HEAVENLY BODIES IN

THE LAND OF MEN

An Introduction to Marquesan Archaeoastronomy

Presentation for the Rapa Nui Expedition to

Hatiheu, French Polynesia,
June 1st-June 23rd, 2015
Funded by
The Pacific Islands Research Institute (PIRI)
and private donations

The Marquesas, Archaeoastronomy, and Our Project

The Marquesas Islands, named Te Henua Enata or The Land of Men by their
Polynesian discoverers, are located approximately 1,370 km northeast of Tahiti and 4,800
km west of Mexico. Although they are part of French Polynesia, geographically they are
one of the most remote island groups in the world and the most distant from any
continental land mass. The archipelago is formed by a string of islands that extends
about 370 km from northeast to southeast and is located 8-11 South latitude and
between 138-141 West longitude. The archipelago is divided into two distinct island
groups. The Northern group is comprised by Nuku Hiva, Ua Pou, Ua Huka, and the two
uninhabited islands of Eiao and Hatutu. Hiva Oa, Tahuata, Fatu Hiva, and uninhabited
Fatu Huku and Motane make up the islands of the Southern group. The total land area is
about 1,050 km with a population of approximately 9,000 inhabitants with a similar
number of Marquesans living in Tahiti. Cultural and linguistic evidence indicate that the
first settlers of the Marquesas originated from Western Polynesia and may have arrived
as early as 600 AD, ultimately expanding and settling other islands in a sphere of cultural
influence that included places as far away as Hawaii and Easter island. As populations
grew, eventually every Marquesan valley became inhabited. Major valleys with different
river systems were often occupied by several clans, divided into settlements led by a
tribal chief who lived with his family and noble entourage. Secular festivities, treaties,
and other celebrations took place in communal meeting centres called tohua, while all
religious activities were carried out on ceremonial sites called meae where statues
representing tribal deities were erected. These were the kinds of structures that were
often aligned to astronomical phenomena on other islands and it is very likely that this
was also true in the Marquesas.
2

The term archaeoastronomy was coined in 1973 by Elizabeth Chesley Baity to

designate a fairly new field of study that blended the physical science of astronomy with
the social sciences of anthropology, archaeology, and history to explain how ancient
cultures interpreted astronomical phenomena. Considered a controversial field at times,
only a handful of pioneers have ventured into the subject in Polynesia so far, and the
subject remains obscure despite the fact that there is a fair amount of ethnographic
information and archaeological evidence regarding the role of astronomical phenomena
in Polynesian cosmogony, mythology, and religion, as well as its practical application in
everyday life, particularly in navigation, time reckoning, and in the regulation of farming
and fishing activities. Star maps, calendric calibration devices, observatories, and the
structures with astronomical alignments, have been found in several islands in Eastern
Polynesia, such as Huahine, Mangareva, Raiatea, Raivavae, Rapa Nui, Rurutu, and Tahiti.
Surely their number would rise considerably with a more comprehensive study of
archaeological sites on these, and other, Polynesian islands. The Marquesas, represent an
interesting challenge to archaeoastronomers since the subject has never been thoroughly
researched on those islands, yet they are considered a point of dispersal from where other
Polynesians with rich traditions in archaeoastronomy, may have originally come from.
The goal of our project is to locate, assess, and corroborate the astronomical
function and ethnographic importance of archaeological sites in Nuku Hivaone of the
largest islands of the Marquesas, and one of the richest in terms of the sheer number of
megalithic constructions built thereand then to study the correlations between
Marquesan archaeoastronomy and that of other islands within the same cultural sphere.

The point is to gain a better understanding of the Polynesian universe and of the elements
that helped shape the local cultural identity, all the while seeking to find what this reveals
about the nature of these ancient contacts and human ingenuity.

The Cosmos, Gods, and Time in the Marquesas and Polynesia

Some 3,500 years ago in a span of about 500 years, the Lapita, the ancestors of the
Polynesians, used their knowledge of the stars to settle an area 4,300 km wide in what is
considered one of the speediest human expansions of the pre-historic world. Their
descendants, the Polynesians, eventually settled hundreds of islands crossing millions of
square kilometres of water without navigational instruments, guided by nothing more
than complex astronomical observations and an understanding of natural signs. These
navigators, or wayfinders, as they are known today, were undeniably skilled specialists
who passed astronomical information from one generation to the next for over three
thousands years. However, the observation of astronomical phenomena was not limited
to navigation and served a far more important function carried out by powerful
astronomer priests: to establish a cycle of yearly activities, where the heliacal and cosmic
rising and setting of specific stars and asterisms determined when certain events took
place. Depending on the activities that coincided with the rising and setting of a
particular star or asterism, skywatchers announced when festivities, ceremonies,
prohibitions, and the seasons started and ended. Astronomer priests or skywatchers
studied the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets from special structures built in places with the
best vantage point for each astronomic event, and ceremonial constructions were often
aligned to astronomic phenomena. The observation of the sky was an important survival
tool for Polynesians, while at the same time it reinforced some of their main religious
concepts.
If the superb seafaring abilities of Polynesians are any indication, their knowledge
of celestial phenomena was vast. In the 1940s, Anthropologist Maud Makemson recorded
the names of 772 stars and constellations as well as several astronomical terms while
working in different Polynesian islands. Like other Polynesians, Marquesans did not
make distinctions between planets and stars, or small star clusters and constellations. The
generic Marquesan name for all of these was fetu in the Southern Marquesas, and hetu in
the Northern group. In Polynesia the Sun was far less important than it was for many
other ancient cultures. Even though some Polynesians observed the solstices and
equinoxes, it was mostly complementary to studying the motions of the Pleiades and
Orions belt. The Moon, on the other hand, was particularly important, primarily because
Polynesians relied on lunar calendars to measure time and also because of its influence on
activities related to planting and fishing.
1

