrrmrinngangs,enrngrbrottfararEgilssaga
Figure9.1.TravelsofAudunfromIcelandsWestFjords.
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1076.1Thettrisastudyofcharacter,andeventsturnonthedifferingtreatmentthatAudun
receivesfromthetwokings.FormingabackdroptoAudunsTale,theseVikingAgesovereigns
wereswornenemiesinvolvedinyearsofrivalryandwarfare.Themedievalaudiencewould
havequicklygraspedthedangerthatAudunfindshimselfinwhenherefusestogiveagiftto
onekinginordertogiveagifttotheother.Audunspersonalqualitiesandthetemperaments
ofthetwokingsarewelldrawn.
Ontheonehand,thettrhasafolkloristicquality.Itfollowsitsherosjourneyand
assesseshisabilitytoseizeopportunity,passsafelythroughdangers,andthenreturnhome
withwealthandrenown.Ontheother,thetaleisfirmlyanchoredinIcelandichistoryand
genealogy.ThelastlineofthettrtellsthatAudunistheancestorofThorsteinGyduson
(orsteinn Gyuson).ThorsteinlivedonFlatey(FlatIsland)inBreiafjrr(Broadfjordin
westernIceland)anddrownedin1190.ThorsteinismentionedthreetimesinSturlungasaga
aswellasinTheSagaofBishopGudmundArason(GumundarsagabiskupsArasonar).Some
oftheIcelandicannalsnotehisdeath.2
Auunarttrisfoundinmedievalmansucriptcollectionsofbothkingssagasandfamily
sagas.ItispreservedintwolargeandimportantIcelandicskinbooks.One,Flateyjarbk(The
BookofFlatey)containsmanystoriesofthekings.Theother,Morkinskinna(moldyskin),
preservesthettramongacollectionofkings'sagassetintheyearsfromca.1025to1157.
ThetextgivenbelowisbasedontheslenzkfornriteditioninVestfiringasgur,edited
byBjrnK.rlfssonandGuniJnsson(slenzkfornrit6.Reykjavk:Hislenzkafornritaflag,
1943). The tale is also found in rmann Jakobsson and rur Ingi Gujnsson (eds.).
MorkinskinnaIII.(slenzkfornrit2324.Reykjavk:Hislenzkafornritaflag,2011).
9.1Auunarttrvestfirzka
1.kaptuli
MarhtAuunn,vestfirzkratkyni okfltill.Hannfrtanvestrarfjrummeumbri
orsteins,4bandags,okrisstrimanns,erarhafiegitvistofvetrinnmeorsteini.5
Auunnvarokarokstarfaifyrirhonumriokessilaunafhonum,tanferinaokhans
umsj.HannAuunnlagimestanhlutafjress,ervar,6fyrmursna,rhannstigiskip,
okvarkveitriggjavetrabjrg.7
1
SveinwasnamedafterbothhisfatherUlf(lfr)andhismotherEstrid(strr).Unusualforaprominent
manoftheperiod,Sveinoftenisknownbythenameofhismotherstrr,thedaughteroftheDanish
KingSveinForkbeard(Sveinntjguskegg).SveinsfatherJarllfrwasinvolvedinunsuccessfulintrigues,
andSveinseemstohaveadoptedhismothersnameinordertoemphasizethathewasamemberofthe
Danishroyallinethroughhismother.
SagaGumundarArasonar,Hlabiskups,hinelzta,saysthathedrowned.
vestfirzkratkyni:ofWestFjorddescent.
arfjrummeumbriorsteins:fromthefjordsundertheguidanceofThorstein.
erarhafiegitvistofvetrinnmeorsteini:whohadacceptedlodgingswithThorsteinthatwinter.
esservar:ofthatwhichtherewas,i.e.,thatheowned.
varkveitriggjavetrabjrg:thiswasagreedtobesubsistence[foodandlodging]forthreewinters
[i.e.,threeyears].
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Oknfaraeirthean,okferskeimvel,8okvarAuunnofvetrinneptirmeri
strimanni;hannttibMri.OkumsumariteptirfaraeirttilGrnlandsokeruarof
vetrinn.
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esservigetit,atAuunnkaupirarbjarndri9eitt,gersimimikla,okgafarfyriralla
eigu sna. Ok n of sumarit eptir fara eir aptr til Nregs ok vera vel reifara;10 hefir
AuunndrsittmesroktlarnatfarasurtilDanmerkrfundSveinskonungs11okgefa
honumdrit.Okerhannkomsurlandit,arsemkonungrvarfyrir,12gengrhannuppaf
skipiokleiireptirsrdrit13okleigirsrherbergi.
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10
11
12
13
ferskeimvel:theirjourneywentwell.
bjarndri:compoundwordofbjrnanddri(bearandanimal),probablyapolarbear,whichwashighly
valuedinEuropeinthattime.Driisanunusualformfordr.