The language of the Marquesas may be divided into two distinct dialects, belonging to each of the island
groups. The ng sound of earlier Polynesian languages becomes a k in some parts of the Northern
Marquesas, while in the Southern group it changes into the more familiar n. The same is the case with
the h sound, which is replaced by an f in the Southern group. Nuku Hiva is quite special in the sense
that sub-dialects exist within the different valleys of the same island. Anthropologist Roger Green believes
that this is probably due to the geographical nature of the Marquesas, where inter-island and inter-valley
communication is difficult, in addition to the lengthy period of Marquesan settlement. Interestingly, the
Marquesas are one of the few places in Polynesia with two different sets of names for the nights in a
lunation depending on the island group. (Green 1966: 6)

Polynesians believed that everything was alive and conscious, different

elements grew, reproduced, and died as a result of a supernatural power called mana.
Since the chiefs were the medium by which deified ancestors provided for their
descendants by making the plants grow and animals multiply, the entire clan ensured the
success of their subsistence activities by making offerings and sacrifices to honour the
gods in an agricultural cycle that in other Polynesian islands was called Te Fekai Nga
Atua (the gods produce food). The Polynesian diet depended mainly on agricultural
products, pigs, chicken, and fish, in that order. Marquesans carried out several rituals
related to the planting and harvest of their most important crops, especially breadfruit,
coconut, bananas, sugarcane, taro, and kava. Interestingly, the cultural significance of
these crops was not all subsistence-related since the chiefs used kava as a very mild
narcotic and sedative, emphasizing the importance of ritual practice and status in all
these activities. However, breadfruit was an essential Marquesan foodstuff and this was
reflected in the many terms that reference it in the local language, particularly those
related to time and the seasons.
All Polynesians had an annual cycle of activities that determined what sort of chores
and rituals people carried out during each month of the year. Evidently these
responsibilities and events were directly linked to the weather and the availability of
seasonal resources, which differed on each island. Since the arrival of migratory birds,
turtles, and pelagic fish coincided with the accronic or heliacal rising or setting of certain
stars or constellations, astronomer priests used these astronomical events to predict the
arrival of migratory species, but also to measure time and establish an annual calendar of
activities. Certain stars disappear from the night sky sometimes for several months as
their rotation course leads them to rise during the daylight hours when they cannot be
seen. The Marquesans, like all Polynesians, used these phenomena to measure time so
that specific festivities, ceremonies, and seasons started (or ended) coinciding with when
particular stars appeared or disappeared from the night sky. Some of stars and asterisms
that we know were important to Marquesans were Aldebaran (Hee Ti), Antares
(probably Ehua or Heua), Corvus (Mee), Formalhaut (Hatu Tahi), the Pleiades (Mataiki),
Orions Belt (Tuitui Hohoe or Taotohu), Aquila (Pao Toa), and Ursa Major (Anu Kaki Oa).
These were some of the stars and/or constellations that served as guides to the months
and seasons.
According to Makemson, Antares, a red supergiant star in the western constellation
of Scorpio and the sixteenth brightest in the night-time sky, ranked with the Pleiades as
the most important of the calendar stars throughout the whole Pacific area. The heliacal
or accronic rising of the Pleiades helped mark the onset of another year in Polynesia,
however, since the islands are located in different latitudes, not all Polynesians celebrated
the new year on the same date. Polynesians developed a lunar calendar consisting of 13
lunations in which each month began on a full Moon and every night had a different
name depending on the effects of the Moon on the tides, marine fauna, and agricultural
cycle, thus designating the best time and places for fishing, coastal foraging, and planting
for each night of the year, every year. Interestingly, several Polynesian languages share
the same names for the months, the nights of the Moon, and several important stars and
asterisms, even in islands located on opposite ends of the Polynesian triangle. Mataiki,
Matariki, Matarii, Mataliki, Matalii, Makalii are all Polynesian language variations of
the same word meaning chiefly eyes or eyes of the chief, the name for the foremost
Polynesian asterism: the Pleiades, which are heliocentric and are not visible year round.