TheFlateyjarbkversionofAuunarttrtellsthisaboutAudunstripbacktoNorway:rirstrimar
frartilbssns,enAuunnfekksrfaraustrtilVkrokhafidrsittmesr.Enerhannkomtilsl,
gekkhannlandmedrsitt.
Sveinnkonungr:SveinUlfsson,reignedoverDenmarkfrom10471076.
varfyrir:wastobefound.
leiireptirsrdrit:leadsthebearbehindhim.
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Haraldikonungivarsagtbrtt,atarvarkomitbjarndri,gersimimikil,ok14slenzkr
mar.Konungrsendiregarmenneptirhonum,okerAuunnkomfyrirkonung,kverhann
konungvel.Konungrtkvelkvejuhansokspurisan:"ttugersimimiklabjarndri?"Hann
svararokkvezkeigadriteitthvert.Konungrmlti:"Villtuseljaossdritvislkuveri15sem
keyptir?"Hannsvarar:"Eigivilekat,herra.""Villtu,"segirkonungr,"atekgefartvau
verslk,16okmunatrttara,17efhefirarvigefitallanaeigu?""Eigivilekat,herra,"
segirhann.Konungrmlti:"Villtugefamr?Hannsvarar:Eigiherra.Konungrmlti:Hvat
villtuafgera?Hannsvarar:Fara,segirhann,tilDanmerkrokgefaSveinikonungi.Haraldr
konungrsegir:Hvrter,atertmarsvvitr,athefireigiheyrtfriann,ermillier
landaessa,18eatlargiptunasvmikla,atmunirarkomaskmegersimar,erarir
feigikomizkklaklaust,atnausyneigitil?19Auunnsvarar:Herra,ateryruvaldi,en
engujtuvrruenessu,ervrhfumrtlat.20mltikonungr:Hvmuneigiattil,
atfarirleina,semvill,okkomtilmn,erferraptr,oksegmr,hversuSveinn
konungrlaunarrdrit,okkannatvera,atsrgfumar.vheitekr,sagiAuunn.
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14
15
16
17
18
19
20
:presentofeiga,pasttti.
vislkuveri:atthesameprice.
tvauverslk:twicethepriceyougave.
munatrttara:thatwouldbefairer.
A detailed depiction of this war is given in the Saga of Harald Hardradi (Haralds saga harra) in
Morkinskinna,Fagrskinna,andHeimskringla.
atnausyneigitil:thoughtheymighthave(eigiissubjuncofeiga)urgentbusinessthere.
enengujtu...rtlat:butI[we]willnotagreetoanythingotherthanwhatIintendedbefore.
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CHAPTER 10
HRAFNKELS SAGA,
HRAFNKELS SAGA FREYSGOA
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Figure 10.1. The Region of Hrafnkels Saga in Icelands East Fjords. Hrafnkel lived first at Aalbl
(Main Farm) in Hrafnkelsdalr (Hrafnkels Valley) and later at Hrafnkelsstair (Hrafnkels Steads) in
Fljtsdalr (River Valley) in Fljtsdalshera (River Valley District).
A SAGA OF FEUD
Hrafnkels Saga is a story of ambition, vengeance, and honor in the mountainous Fljtsdalr
region of Icelands East Fjords. Hrafnkel arrives in Iceland as a boy of fifteen during the
140
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Hrafnkels Saga is relatively short. Unlike longer family sagas, which mention many people, it
names relatively few characters. For example, the much longer Njals Saga names almost six
hundred people, while Hrafnkels Saga names twenty-four and has only eight main characters.
Except for one vellum leaf from an early fifteenth century manuscript, Hrafnkels Saga survives
in only late paper manuscripts. The following text of the saga is drawn from, Austfiringa
sgur, ed. Jn Jhannesson, slenzk fornrit 11. Reykjavk: Hi slenzka fornritaflag, 1950.
at var dgum Haralds konungs ins hrfagra, Hlfdanar sonar ins svarta, Gurar sonar
veiikonungs, Hlfdanar sonar ins milda ok ins matarilla, Eysteins sonar freys, lfs sonar
trtelgju Svakonungs, at s mar kom skipi snu til slands Breidal, er Hallfrer ht. at er
fyrir nean Fljtsdalshera. ar var skipi kona hans ok sonr, er Hrafnkell ht. Hann var
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fimmtn vetra gamall, mannvnn ok grviligr. Hallfrer setti b saman. Um vetrinn andaisk
tlend ambtt, er Arnrr ht, ok v heitir at san Arnrarstum.4
En um vrit fri Hallfrer b sitt norr yfir heii ok geri b ar, sem heitir Geitdal. Ok
eina ntt dreymi hann, at mar kom at honum ok mlti: 'ar liggr , Hallfrer, ok heldr
varliga. Fr brott b itt ok vestr yfir Lagarfljt. ar er heill n ll.' Eptir at vaknar hann
ok frir b sitt t yfir Rang Tungu, ar sem san heitir allfrearstum, ok bj ar til elli.