It was also the name of a Pan-Polynesian festival of renewal that began with the accronic
rising of the Pleiades; the exact date of this event depends on the year, longitude, and the
visibility of the Pleiades above the horizon at the time of its occurrence. The celebrations
usually lasted several months, coinciding with the arrival of the bountiful season. In
Nuku Hiva the festival was held twice, in the seasons of ehua and mataiki, and these
activities were regarded as the most important of the year. During these celebrations,
normal labour was suspended and the first fruits of the harvest were offered to the chiefs;
merry ceremonies were held to honour the deified ancestors and/or other deities whose
generosity supported local subsistence activities.
In all of Polynesia, the calendar and annual cycle of activities were associated with a
local subsistence system based on a horticultural cycle determined by wet and dry
periods and the arrival of seasonal resources. The year was usually divided between
periods of rain and drought, a season of plenty and of want. The first settlers of each
island had to adapt their calendar to their new reality, thus the calendars were subject to
the meteorological and ecological conditions related to the cultivation of species that
grow best in each island. All of this was certainly true in the Marquesas, where the terms
mataiki and ehua referred to two lunar months, their two greatest breadfruit harveststhe
breadfruit being their main stapleand most importantly the Pleiades and probably
Antares since ehua has similar cognates in Hawaiian, Maori, Tuamotuan, and Tahitian.
According to ethnographic evidence collected by Handy, Nuku Hivans called the heliacal
rising of the Pleiades Ia tu Mataiki, Menino te Tai, meaning when the Pleiades stand up,
the sea is calm and it marked the oncoming breadfruit harvest and the cold weather
season, when the sea was calm on the north coasts and rough on the south. Nevertheless,
Marquesans were quite unique in the sense that what corresponds to our word for year
was called mataiki or ehua and, consisting of a period that lasted 13 lunar months total, but
there was also a unit of time called puni or tau that consisted of 10 moons, which has no
corresponding term in any other language. The Marquesas likely preferred a decimal
numerical system and that is why they used puni and tau as units of time, despite the fact
that they were fully aware that a complete year consisted of more months. Another
rarely used unit of time was a period of 20 months called, mei nui, meaning large
breadfruit, the same name used for the bountiful months of the year. Mei momo or small
breadfruit, was the term for the period of drought.
Marquesan months, meama or mahina (moon), were named after the important stars
or constellations that appeared during those times, and in local mythology those stars
were the children of Atea, the Polynesian god that brought the universe out of darkness
and who fathered humankind. It is important to note that because Polynesian months
started on the night of the new or full Moon they hardly coincide with their solar
counterparts in the Gregorian calendar, not to mention that there are 13 of them.
Between 1920 and 1921, ethnologist E. S. Craighill Handy recorded the Marquesan names
of the months as well the terms for the days and nights of a complete lunation. Handy
compared his findings with data collected by others who had also studied Marquesan
calendrics and linguistics. Many of the terms collected by Handy were from Nuku Hiva
as he relied heavily on a dictionary written by a French Catholic Bishop, Ren Ildefonse
Dordillon, who lived nearly 40 years in the Northern Marquesas. Handy found little
variation in the order of the months, but some differences in the exact names. A
reconstructed prototype of the lists collected by Handy, appears in Table 1.

Table 1. The Names of the Months in the Marquesas, and Related Astronomical and Seasonal Events*
Marquesan Term Gregorian
Month
Iti and Mataiki or
Mataii
Makaii

Meaning

May/June These were the names for the

Pleiades

Related Stars names and

What They Marked
Mataiki marked the time of the breadfruit harvest
and calm seas.
The Pleiades appeared just before sunrise around
May 20 each year.
Iti marked that the breadfruit was finished, warm
weather, and agitated seas. Iti may be misplaced
in this calendar, actually going between the
months of Takuua and Ehuo
Takeo marked that the breadfruit was finished,
warm weather, and high seas.
Tuhua marked that the breadfruit was finished
and warm weather.
th

Tuhua Matakeo, or
Tuhua Mea Takeo
Tuhua
Kuhua
Takeo
Takuua, or
Ka Tuna
Takuna
Ehuo

June

Tuhua is the name of a

constellation.
Takeo or Akeo is the name for
Betelgeuse

July

Takuua is the name of Sirius.

Ka Tuna is the name of a
constellation
Ehuo is the name of a star.

-August

Ehuo marked that the breadfruit was finished and

warm weather.

Mahina i Hea, or
Aug./Sept. The name refers to Mahina, the
Nanaua
word for the Moon.
Oaou Manu Me Pui Sept./Oct. Oaou Manu is the name of a star. Celebrations for the return of the god Maui took
place in early October.
Puaka and
Oct./Nov. Puaka and Avea are the names of Both Puaka and Avea marked that the breadfruit
Avea or Uavea
stars.
was in season and announced hot weather.
Mei and Ehua
Nov./Dec. Mei means breadfruit, but was
Mei indicated that the breadfruit was in season
also the name of a star, while
and the weather was hot.
Ehua may refer to Antares
Ehua indicated the time when the seas were high,
the weather was warm, and the breadfruit grew
large.
Ve'o and Tatou
Dec./Jan. Veo is the name of a star.
Veo indicated that it was time to harvest the
breadfruit and that the weather was mild.
Uaoa
Jan./Feb. Uaoa is the name of a
Uaoa marked a time of great harvest and that the
constellation. It does not appear
weather was cold.
as the name of a month in two out Uaoa comes from the terms ua and oa, meaning
of the four Marquesan calendars
long rain, and it was called such because it was
collected by Handy.
the rainiest month.
Ua Haa Meau, or
Feb./Mar. Mahau is the name of a star. It may Mekau indicated that it was time to harvest the
Uamehu
be related to the term Metau o
breadfruit and that the weather was cold.
Mehau
Maui, the local name for Scorpius.
Mahau?
Pohe and Fatutii
Mar./Apr. Pohe is the name of a star.
Pohe marked the end of the breadfruit season and
cold weather. Pohe may be misplaced here since
there is a problem with the order in Handys list
between the stars marking the Marquesan 4 and
6 months, and the 12 and 13 months.
Napea or
Apr./May Tapeka and Napea are the names Tapeka marked the time when breadfruit grew
Uapea
of a star, perhaps the same star.
again and high seas.
Tapeka
th

th

*Handy, 1923: 350-353; Williamson 1933: 174-175

th

th

As is evident in Table 1., there are quite a few challenges to overcome when
adopting a lunar calendar that has 13 months. A lunar year is approximately 11 days
shorter than a solar one; not only that, but the Earth revolves around the Sun each 365,25
days, which explains why a day is added to February every four years in the Gregorian
calendar. If not properly calibrated, this can add up to a noticeable discrepancy over
observed equinox times and the seasons. Nevertheless, Makemson calculated that
Polynesians added or subtracted a month every 3-4 years using the rising of the Pleiades
as their guide; thus the Polynesian lunar year never exceeded the solar one by more than
19 days. (Makemson 1941: 94). The Marquesan year began with the rising of the Pleiades,
but since Antares (or an unidentified star called Ehua in Marquesan) was also used to
calibrate the lunar year with the solar one, there is much variation in the months
preceding and following the lunations named after these important stars. In addition,
many of the stars and constellations that the Marquesan calendar refers to have not been
identified, and Handy mentions several others that helped mark the seasons, but that
were omitted from Table 1. since it is not possible to determine where they go on the list
without further study; these terms were: Kana, Komui, and Atutahi (for more
information see Appendixes I. and II.). Ethnologist Karl Von den Steinen reported that
there were months named after Sirius and Orion however, neither of the names that
Handy recorded for Orion and Orions Belt coincides with any of the names Handy listed
for the months. Unfortunately, this information was lost over the past 300 years as a
result of the devastating impact of European contact, Christian proselytization, and the
introduction of deadly diseases. Inter-island trade networks ceased during that time,
isolating the islands from their traditional cultural sphere, the Gregorian calendar was
adopted, new religious festivals replaced the old, and traditional astronomical
knowledge was reduced to whatever elements were useful to fishing. Nevertheless, we
believe that it would be possible to identify these stars and asterisms by studying the
principal astronomical events that may be observed within those given times and
corroborating their importance in Polynesian calendrics, ultimately providing greater
insight on the Marquesan calendar and annual cycle of activities.
Although the Moon was very important to Polynesians, there are not many terms
related to the phases of the moonsome islands dividing the cycle into only two distinct
periods. This is probably due to the fact that the names and function specific to each
night of the moon were identified in such detail, that a more general division may have
seemed unnecessary. According to Handy, Marquesans divided a lunation into four
phases, and like the stars, the Moon was believed to be the child of the god Atea. The
Northern Marquesan names of the phases of the Moon appear in Table 2.

Table 2. The Phases of the Moon in the Marquesas*

Moon Phase
The New Moon
The Half Moon or
end of the 1 quarter
The Full Moon,
The Moon in its 3 quarter
*Handy, 1923: 349

Marquesan Term

Meaning

Mahina Hou or
Mahina Tu
Mahina Kotapa

New Moon
Rising Moon
Cut-off Moon

Mahina Pi
Mahina Fiti Po To No

Full Moon
Moon Going to Dense Darkness

st

rd

As mentioned previously, in contrast to the seemingly simple Marquesan

classification of the different Moon phases, they devised quite a complex calendric system
with regards to the lunar month, depending on the activities that were best carried out on
each date. The generic Marquesan term for day was oatea or a, and night was po
however, there were specific names for each of the 29 to 30 days and nights in a lunation.
This was not a common practice in all Polynesia, where a day usually had only one name.
Handy collected over 60 Marquesan words from different sources in the Northern and
Southern Marquesas as each term had several variations on the different islands (see
Table 3.).

Table 3. The Nights of the Moon in the Marquesas*

Po Variations
Tu
Maheama Tutahi
Tuhaa Hoata
Hoata
Maheama Vavena
4.
O Maheama Tuatahi
Maheama Tahi
Maheama Tuhakapau
5.
O Maheama Vaveka
Maheama Vavena
Koekoe Tutahi
6.
O Maheama Hakapao Maheama Haapao
Koekoe Tuvavena
7.
O Koekoe Tuatahi
Koekoe Tutahi
Koekoe Tahi
Koekoe Tuhakapau
8.
O Koekoe Vaveka
Koekoe Vavena
Hai
9.
O Koekoe Hakapao
Koekoe Haapao
Una
10.
O Ai
Mahau
11.
O Huna
Hua
12.
O Mahau
Mehao
Mahao
Mehau
Tua
13.
O Ua
Hua
Otu-Nui
14.
O Atua
Otu Mauii
15.
O Tunui
Honu Nui
Hohotu Nui
Hotunui
Otu
16.
O Mahuto
Honu Nui
Honu Ma Akau
Hotu Maue
Maue
Male
Hotu Akau
Neva
17.
O Tuu
Metohe
18.
O Akau
Aniva
Hakahau
*Handy, 1923: 350-353; Williamson 1933: 348-349
#
1.
2.
3.

Nights (Po)
O Tunui
O Tuhava
O Tuhaka Hoata

Days (Oatea)
O Maamamaama
O Totohe
O Pakiikii
O Ua Noa
O Puke Noa
Pukeoo
O Maunoa
O Taunoa
O Tata Mai
O Heke Noa
O Pua Mai
O Taha Noa

O Haako
O Patavai
O Mahinahina

O Tihenoa

O Huamai
O Taumai

Table 3. The Nights of the Moon in the Marquesas ** (continued)