En honum var ar eptir geit ok hafr. Ok inn sama dag, sem Hallfrer var brott, hljp skria
hsin, ok tndusk ar essir gripir, ok v heitir at san Geitdal.
2. kaptuli
Hrafnkell lagi at vana sinn at ra yfir heiar sumarit. var Jkulsdalr albyggr upp
at brm. Hrafnkell rei upp eptir Fljtsdalsheii ok s, hvar eyidalr gekk af Jkulsdal. S dalr
sndisk Hrafnkatli byggiligri en arir dalir, eir sem hann hafi r st. En er Hrafnkell kom
heim, beiddi hann fur sinn fjrskiptis, ok sagisk hann bsta vilja reisa sr. etta veitir fair
W. P. Ker, The Dark Ages. New York: Mentor Books, 1958: 200-201.
heitir at san Arnrarstum: later it was called [at] Arnthrudarstadir. A common feature of Old
Icelandic place names is to treat the preposition (here ) as part of the name and for the place to be in the dative
case. For example, Hli, (at) Hol.
lagi at vana sinn: made it his custom.
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hans honum, ok hann gerir sr b dal eim ok kallar Aalbli. Hrafnkell fekk Oddbjargar
Skjldlfsdttur r Laxrdal. au ttu tv sonu. Ht inn ellri rir, en inn yngri sbjrn.
En er Hrafnkell hafi land numit Aalbli, efldi hann blt mikil.6 Hrafnkell lt gera
hof mikit. Hrafnkell elskai eigi annat go meir en Frey, ok honum gaf hann alla ina beztu gripi
sna hlfa vi sik.7 Hrafnkell byggi allan dalinn ok gaf mnnum land, en vildi vera yfirmar
eira ok tk goor8 yfir eim. Vi etta var lengt9 nafn hans ok kallar Freysgoi, ok var
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jafnaarmar10 mikill, en menntr11 vel. Hann rngi undir sik Jkulsdalsmnnum til
ingmanna hans,12 var linr ok blr vi sna menn, en strr ok stirlyndr vi Jkulsdalsmenn,
ok fengu af honum engan jafna. Hrafnkell st mjk einvgjum13 ok btti engan mann f,14
v at engi fekk af honum neinar btr, hvat sem hann geri.
Fljtsdalsheir er yfirferarill, grtt mjk ok blaut, en riu eir fegar jafnan hvrr til
annarra, v at gott var frndsemi eira. Hallfrei tti s lei torstt ok leitai sr leiar fyrir
ofan fell au, er standa Fljtsdalsheii. Fekk hann ar urrari lei ok lengri, ok heitir ar
Hallfreargata. essa lei fara eir einir, er kunnugastir eru um Fljtsdalsheii.
3. kaptuli
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8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
efldi hann blt mikil: he performed great sacrifices, possibly as much worship as sacrifice.
honum gaf hann alla ina beztu gripi sna hlfa vi sik: to him [Frey], he [Hrafnkel] gave half of all the best
possesions he had. Rather than divide or cut everything in half in order to sacrifice half to the god, Hrafnkel is
declaring a form of joint property ownership or partnership with Frey. Later in the saga, Hrafnkel gave half the
horse to Frey. The horse remained whole, and Hrafnkel shares his possession with Frey as his flagi. In
Vpnfiringa saga, Thorleif the Christian (orleifr Kristni) calls Christ his flagi.
tk goor: took the chieftaincy.
lengt: from lengja lengthened.
jafnaarmar: unjust, overbearing man.
menntr: accomplished.
rngi undir sik Jkulsdalsmnnum til ingmanna hans: forced the men of Jokulsdalr to be his thingmen.
Both pronouns sik and hans in rngdi undir sik and ingmanna hans refer to Hrafnkel.
st mjk einvgjum: was involved in many duels
btti engan mann f: never paid anyone compensation, (lit, 'compensated no man with payment [money]').
nam staar: stopped.
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brnmlttr at lit,17 er hann kallai Freyfaxa sinn. Hann gaf Frey, vin snum, ann hest
hlfan.18 essum hesti hafi hann sv mikla elsku, at hann strengi ess heit,19 at hann skyldi
eim manni at bana vera, sem honum rii n hans vilja.20
orbjrn ht mar. Hann var brir Bjarna ok bj eim b Hrafnkelsdal, er Hli ht,
gegnt Aalbli fyrir austan. orbjrn tti f ltit, en meg mikla. Sonr hans ht Einarr, inn
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elzti.21 Hann var mikill ok vel mannar. at var einu vri, at orbjrn mlti til Einars, at hann
mundi leita sr vistar nkkurar, -- 'v at ek arf eigi meira forvirki en etta li orkar, er hr er,
en r mun vera gott til vista,22 v at ert mannar vel. Eigi veldr stleysi essari
brottkvaning vi ik, v at ert mr arfastr barna minna. Meira veldr v efnaleysi mitt ok
ftk. En nnur brn mn gerask verkmenn. Mun r vera betra til vistar23 en eim.'