Po Variations
Days (Oatea)
Akau
O Mamae
Metohi
Koekoe Tahi
20.
O Tohiau
Akau
O Kakenoa
Koekoe Vavena
21.
O Taukume
Koekoe Tutahi
O Tavatava
Koekoe Tahi
Koekoe Pau
22.
O Kumea
Koekoe Vavena
O Keekee
Vehe
23.
O Eea
Koekoe Haapao
O Ona Noa
Koekoe Haapoo
Tane
24.
O Takaoa Tutahi
Tuhiva
O Pukepuke
Tanaoa Tahi
Hee Hee Ia
Takao Akau
25.
O Takaoa Vaveka
Atiati
O Puke Noa
Takao Atiati
Tanaoa Tahi
Taukume
26.
O Takaoa Hakapao
Vaka
O Tahataha
Tanaoa Vavena
Ku Mea
27.
O Vehi
Tane
O Hatihati
Tanaoa Haapao
Tana Hau Vaka
28.
O Tane
Moui
O Maunoa
Tana Hau Vehi
29.
O Mouikeo
Ononui
O Tau Noa
Nunui
30.
O Oko Mate
Nu Mata
O Moe Noa
*Handy, 1923: 350-353; Williamson 1933: 348-349; Williams 1928: 356
#
19.

Nights (Po)
O Motohi

Marquesans were well aware of the effects of the Moon on the tides, marine fauna,
and planting, and this was reflected in the names of the days and nights, which often
referenced the activities that were best performed at each time of the lunation. The six
nights with names containing the word koekoe which appear shortly before and after the
Full Moon, were considered the best for fishing, and cognates of this term appear in
several Polynesian calendars, sharing the exact same meaning. Although the exact
meaning of many of the terms that appear in Table 3 is uncertain, we believe it may be
possible to determine the significance of at least a few of the terms by comparing the
names with those that appear in the Hawaiian, Maori, Mangarevan, Rapanui,
Rarotongan, and Tahitian calendars. The fact that several of the terms repeat themselves,
sometimes consecutively, in all seven calendars not only indicates a common origin, but
when they are placed in different parts of the moon cycle, they suggest a local adaptation
to the unique natural conditions and resources available on each island, thus shifting the
activities that could be performed on a specific date. Interestingly, the 16 Marquesan
night, corresponding to the night of the Full Moon, had more variants than any other
term on the list. One of Handys informants from Hiva Oa explained that the terms hotu
maue and hotu akau all present in the Southern Marquesan name for the Full Moon, meant
th

agitated and stretched male sexual organ (akau, maue, and male), and that when the
Moon was at its brightest fertility abounded in humans and nature. Indeed, for the
Marquesans, the best time for planting was during Full Moon (Mahina Pi) or when the
tides were high (ia pi te tai), and it was believed that anything planted during that time
would grow strong and bear large and plentiful fruit.
The Marquesan classification of the divisions in a day was equally complex.
Marquesans had over 30 terms to designate each part of a day, depending on the position
of the Sun, the available sunlight, and again, the activities that were best carried out at
that specific time. In the Marquesas there are just about as many terms for the daylight
hours as nighttime ones, which is not the case in all Polynesian languages. A list of the
Marquesan terms for the times in a day appears in Table 4.

Table 4. The Times of a Day in the Marquesas*

Marquesan Term
Kehukehu, also
A Mau Oioi
A Mau Popoui
U Popoui Kehukehu
U Kehukehu
A Pakii te Oumati, also
U Maama
I te Popoui Kehukehu
Tu Nui, also
Ua Eke te Oumati
U Popoui
Oatea Popoui
I te Popoui, also
I te Tika
I te Popoui Tika
I te Popoui Tikatika, also
I te Oioi Tikatika
I te Oatea

Translation or English Equivalent

The suns rays first appear.

Dawn
Sunrise.
Morning. Tu Nui refers to when the Sun was a quarter-way up,
about 8-9 in the morning. (The term probably comprises other
names on this list).
Early morning.
Morning.
Late morning, before noon. (Other sources say Oa Tea Nui refers to
7-8 am)
Around noon.

Tutu Kotoa i Vaveka Nui

Ahau te Oumati
also
Tutu
Kotoa
Tutu Toitoi
Tu Toitoi
Tu Toitoi i Vaveka Nui
Ahou te A
Atea Nui, also
Noon. . (Other sources say it refers to 7-8 am)
Te Oatea Nui
Oatea Ikuiku
Evaeva Tea, also
Early afternoon, when the Sun was just above the mountain peaks.
Mea Tata Te Kapua
May comprise the next few terms on this list.
I te Oatea Ahiahi
Ua Haka te Oumati, also
About 2 pm.
Ua Haka te Kopu A
Ua Eva te a, also
About 3 pm
A Tukutuku
*Handy, 1923: 349; Dordillon 1932: 252-53

Marquesan Term
Ahiahi
Ua Eva te Oumati, also
Ua Tea Ahiahi,
Oatea Ahiahi
Ua Kao te Oumati, also
Ua Kao te Kopu A
I te Ahiahi Po, also
Maehuehu
Makehukehu
Takotako
I te Puhi Ika Ama
I te Po Erere
Mamata Veinehae, also
Matamata Veinehae
Ua Po
Ua Puhi te Ama
Tauiui
I te Tumoe Nui
E Tahi Hatua Moe, also
Hatua Moe Ahiahi a Tahi
E Ua Hatua Moe
Hatua Moe Ahiahi a Ua
E Tou Hatua Moe
Hatua Moe Ahiahi a Ha
Po oa mua oa mui, also
I te Tumoe I Vaveka
I te Hatu Moe Nui
Po
Po Nui
I te Mau te i Ao
I te Taki o te Moa, also
U a Taki Te Moa Tapu
I te Moa Taki e Ua
Mau Oioi, also
I te Moa Taki e Tou
I te Moa Taki e Ha

Translation or English Equivalent

Afternoon/Evening. From about 4 pm until the end of twilight at
about 6 pm; when fires, ahi, were lighted. Ahiahi comprises the
next few terms on this list.
The Sun descends, about 4 pm.
Sunset. About 6 pm.
Dusk, before real night set in, about 6:30-7:00 pm.

About 7 pm. The two first terms refer to the eyes of an ogress.

About 8 pm.
First part of the night. (The term may comprise other names on this
list).
Second Part of the night. (The term may comprise other names on
this list).).
Third part of the night. (The term may comprise other names on
this list).
Fourth part of the night. (The term may comprise other names on
this list).
Midnight or in the middle of the night. The terms with Po, refer to
a dark moonless night.

About 2 am.
When the roosters crew for the first time at night. (The term may
comprise other names on this list). About 3 am.
When the roosters crew for the second time at night. (The term may
comprise other names on this list).
When the roosters crew for the third time at night. (The term may
comprise other names on this list).
When the roosters crew for the fourth time at night. (The term may
comprise other names on this list).
About 4 am.
About 5 am.

I te Mau te i Ao
Ua Hai te Ota o te Oioi Tika, also
Oioi Tika Maehuehu
Oioi Tika, also
About 6 am.
Ite Popoui Tika
Tata Hoata Te Ma'ania, also
Just before dawn. A little after the last rooster crew.
I te Mau Popoui
E Kiato Moa
Moa Tapu
*Handy, 1923: 349; Dordillon 1932: 252-53

The fact that Marquesans had different names for the days and the nights in a lunar
month, in addition to their devoting so many different names to the nighttime hours
suggests that Marquesans may have taken advantage of the evening hours more than

most Polynesians, perhaps in activities related to fishing orthe same as on other islands
on Full Moon nightsin feasts to enhance fertility in people and nature. However, it is
important to note that the Marquesan term for the time after duskwhen night falls
translates as The Eyes of the Vainehae, an ogress, which is more in accord with the
views of most other Polynesians, who regarded the night as something fearsome and
dangerous, while daytime was associated with life and wellbeing. Evidently, the subject
merits further study.
Although there are still many matters that remain unclear, it is easy to conclude that
the correct observation of stars and asterisms was essential for the ancient Marquesans,
and it was crucial to know how to correct the inherent seasonal and chronological
shortcomings of a lunar calendar. In all Polynesia, these tasks were carried out by trained
astronomer priests, who were responsible for observing the movements of the stars and
Moon, and accordingly adjusting the local lunar calendar. Ethnographic information
from other islands indicate that there were several different kinds of astronomer priests
or skywatchers, as they are termed todayeach with a specific skill and or duty, and that
they were trained from infancy in specialized schools that were reserved for the elite.
Some of them studied the tides and other meteorological phenomena, providing weather
forecasts and predicting seasonal variations that benefited farmers and fisherman, and
many of them used their skills to make predictions, often delving into the realm of
divination, as the relationship between celestial bodies was believed to announce future
events. The same as other Polynesians, Marquesans probably called these astronomer
priests by a term that included the words tohuna or tuhuka, the name reserved for master
craftsmen, and skilled or professional experts.
Skywatchers studied the night sky from the best point of observation for the specific
phenomena they were looking for, and it must have taken much trial and error to find the
best location on each island. Star maps, calendric calibration devices, and
observatories have been found in several Polynesian islands while ceremonial structures
such as the Marquesan tohua and meae (marae) have been proven to be astronomically or
topographically aligned on the islands of Huahine (11 marae), Raiatea (8 marae), Raivavae
(9 marae), Rapa Nui (20+ ahu), and Rurutu (6 marae). There may very well be many more
such sites in Polynesia, but without further study their actual number cannot be
determined. The idea of orienting architecture towards the position where specific stars
rise or set, or a true north/south, or east/west position, is not a novel concept in
the interpretation of Polynesian archaeological sites. There evidently was no Sun cult in
Polynesiaor at least no rites or festivities were celebrated in its honour, and sites
that were previously thought to be oriented to the equinoxes or solstices were
probably aligned to the Pleiades or Orions Belt, which follow a course very
similar to that of the Sun on those dates.
The ancient Marquesans believed that everything in the universe was alive and
conscious and that rocks multiplied and grew the same as people and plants. Stone was
considered the best media to represent supernatural beings such as gods and deified
ancestral spirits, and was often considered to be the dwelling places of supernatural
entities. The accumulated rock art inventory from the Marquesas exhibit a sophisticated
and rich carving tradition; petroglyphs, are by far the most common form of aboriginal
rock art in the Marquesas, and they have been recorded on all the islands that have been
archaeologically surveyed. Rock art associated to astronomical phenomena and the