Einarr svarar: 'Of s hefir sagt mr til essa, v at n hafa allir rit sr vistir, r er
beztar eru, en mr ykkir illt at hafa rval af.'24
Einn dag tk Einarr hest sinn ok rei Aalbl. Hrafnkell sat stofu. Hann heilsar honum
vel ok glaliga. Einarr leitar til vistar vi Hrafnkel.
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En n hefi ek rit llum hjnum nema til eirar einnar iju, er munt ekki hafa vilja.'
Einarr spuri, hver s vri.
Hrafnkell kvazk eigi mann hafa rit til smalaferar, en lzk mikils vi urfa.26
Einarr kvazk eigi hira, hvat hann ynni, hvrt sem at vri27 etta ea annat, en lzk
'Ek geri r skjtan kost,' sagi Hrafnkell. ' skalt reka heim fimm tigu sauar28 seli ok
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
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uilburk : amik1
Figure 11.1. Runic Letters of the Younger Futhark often represented multiple sounds or phonemes.
Here are some examples.
Runes are often overlooked because of the variety, quality, and volume of Old Norse / Icelandic
sources. Yet runic writing was an integral part of Old Norse language and culture. During the
Viking Age and in the following medieval centuries, people of all social classes wrote in runes.
They called their runic script the futhark after the first six runic letters FUARk. Runes were
carved on wood, bark, stone, bone, antler, and metal, and inscriptions were employed for
identification, messaging, magic, and commemoration. Runes are found on weapons, jewelry,
runestones, and everyday items as far afield from mainland Scandinavia as Greenland, Iceland,
An Icelandic inscription from ca. 900 in the younger futhark. The runes were carved on a spindle whorl found
in the oldest part of Reykjavk by the archaeologist Vala Gararsdttir in 2009. The whorl is made from red
sandstone thought to be from Mount Esja across Faxafli Bay from Reykjavk. The stone shows considerable
wear, and the whorl, which was a useful everyday item, may have been in use for decades. It was owned by
a woman named Vilborg.
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CHAPTER 11 RUNES
the British Isles, the Baltic regions, Central Europe, Russia, and the Mediterranean.
Runes were in use in Scandinavia for more than thirteen centuries. They first appear
toward the end of the first century AD and continue in active use into the fourteenth century,
when they are mostly replaced by writing in Latin.2 Several related futharks evolved. The
earliest was called the elder futhark, divided into three groups.
THE ELDER FUTHARK
HNIJYPZS
f u a r k g w
h n i j
TBEML Q OD
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FUARKG W
E p R s
t b e m l ng o d
The elder futhark had twenty-four symbols representing an almost one-to-one agreement
between each rune and each sound in the language. As an alphabet, the elder futhark was
highy serviceable. With variations, it remained in use into the eighth century, or toward the
beginning of the Viking Age, when the elder futhark was replaced by the younger futhark. This
new, shortened futhark reduced the number of runes to sixteen, dropping the earlier one-toone correspondence between runic letter and the sounds in the language. Like the elder
futhark, the younger futhark was divided into three groups. In the Viking Age these groups
were called ttir (families).
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f u
f
o r k
a3 ,o r
h n I
a s
t b m q l z
Individual runes in the younger futhark now represented more than one sound. The younger
futhark was easier to learn but inscriptions were harder to read. Some of the sounds in the
language from before the Viking Age, for example, /e/, /o/, /w/, /p/, /d/, /g/, are not clearly
distinguished in the younger futhark. During the Viking Age, the sounds in the language
increased, and vowels that were introduced or became prominent at the start of the Viking
Age, such as //, //, /y/, /o3 / are not clearly represented in the younger futhark.
Why available letters were dropped from the writing system when the sounds of the
language were increasing is a mystery. The opposite took place in the Old English use of runes,
where rune carvers added new runes to reflect the new sounds in their Anglo-Saxon language.
As time passed, several variations of the younger futhark evolved, adding new runic letters
to compensate for the limitations of the original sixteen runes. Some variations also reduced
the number of strokes or cuts needed to form individual runes. These shortened runes are
known as short-twig runes. They were faster and easier to carve than the long-stem characters
In some places in Scandinavia the use of runes continues into early modern times. This later tradition often
shows significant changes from the earlier futharks.
This listing of the younger futhark contains seventeen runes with two variants of the m-rune: m and q.
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of the younger futhark. Here is a sampling of an intermediate futhark with some short twig
runes.
THE BEGINNING OF SHORT-TWIG RUNES
f u
f
r k
a3 ,o r
n I
a s
t i
b m
m
l z
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RUNIC SPELLING
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Spelling varies among runic inscriptions due to differences in pronunciation, the presence of regional
dialects, the skill and education of rune carvers, and
the lack of a recognized spelling standard. For example, geri, the past tense of gera, is spelled kari
(kari/gri) on the Danish Jelling stone and kIari
(kiari/gjri) in the Swedish Ramsund inscription.4
Similar spelling variations exist in vellum manuscripts.
For example, the verb gera (do or make) is spelled
gra, gra, grva, grwa, girva, giora, and gjra in
different manuscripts.
To overcome the problem of variation and to make
possible the production of dictionaries, scholars
standardize Old Norse spelling when reproducing the
Figure 11.2. The Hrning Runestone in
contents of manuscripts and runic inscriptions. Most the younger futhark with long-branch
standardizations are based principally on Old Icelandic, runes.
the dialect that we know best because of a large
number of surviving manuscripts.
The following examples and exercises in this chapter present runic inscriptions in three
ways: 1) the original runes; 2) a transliteration of the runes into their Latin equivalents; and 3)
a transcription of the runes into standardized Old Norse.
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The Hrning Runestone probably dates from the late tenth or early eleventh century. The
stone was first recorded at the top of a bank close to a bridge across the rhus River at Bering
in the parish of Hrning in Jutland. A commemorative stone, it declares the status of Tki the
smith, the man who commissioned it, as a newly freed man. The inscription acknowledges the
patronage of orgsl Gumundarson,6 the man who freed Tki. It is of especial interest that
Tki is identified by his profession as a smith, but we do not know his range of skills. As well
as giving an example of social emancipation, this inscription is evidence that skilled craftsmen
could have unfree status even at the end of the Viking period.
The inscription is in three lines on one face of the stone. It starts at the bottom on the
left-hand side and reads upwards. Then it continues down the right-hand side from the apex
of this pointed stone. Finally it goes back up a central line to end in an incised Christian cross.
The name of orgsl, the man honoured, stands very prominently at the top of the stone. The
text is constructed using a common formula: X raised this stone after Y, followed by an
extension which tells us something about the individual commemorated (Y), or the
circumstances in which the inscribed stone was erected.
The runes used are characteristic of the younger futhark, and particularly of the slightly
conservative variant of that script which was maintained in Denmark. There are no dotted
runes, and the original form of t, t, appears. A curiosity is the preservation of the archaic
palatal R-rune z at the end of the genitive Gumundar while the simple r, r, appears in the
nominative singular sqir (smir) The spelling conventions of the younger futhark render the
word kul ambiguous: it could represent either kol ('coal') or gull ('gold'). Even in the case of a
smith, the latter seems more likely in a commemorative inscription of this kind.
Tki the smith also sponsored another runestone, raised 30km from the site of the Hrning
stone. This second stone commemorates a man called Refli, whose father and grandfather are
also named through patronymic formulae. That inscription ends with the Christian prayer, Gu
hjlp eira slu, 'God help their souls.'
Tuki:sqir:ri:stin:ift
urkisl:kuqutaz:sun:is:hanuq
kaf:kul:uk:frialsi+
The following discussion of the Hrning, Tu, and Klepp 1 runestones was prepared by John Hines, professor
of Archaeology at the University of Cardiff, Wales. John (Professor Yr Athro) is an expert on runes and Vikings.
orgsl (urkisl) may be a misspelling for the common name orgils. In some sources orgsli is given as the
dative of orgils.
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STANDARDIZATION
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The parish of Klepp lies in the Jren region of Rogaland, south of Stavanger. From this parish,
we have a pair of runestones, one from the farm of Tu and the other from the Klepp church
(ON kleppr rocky knoll, raised rock outcrop). The runes are thought to be from the end of the
tenth century. The two stones are connected to one another through a shared reference to a
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rymskvia is composed in fornyrislag meter. Mythological scenes rush by with incremental repetition as the
stanzas recount Thors struggle with the giant Thrym. The
poem begins in sgarr,1 but the action soon leads to the
world of the giants. rymskvia displays a variety of poetic
devices, the most important of which are described below.
The poem also displays varying sentence lengths. Sometimes a sentence spreads over both halves of a long line,
but sometimes one sentence fills a whole helming or half
stanza. On occasion, a whole stanza is a single sentence.
The poet takes it for granted that the audience knows that Odin is Thor's father and that Thor's mother is the
goddess Earth (Jr).
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ALLITERATION
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For example, battle can be referred to as sngr svera (the song of swords). Sngr is the basic
word and svera (gen pl) is the determinant. Kennings are found in many languages. An English
kenning is ship of the desert, meaning camel. Ship is the base word and of the desert is the
determinant or qualifier in the possessive.
A heiti can be understood as a poetic name or a synonym. For example, instead of naming
Odin as Odin, it is common to disguise him with one of his many other names, such as Yggr.
Heiti are also words used in poetry that are seldom used in common speech. For example,
svani is a poetic word for woman that was rarely used in daily speech. Another example of a
heiti is the noun drasill. It is used for horse and can be translated as steed. Often a heiti is
used within a kenning. In such situations, the meaning becomes more riddle-like, as in leikr
Yggjar (the game of Yggr). Knowing that Yggr is Odin and that Odin is the god of war helps to
decipher this kenning as battle, the game or leikr of the war god.
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As mentioned in the earlier chapter on eddic meter, alliteration is the repetition of initial
sounds in two or more words. This repetition across half lines binds them into cohesive long
lines. Alliteration, along with syllable stress, forms the basic structure of the verse. Alliterating
sounds are often single consonants or single vowels.
For example, the initial sound in the accented syllable can be a - in rymr sat haugi
ursa drttinn. The consonant s- is a special case. Sk- can alliterate only with sk-, as in skegg
nam at hrista skr nam at dja. Similarly st- with st-, as in Standi upp, jtnar ok stri
bekki, and sp- with sp-. Single s- can alliterate both with another single s-, as in opt sitjanda
sgur um fallask, and with other consonant clusters beginning with s-, such as sn- and sl-.
Any vowel can alliterate with any other vowel or with itself across half lines as in n
upphimins followed by ss er stolinn hamri, where u- alliterates with -. Also , the letter j(always pronounced like the y in yes) counts as a vowel. For example, stanza 2 of rymskvia
has the long line: er eigi veit Jarar hvergi. In this line, ja- from jarar in the second half line
alliterates with ei- from eigi in the preceding half line.
In second half lines, the structural alliteration is most frequently carried by the first
prominently accented syllable. This rule means that some alliterating syllables are not
structural but extras to the essential pattern. In ef ek minn hamar mttak hitta, it is minn
and mttak that carry the structural alliteration. The alliteration between hamar and hitta is
secondary, perhaps decorative or merely accidental.
Despite these rules, a great deal of liberty prevailed. For example, a significant number of lines
in rymskvia cannot be explained according to these rules. The poetic text appears to reflect
varying metrical practices that have built up over a long tradition of verse-making. To cite one
example among many, in ok selja at vri r silfri, the alliterating consonant can only be
s-. Regularly, therefore, silfri should be the first prominent word in the line; vri (as part of the
verb to be) is a weak candidate for this slot. The line could be amended as follows to gain
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regularity: ok selja at r silfri vri. That would give us the same pattern as we see in the
immediately preceding line pair: mynda ek gefa r tt r gulli vri.
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Old Norse poetry was accentual. Each half line in a long line contains two comparatively
prominent syllables accompanied by a less definite number of subordinate syllables. The terms
prominent and subordinate cannot be rigidly quantified in terms of linguistic stress values
(stressed and unstressed). Instead, they are assessed from the verse context. If a syllable is at
the start of a noun or adjective, it can safely be classed as prominent, because the great
majority of Old Icelandic nouns and adjectives had stress on the first syllable. Subsequent
syllables classed as subordinate include inflections, such as case endings, as well as
conjunctions, prepositions, and definite articles. Verbs, adverbs, and pronouns come
somewhere in between, depending on how much meaning they carry. They can be classified
as intermediate, discussed below.
The line brar lni (linen of the bride) from rymskvia consists of two nouns. The two
prominent syllables are br- and ln- and the two subordinates are -ar and -i. Similarly, in
mira gara, which consists of an adjective and a noun, the two prominent syllables are miand gar-, and the two subordinates are -ra and -a. In um kn falla, which consists of a noun
and a verb, the two prominent syllables are kn- and fall-, and the two subordinates are -um
and -a. Here the verb assumes prominence because there is no second noun or adjective to
eclipse it. But in rei var Freyja, where an adjective, a verb, an adverb, and a noun are in
competition for prominence, the verb (var) and the adverb () are relegated to subordinate
status along with the -ja in Freyja. Rei and Frey- are the prominent syllables.
INTERMEDIATE SYLLABLE STRESS. Some syllables are at an intermediate point between prominent
and subordinate, often employing the second part of a compound word. Examples are the
element -ing- (as in geldingr), the superlative suffix -ast- (gfgastr), the adverbial or adjectival
element -lig- (einkanliga), and the -a-/-u- preterite element in weak verbs (smuu). These
syllables are of intermediate stress value. In some cases, they can substitute for a prominent
syllable.