events they announce are common in Rapa Nui, one of the islands where the subject has
been studied in greater detail. Since Marquesan and Rapanui petroglyphs share a
surprising number of common motifs it would be interesting to see if the Marquesans
shared the Rapanuis passion for skywatching, exhibiting this in their rock art.
The majority of Marquesan petroglyphs are located in places directly associated
with ceremonial structures, or located around major waterways in the most fertile part of
a valley however, some are hidden high up in the mountains or in very isolated areas,
away from the main settlements. In fact, rock art researchers have found that Marquesan
petroglyphs are not restricted to specific sites and may be found in several different
locations, in both the public and private domains, indicating a both secular and sacred
function. Like the Rapanui, it is possible that Marquesans carved petroglyphs in areas
where astronomical phenomena were observed, depicting the promising rewards they
expected to receive during a specific time of the year. On Rapa Nui, this included
carvings of fishhooks, turtles, tuna, shark, and other marine creatures that welcomed the
opening of the deep-sea fishing season. Figures representing whales, tuna, dolphin,
shark, rays, turtles, and large pelagic fish, are not uncommon in Marquesan rock art, but
whether they are related to skywatching or not remains to be seen, as the carvings need
to be studied within a greater context. According to an informant of archaeologist Robert
Suggs, turtle motifs announced rain in the Marquesas however, taking into account the
meaning of turtle petroglyphs on Rapa Nui, it is possible to consider that what the
informant actually meant was that the designs were carved to welcome the oncoming
bountiful wet season. Hatiheu and its neighbouring valleys in Nuku Hiva are home to
one of the largest concentration of petroglyphs in the Marquesas; interestingly, an
overwhelming majority of rock art panels in Hatiheu, face north (tiu) or towards the
ocean, yet the significance of this, and whether it is intentional or arbitrary, is unknown.
Evidently, no conclusions can be made without further study, other than that since
Polynesian petroglyphs had a symbolic as well as a functional significance, Marquesan
pictographs were not idle markings, nor were they made for purely aesthetic reasons.

Conclusions
The skill and knowledge involved in Polynesian archaeoastronomy was not learnt
from one day to the next, indeed it involved centuries of information and experience
passed from one generation to the next, until a specialized elite was able to establish
seasonal patterns, keep track of time, and develop an agricultural cycle. It is easy to
surmise that the heavens were the inspiration for cultural principles that were so
significant that Polynesians saw in them the work of the gods. Nevertheless, Polynesian
skywatching developed for very practical reasons, for agriculture and navigation (i.e.
subsistence, immigration and trade), and was intrinsically related to almost every aspect
of everyday affairs. Spearheaded by something as important as survival, population
dispersal, and economic growth, people found a way to understand and use astronomical
events for their own benefit, yet many concepts remained the same, year after year,
century after century, from island to island. Examining the differences and similarities
between Marquesan archaeoastronomy and that of other islands would undoubtedly
offer great insight as to the nature of Polynesian inter-island migrations and contacts, as
well as the unique evolution and cultural identity of these island-societies.

Between 1984 and 1999, the Department of Archaeology of French Polynesia sent
several scientific teams led by Edmundo Edwards to conduct an archaeological survey of
the different valleys in the Marquesas. These scientists recorded close to 7,000
petroglyphs and nearly 1,000 archaeological features, such as house sites, temples,
shrines, dancing platforms, ceremonial centres, burial and refuge caves, agricultural
terraces, and quarries, on the islands of Nuku Hiva, Ua Pou, Ua Huka, Hiva Oa, Fatu
Hiva, and Tahuata. However, there are many valleys that were densely occupied in the
past that have never been surveyed, and not more than 30 structures have been excavated
on all of the Marquesas. Studies have shown that Eastern Polynesians often oriented
their sacred architecture to topographic and astronomical phenomena, often carving rock
art in the vicinity of places where astronomical events were observed, yet the subject has
never been investigated at length in the Marquesas. In addition, there is also little
information regarding ancient inter-island trade networks in the archipelago. None of
these subjects have been adequately considered in the interpretation of archaeological data,
nor have inter-disciplinary comparisons been systematized to clarify the nature and
conditions of inter-island communication. Nevertheless, there are probably few areas in
the world where the potential for studying the growth and development of complex
stratified social and political systems is as great as among the islands of Polynesia. The
analytical advantages of Polynesia are due to the often-cited laboratory like conditions
of remote, isolated islands. A detailed study of the local calendric system, tohua and
meae orientations, and rock art motifs would greatly contribute to our understanding of
how Polynesians lived up until the time of European contact, in addition to fostering
proper care and maintenance of valuable yet remote archaeological sites. The Marquesan
calendric system is evidently tied to that of other Polynesians, but it is also
unquestionably uniquely Marquesan; that, and the overwhelming importance of the
concepts of Cosmos and Time, place archaeoastronomy at the top of the list of valuable
research topics in Polynesia today.
The common ancestry of Polynesians is evident in the many terms and practices
shared by people settled on islands sometimes thousands of kilometres away from each
other, yet the richness of this seafaring culture is manifest in the diversity found in
settlements that are sometimes only a few valleys apart. Much can be learned by placing
Marquesan calendrics, within the context of greater Polynesia; while at the same time, the
more we learn about Marquesan archaeoastronomy, the more we will be able to
understand the Polynesian view of the cosmos and the place humans occupied in the
Polynesian universe. There is ample proof that Polynesians were exceptional navigators
and that the wealth of information wayfinders commanded was an important factor in
their success. With limited physical proof, mostly restricted to certain structures with an
astronomical orientation, the expertise of Polynesian skywatchers is harder to grasp even
though it almost certainly preceded Polynesian navigation and probably involved a much
more extensive bank of knowledge regarding observation of the night sky. Hopefully the
recent interest in Polynesian navigation will spark notice of other Polynesian
achievements and expose one of the more extraordinary abilities of the ancient
Polynesians.

Appendix I.