If a syllable with intermediate stress is not substituting for a prominent syllable, it may still
accompany two prominent syllables. Thus bjrg brotnuu shows two prominent syllables
followed by an intermediate stress -u-, which in turn is followed by the subordinate -u. A
similar situation is found in hvtastr sa and Laufeyjar sonr.
Whether a syllable is of prominent or intermediate stress is not always apparent. For
instance, in brann jr loga, the alliteration of b- from the previous half line makes brann (a
verb) the first prominent syllable and jr as the second prominent syllable, leaving log- as an
intermediate stress. Assignations like these are somewhat arbitrary. The poets enjoyed a great
deal of freedom in the exact weighing of stresses within a line. In the line k ins sonr, for
example, if we take our cue from the alliteration, k and - are the prominent stresses, and
sonr is an intermediate stress. On the other hand, if k is considered subordinate because it
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DEFINITE ARTICLE. In Old Norse poetry, the definite article (the) is normally omitted. In
translating, one needs to decide when and where to add it. Here are some examples:
ss [not ss-inn] er stolinn hamri: the god has been robbed of his hammer.
fjarhamr duni: the feather-cloak whirred. Not fjarhamr-inn.
allr sa salr: the entire hall of the sir. Not sanna or salr-inn.
Occasionally the article appears to provide emphasis. In such instances, it often is accompanied
by an adjective as in the following example:
at it mikla men Brsinga: that, the great necklace of the Brsings: that great necklace...
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Figure 14.2. The Lay of Thrym from the Codex Regius (GKS 2365 4to). This single page contains half
of the poem, begining with rei var Freyja (stanza 13) and ending with Hl Hlrria hugr
brjsti...rym drap hann (stanza 31). Scribes used abbreviations to conserve space on vellum. The
end of line 11 from Bundu (Bdo) and line 12 almost condenses stanza 19 into a single line.
Courtesy of rni Magnsson Institute, Reykjavik.
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rymskvia portrays Thor in his capacity as god of strength and combat, and the kvia shows
Thor relying on his hammer, Mjllnir, to defend the gods against the giants. Thor was a popular
god, a patron of farmers and warriors. His exuberant behavior, as in rymskvia, warmed the
hearts of his devotees, and his antics were often amusing. rymskvia displays rough humor
as Thor disguises himself as an anxious bride preparing to marry a giant. Some scholars believe
the poem is old, composed as far back as the tenth century with the verse reflecting heathen
tradition, including the playful way the poem treats Thor. Others regard the poem as a
Christian mockery of Thor composed in the twelfth or early thirteenth century by a poet who
accumulated allusions to older narratives. The inherent question is whether or not pagans
could laugh at their gods.
In the poem, Thrym, a lord among the giants, steals Mjllnir. The loss of Thors hammer
is a blow to the gods, leaving them unprotected against their foes. The theft becomes even
more serious when Thrym demands Freyja, the goddess of fertility, as ransom for the hammer.
Heimdall, the watchman of the gods, counsels Thor to disguise himself as Freyja in order to
gain entry into Thryms hall. Loki, the mercurial trickster of Norse myth, agrees to accompany
Thor on his journey to Jotunheim. Loki often causes trouble, but in this instance he helps Thor.
The story mentions Freyjas most valued possession, her magic shape-changing feather-shape
(fjarhamr). rymskvia also speaks of Freyjas prized necklace, the Brsingamen,2 a treasure
crafted by four dwarves. Beowulf speaks of a similar mysterious piece of jewelry called in Old
English the Brosinga mene (the necklace of the Brosings).
rymskvia
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(1) Ving-rr: brandishing-Thor, describes his use of his hammer. (2-3) sns ... saknai:
missed his hammer. Sakna takes the genitive case. (5) nam ...hrista: his beard took to
shaking. (6) skr ... dja his hair to shaking. (8) um at reifask: Jrs son groped
around (um) [trying to locate his hammer].
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EW
214
(1-2) hann ... kva: that of words first of all he said, [the first thing he said was]. (3)
heyru: hear you! -u is the pronoun affixed to the verb. (5) eigi veit: no one has
heard, (6-7) jarar ... upphimins: nowhere of earth nor of heaven [anywhere on earth
or in heaven]. (8) ss ... hamri: the god has been robbed of his hammer.
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PR
EV
I
(1-2) fagra Freyju tna: tna (gen pl), to the beautiful dwellings of Freyja. (5) muntu:
will you. -(t)u in muntu is the pronoun affixed to the verb. (6) lj: takes a genitive
object as here (fjarhams). (7) ef: normally if, but here means in case/in the hope
that/so that. (7-8) ek ... mttak: I could, with -k (mtta+k) repeating ek.
4. Freyja kva:
mynda ek gefa r,
tt r gulli vri,
ok selja,
at vri r silfri.
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(1) : even so/though. (2) gefa r: give [it] to you. vri: past subjunct, indicating
a supposed condition. (3) selja: hand [it] over.
5. Fl Loki
fjarhamr duni
uns fyr tan kom
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249
APPENDIX 1
EW
NOUNS
STRONG NOUNS
MASCULINE
(WA-STEMS)
(JA-STEMS)
(IA-STEMS)
[-v-]
sngr
sng
sngvi
sngs
sngvar
sngva
sngum
sngva
[-j-]
nir
ni
ni
nis
nijar
nija
nijum
nija
[-i- in sg]
hirir
hiri
hiri
hiris
hirar
hira
hirum
hira
PR
EV
I
Sg nom
acc
dat
gen
Pl nom
acc
dat
gen
Type 1 (A-STEMS)
C nom pl -ar C acc pl -a
[-l/-n/-s]
[a/]
hestr
stll
garr
hest
stl
gar
hesti
stli
gari
hests
stls
gars
hestar
stlar
garar
hesta
stla
gara
hestum
stlum
grum
hesta
stla
gara
Type 2 (I-STEMS)
C nom pl -ir C acc pl -i
Sg nom
acc
dat
gen
Pl nom
acc
dat
gen
Sg nom
acc
dat
gen
Pl nom
acc
dat
gen
[a/]
star
sta
sta
staar
stair
stai
stum
staa
[gen -s]
gestr
gest
gest(i)
gests
gestir
gesti
gestum
gesta
[-j-]
bekkr
bekk
bekk
bekkjar
bekkir
bekki
bekkjum
bekkja
Type 3 (U-STEMS)
C nom pl -ir C acc pl -u
C u-shift nom & acc sg
C i-shift dat sg and nom pl
[a/e/]
[ja/i/j]
litr
kttr
skjldr
lit
ktt
skjld
liti
ketti
skildi
litar
kattar
skjaldar
litir
kettir
skildir
litu
kttu
skjldu
litum
kttum
skjldum
lita
katta
skjalda
vetr
vetr
vetri
vetrar
vetr
vetr
vetrum
vetra
mar
mann
manni
manns
menn
menn
mnnum
manna
[/]
ttr
tt
tti
ttar
ttir
ttu
ttum
tta
nagl
nagl
nagli
nagls
negl
negl
nglum
nagla
VOCABULARY
pref
prep
pres
pres part
pret-pres
pron
refl
rel
sg
str
subj
prefix
preposition
present
present participle
preterite-present (verb)
pronoun
reflexive (verb or pronoun)
relative (pronoun or particle)
singular
strong (adjective or verb)
subject
subjunct subjunctive
superl
superlative (adjective or ad-verb)
trans
transitive (verb)
transl
translation
usu
usually
var
variant
vb
verb
w with
wk weak (adjective or verb)
+ plus
= equals
EW
276
PR
EV
I
a, , b, d, , e, , f, g, h, i, , j, k, l, m, n, o, , p, r, s, t, u, , v, x, y, , z, , , , /
PR
EV
I
EW
277
e-n (einhvern) = somebody, acc; e-t (eitthvat) = something, acc; e-m (einhverjum) = (for) somebody,
dat; e-u (einhverju) = (for) something, dat; e-s (einhvers) = (of) somebody or something, gen
VOCABULARY
auskaddr (also -skr) adj easily damaged, fragile
austtr adj easily won, easy to win
augsn f sight
ausnn adj clear, evident
auugr var of auigr
aufi f wealth, possessions
auga <pl augu, gen augna> n eye
augna gen pl of auga
augsn f sight
auka <eykr, jk, jku, aukinn> vb increase, augment; [w
dat] add; exceed, surpass; auka [e-u] vi add [sth];
aukask mid be increased
aukisk 2/3 sg pres subjunct of aukask
aurar pl of eyrir
aurr <-s> m mud
ausa <eyss, js, jsu, ausinn> vb pour, sprinkle; ausa
[e-n]/[e-t] [e-m] sprinkle [sb]/[sth] with [sth]; ausa
bt bail a boat
austan adv from the east
austanverr adj eastern, easterly
Austfiringar m pl men of the East fjords of Iceland
Austmar m person from the east, Norwegian
austr <-rs> m east; adv eastward
austrfr <pl austfarar> f (usu in pl) travels to the east
austrvegr <-s, -ir> m the east, i.e., the Baltic (lit the
eastern way); fara austrveg trading or raiding in
the Baltic or journeying east and south down the
rivers of Russia
austrnn adj coming from the east; eastern
auviri n worthless wretch
ax n ear of corn; hveitiax ear of wheat
PR
EV
I
EW
278
a, , b, d, , e, , f, g, h, i, , j, k, l, m, n, o, , p, r, s, t, u, , v, x, y, , z, , , , /