Appendix I. Names of the Stars or Constellations That Served as Guides to the Seasons*
#
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Marquesan Term
Kana
Puaka
Avea
Mei
Ehua
Veo
Uaoa
Mekau
Pohe
Komui
Atutahi
Ehuo
Iti
Takeo
Tuhua
Tapeka
Mataiki

*Handy, 1923: 350-353

Season
Breadfruit is in season; it is hot.
Breadfruit is in season; it is hot.
Breadfruit is in season; it is hot.
Breadfruit is in season; it is hot.
Breadfruit grows large; it is warm; the sea runs high.
Breadfruit is harvested; it is mild.
There is much harvesting; it is cold.
Breadfruit is harvested; it is cold.
Breadfruit is finished (June); it is cold.
Second growth of breadfruit; it is cold.
Breadfruit grows large; it is cool.
Breadfruit is finished; it is warm.
Breadfruit is finished; it is warm ; the sea runs high.
Breadfruit is finished; it is' warm; the sea runs high.
Breadfruit is finished; it is warm.
Breadfruit grows again; the sea runs high.
Third breadfruit harvest; the sea is calm.

Appendix II.
Appendix II. Names of Marquesan Heavenly Bodies*
#
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.

Marquesan Term
Ao'amanu
Atinaha
Atutahi
Ave'a, Aveka
Ehua
Ehuo
Ha Vae a
Haamekau
Hai
Hatu Tahi
Hee Ti
Heipua
Hetu Nui also:
Hetu Ahiahi or Fetu Mahona Puipui i te Ahiahi
Hetu Ao
Fetu Oatea
Hu Aua
Hua
Iti
Kana
Maena Eke Aia
Mahaka
Mahake Tutue Honu
Mahau
Manapu Upu'ute
Manu Kaki Oa
Matahetu
Mataiki
Matauaua
Me'e
Moana Tu Tu a Ono
Nape'a
Na Pai Ka
Na Poka
Na Tui Hohoe
Pao Toa
Pohe
Pohii
Pu'ukaha
Puaka
Pukeo'o
Tahiipua
Takeo
Takuua
Tape'a
Tauna'a
Te-huii
Te tuii

*Handy, 1923: 350-353; Williamson 1933: 92, 134

Heavenly Body

Observations

Antares?

Antares?
Fomalhaut
Aldebaran
Venus
The Evening Star
The Morning Star
The Morning Star

Meaning: Large Star

Meaning: Evening Star
Meaning: Star of the Light
Meaning: Day Star

Jupiter
A constellation

Ursa Major
the Pleiades
Corvus
Aries
A constellation
Aquila
A constellation

Appendix II. Names of Marquesan Heavenly Bodies** (continued)

#
46.

Te Umu

Marquesan Term

47.
48.
49.

Titi Hohoe
Tuhua
Tuitui Hohoe or Toaotohu

50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.

Tuna
Tuuatea
Ua'oa
Uanui
Vao Fetu
Ve'o

**Handy, 1923: 350-353; Williamson 1933: 92, 134

Heavenly Body

Observations
A constellation
Meaning: The Earth-oven

Orions Belt

Meaning of Tuitui Hohoe:

A Chiefs Paddle
Taotohu has cognates
elsewhere in Polynesia

The Milky Way

Meaning: Band of Stars

Bibliography and Further Reading

Dordillon, Ren Ildefonse,1932, Dictionnaire de la Langue des Iles Marquises, Franais-Marquisien, Institut
d'Ethnologie, Paris
Edwards, Edmundo, 1985, Prospection archologique du meae Pehe kua, Puamau, Hiva Oa, Dpartement
Archologie, C.P.S.H. Tahiti
Edwards, Edmundo, n.d., Prospection archologique de la valle dEiaone, Hiva Oa, Dpartement
Archologie, Dpartement Archologie, C.P.S.H. Tahiti
Edwards, Edmundo, n.d., Prospection archologique du la Valle de Faaroa, Raiatea, Dpartement
Archologie, Dpartement Archologie, C.P.S.H. Tahiti
Edwards, Edmundo, and Sidsel Millerstrm, 1993, The rock art of the Marquesas Islands, Dpartement
dArcheologie du CPSH, unpublished manuscript
Green, Roger C., 1966, Linguistic subgrouping within Polynesia: the implications for prehistoric
settlement, The Journal of the Polynesian Society, Volume 75, No. 1, pp 6-38
Handy, E. S. Craighill, 1923, The Native Culture in the Marquesas, Bayard Dominick Expedition, Bernice P.
Bishop Museum Press, Bulletin 9, No. 9, Honolulu
Linton, Ralph,1923, The material culture of the Marquesas Islands, Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum
Bulletin, #5
Millerstrom, Sidsel, 1988, Rock art in the Marquesas Islands, Rapa Nui Journal, 2(3)
Millerstrom, Sidsel, 1989, Experimental archaeology in rock art, Rapa Nui Journal 3(2)
Millerstrom, Sidsel, 1990, Rock art of Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia: A case study of Hatiheu Valley,
Nuku Hiva, M.A. Thesis, University of San Francisco
Rolett, Barry V., 1986, Turtles, priests, and the afterworld: A study in the iconography interpretation of
Polynesian petroglyphs, in Island Societies: Archaeological Approaches to Evolution and Transformation,
ed. P.V. Kirch, Cambridge University Press
Suggs, Robert C., 1961, The archaeology of Nuku Hiva, Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia. American
Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Papers, 49(1).
Williams, H. W., The nights of the Moon, Journal of the Polynesoan Voyaging Society, Volume 37, No.
147, pp 338-356
Williamson, Robert W, 1933, Religious and Cosmic Beliefs of Central Polynesia, Vol. I, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge