CE 808: Structural Fire

Engineering
Ch. 1: INTRODUCTION TO FIRE SAFETY
V. Kodur
Professor
Dept of Civil and Env. Engineering
Michigan State University

Ch. 1: Introduction To Fire Safety

Fire Problem
Importance of Fire Safety
Structural Fire Safety within the Context of Overall
Fire Safety
Fire Resistance
Codes and Standards
Performance-based Design

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Background

Building fires cause thousands of deaths and billions of

dollars of damage each year

Fire risk can be mitigated through conscientious design

and maintenance

It is impossible to prevent ALL major building fires

Fire safety depends on numerous factors:

Fire prevention, suppression and extinction

Successful evacuation of occupants
Structural integrity (FOCUS of this course)

Engineers must ensure fire safety through proper

selection and design of material & structural systems
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Fire Problem
Fire Costs in US (Canada)

Recent data: 2013 (2002)

Fire incidents: 1.24 million (42753)

Fire deaths: 3240 - 97 FF (224 - 2)
Fire injuries: ~15,925 61 FF (1067)
Direct property losses: - $11.5 b ($1.55 b)
Total cost of fire: > $328b (~$7b??)

Losses caused by fire + cost of fire protection, detection and mitigation

Residential fires are the most significant
83% of fire deaths, 27% of fires, 60% of the total $loss

Residential fires are the most significant

83% of fire deaths, 27% of fires, 60% of the total $ losses (US)
Smoker's material and open flame are the number one
source of ignition (~ 25% of the total)
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Fire: Age old Problem The Great Fire of London

2nd September 1666, London, UK

Within 5 days the city was destroyed by fire
440 acres consumed, 87 churches, 13 200 homes

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Recent Fire Incidents - USA

WTC Disaster Sept. 11, 2001
Fires - crucial to collapse
2850 deaths ( > 450 ER)
Damage ( $10s B)
Collapsed/damaged buildings - 40
Towers standing today! (if no fires)
The Rhode Island nightclub fire Feb. 20, 2003
caused by pyrotechnics set off which ignited
flammable sound insulation foam in the walls and
ceilings surrounding the stage
100 deaths
200+ injured
$175 million offered to victims families
Oakland Bridge - April 29, 2007
Gasoline tanker crashed into the bridge
Collapse by fire (22 mins)
Traffic disruption
CA Tunnel October 12, 2007
550 ft long tunnel
Burned for 7 hrs 1400C
Severe damage Spalling of concrete

Euro Tunnel

Oakland Bridge Collapse

Recent Fire Incidents WTC Buildings

Structural Fire Safety
45,000 liters in each plane
25% Fire balls
25% Shafts
50% Consumed in few minutes
Fire size 3-5 GW
Energy nuclear plant
Fire temperatures 1100 C
Fires were instrumental
Towers would have been standing
Structural Fire Safety
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Magnitude of Fire Problem

Comparison of probability of fire incidents and fire-induced
collapse in bridges and buildings i,ii
Total number of structures
Reported fire incidents
Probability of a fire breaking out (yearly)

Buildings
2012*, 2002**
118,000,000
480,500

2.27%

29.5%*

Number of collapsed structures

503

Number of collapsed structures due to

fire

16

Probability of collapse due to fire (yearly)

Bridges
2000
691,060
4500

3.1%

225
29
12.1%**

Naser M.Z., Kodur V.K.R. (2015). A Probabilistic Assessment for Classification of Bridges Against Fire Hazard. Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 76, pp. 6573.
V.K.R., Naser M.Z. (2013). Importance Factor for Design of Bridges Against Fire. Engineering Structures, Elsevier, Vol. 54, pp. 207-220.

ii Kodur

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Recent Fire Incidents Infrastructure

Oakland Bridge - April 29, 2007

Gasoline tanker crashed into a

pylon on the interchange

between I-80 and I-880

8600 gallons of gasoline burnt

to a temperature 1100C.

Continuous fire softened the

bolted connections
The result is clean breaks at

the

connections

Severe structural damage

Severe traffic delay

Losses Millions of dollars

Clean breaks at the connection due to fire

exposure
Oakland Bridge Collapse

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Recent Fire Incidents Infrastructure

Tunnel in California - Oct 12, 2007

Two trucks collided

30 trucks & passenger cars
Burned 7 hrs 1400C
Severe damage

Deaths (3) & Injuries (10)

Thermal spalling

Spalling depth (concrete

cover)

HSC
Permeability - low

Major repairs damages

Fire-Induced Spalling of Concrete Tunnel

in California

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Recent Fire Incidents - Europe

Apr. 13, 2009: Hostel fire, Kamie Pomorski, Poland, 21 died
DELFT Faculty of Architecture Bldg - May 13, 2008
13 storey RC building, collapsed - 7 hrs

Aug. 18, 2007: Newquay, UK, Penhallow Hotel Fire, 3 deaths.

Hotel collapsed.

Apr. 15. 2005: Paris Opera Hotel , France, 24 deaths

Feb. 12, 2005: Windsor Tower Fire, Madrid, Spain. Partial

collapse - Demolished

Nov. 24, 2003: Fire in Student Hostel due to Electrical Fault,

Moscow, Russia. 36 deaths.

May 15, 2003: Hotel in La Plaine district, Marseilles, France,

10 deaths

April 18, 2002: A plane crashed into the upper floors of the
30-story Pirelli Tower in Milan, Italy, 3 deaths.

December 2001: Home for elderly people, Buccino, South

Italy, 21 deaths.

Nov. 18, 96 - Euro Tunnel Fire

Severe damage, concrete spalling - Major repairs (50 M)

Fire in Technical University of Delft,

Architecture Building

Recent Fire Incidents Material

Problems

Euro Tunnel Fire - Nov 96

Burned 8 h 1000C

Severe damage

Injuries (8), services

(50M)
Thermal spalling
RC tunnel rings (100's m)
Av. depth 10-20 cm

Fire-Induced Spalling of HSC Tunnel

Lining & Buckling of reinforcement in Channel
Tunnel due to Fire on Nov 18, 1996

Strength - 80~100 MPa

Permeability - low

Major repairs damages

2007 Another fire in Tunnel

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Recent Fire Incidents in China

Nov. 15, 2010: Res Building, Shanghai, 54 deaths.
Nov. 5, 2010: Jinlin Mall, Jilin, 19 deaths.
Aug. 10, 2009: Jiahe Tower, Hong Kong, 4 deaths.
Feb. 9, 2009: CCTV Tower Fire, Beijing, 1 death,
163.8 million RMB losses.
Sep. 14, 2006: Fuyin Mall, Huzhou, Zhejiang, 15
deaths.
Dec. 15, 2005: Liaoyuan Hospital Fire, Jilin, 40
deaths.
Jun. 10, 2005: Huanan Hotel, Shantou, Guangdong,
31 deaths.
Feb. 15, 2004, Zhongbai Mall, Jilin, 53 deaths.
Nov. 3, 2003: Hengyang Tower, Hunan, building
collapse, 20 FF deaths.
Jun. 5, 2001: Nanchang central Kindergarten, Jiangxi,
13 children deaths.

Fire Safety

Fire - severe conditions

Fire resistance - structural elements

Recent events

Buildings, transit systems

Fire safety major design requirement
loss of life and property
Safe evacuation of occupants & fire personnel
Minimize property damage
Control spread of fire
WTC, Tunnels
Structural Fire Safety - Fire resistance
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Fire Safety Type of Structures

Buildings - commercial, industrial,

residential
Outdoor stadium
Oil platform
Tent
Stage
Tower
Liquid storage tanks etc.
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Role of Structures

Provide comfortable, safe, functional space

Shelter and Support

Resist forces - human and natural:
Dead
Live
Wind (hurricane & tornado)
Flood
Snow
Earthquake
Thermal
Fire
Primary or Secondary Event
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Fire Safety

Not possible to prevent ALL fires

So, designers need to put in-place strategies to minimize
the occurrence of fires & consequently reducing their
impact on life, property and environment

Main strategies include providing for:

Automatic fire sprinklers - statistics show that sprinklers have

a very high probability of controlling or extinguishing any fire
Systems for fire detection and notification of fire service
Safe travel paths for the movement of occupants & firefighters
Barriers to control the spread of fire & smoke
Fire resistant structures - no to collapse prematurely in fire

To strategize, the designer has the important responsibility to

properly select, design and use building materials

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What is Fire Resistance?

Fire resistance: the property of a material or

assemblage to withstand fire or give protection
from it.

Discussion: As applied to elements of buildings, it is

characterized by the ability to confine a fire or to
continue to perform a given structural function, or
both. [ASTM E176, 1997]

Note the absence of specification of exposure or time

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Fire Resistant Assemblies

Provide physical barrier to restrict fire

spread
prevent fire and smoke spread

Maintain structural integrity/ load

carrying ability despite exposure

prevent structural collapse

Compartmentation & Structural integrity
are principal aspects of fire safety in
buildings

Fire Resistance Rating - Codes

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Fire Resistance

Fire resistance is usually described as passive

fire protection, always ready and waiting for a fire

does not play a significant role in the early stages of a fire

becomes very important as a fire grows beyond flashover

The importance of fire resistance depends on the

size of the building & the fire safety objectives
that need to be satisfied

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Fire Resistance & Fire Safety Goals

Life safety

Mission continuity

Occurrence of civilian fatalities in fire resistive

buildings: MGM, Winecoff and DuPont Plaza Hotels
Occurrence of fire fighter fatalities in collapses

Appreciable down time if collapse occurs: GM Livonia

Plant, McCormick Place

Outcome of 1st Interstate, Broadgate, Meridian

Plaza, WTC

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Codes and Standards

Building codes set fire-resistance requirements for building

assemblies to resist
Spread of fire within buildings &
Collapse of structural elements exposed to fire

Fire Resistance Rating

The Subcommittee (ASTM) believes that the idea of designing some

buildings for the full fire severity corresponding to the occupancy
is a logical advance in fire protection engineering. (BMS 92, 1942)

Formulated based on Ingbergs hypothesized relationship betn

occupancy (fuel load)
building area (compartmentation level)

Determine maximum allowable height & area of a building based on:

Construction type
Occupancy
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Codes - Fire Resistance Rating

Fire resistance rating (or fire endurance): a measure

of the elapsed time during which an assembly
continues to exhibit fire resistance under specified
conditions of test and performance [Boring, Spence
and Wells, 1981].

Fire Resistance Rating 30 min, 45 min, 1, 11/2, 2, 3, 4h

which test?

ASTM E119, NFPA 251, UL 263, ULC S101, ISO

834
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Codes - Occupancy Types

Specifies fire resistance requirements based on occupancy
type

Assembly
Business
Educational
Factory &
Industrial
High Hazard

Institutional
Mercantile
Residential
Storage
Utility/Miscellaneous

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Codes - Types of Construction

Type I - Non-combustible, fire resistant

Concrete, Masonry, Structural Steel

Type II - Non-combustible, minimally or non-fire resistant

Lt gauge steel framing

Type III - Non-combustible exterior walls, combustible

interior elements
Wood stud walls

Type IV - Heavy timber

Structural members

Type V - Wood frame

Wood stud walls/wood joist floors
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Codes - Types of Construction

3 Digit Code, e.g. 332

--- 3h,3h,2h

1st digit: fire resistance of exterior bearing wall

2nd digit: fire resistance of columns, beams, girders,
trusses and arches supporting bearing walls, columns
or loads from more than one floor

3rd digit: fire resistance of floor construction

H

Heavy timber

UL

Unlimited height/area

NFPA 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction

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Codes - Height and Area Table (NFPA 5000)

Type I

Type II

Type III

Type
IV

211

Type V

Occupancy
442
/Group

332

222

111

200

2HH

111

000

UL
UL

UL
UL

11
UL

5
4
5
4
37.5 23.0 28.5 19.0

5
36.0

3
18.0

2
9.0

Education

UL
UL

UL
UL

5
UL

3
2
3
2
26.5 14.5 23.5 14.5

3
25.5

1
18.5

1
9.5

Mercantile

UL
UL

UL
UL

11
UL

4
4
4
4
21.5 12.5 18.5 12.5

4
20.5

3
14.0

1
9.0

(Ht./Area)
Business

UL: Unlimited

000

Height in Storeys

Area in sq. mtrs

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Codes - Construction Type Requirements

Type I

Type II

Type III

Type IV

Type V

Group
442

332 222

4/3

3/2

4
4/3

Floor
Roof

Structural
Frame
Bldg Walls
Exterior
Interior

111

000

2/1

3
3/2

2/1
2/1

1
1

0
0

2
1

NFPA 5000

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211 200 2HH

111

000

2
0

2
2/1

1
1

0
0

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Fire Resistance Analysis

Typical:

Prescriptive Approach
Refer to results from standard test; no
engineering analysis required (structural
design given)

ASTM E119, NFPA 251, UL 263, ISO 834

Conduct new test

Preserves structural
design
Meets architectural
requirements

Special cases:

special buildings, problems with

architectural features, cost

Future:

performance-based design, integrated into

the structural and fire protection
engineering design

Primary responsibility: FPE, CE, or ?

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Prescriptive Approach

Till recently codes have been prescriptive in

nature for fire resistance evaluation

Prescriptive codes

state how a building is to be constructed

restrict designers to take a rational engineering

approach to the provisions of fire safety

Traditional method for assessing the fire resistance of
building assemblies is by means of standard fire tests
Recently, there has been an increase in the use of
calculation/engineering methods

Performance-based design
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Performance-based Building Codes

Many countries are moving towards performance-based

codes which

Within a prescriptive code, there may be possibility to allow

for performance-based selection of structural assemblies

Sate how a building is to perform under a wide range of conditions

Allow designers to use alternate fire safety strategies, provided
adequate safety can be demonstrated
Use of calculation/engineering methods

if a code specifies a floor with a fire resistance rating, designers

have the flexibility to select from a range of listed systems which
have sufficient fire resistance

This course, will examine provisions for assessing fire

performance of systems where no tests or listings are available
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Performance-based Building Codes

In developing new codes, many countries have adopted

a multi-level code format in the form of:
overall goals, functional objectives and required
performance which must be achieved
selection of alternative means of achieving those
goals. The three most common options are:

to comply with a prescriptive 'Acceptable Solution',

to comply with an approved standard calculation method, or
to perform a performance-based fire engineering design from
first principles

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Performance-based Building Codes

Standard calculation methods have not yet been

developed for widespread use
So, compliance with performance-based codes is
usually achieved by:

Mainly satisfying the requirements of acceptable solutions, or

Carrying out a performance-based alternative design based on
fire engineering principles

Alternative designs can be used to justify cost-effective

solutions

Under a performance-based design, it is essential to

have comprehensive documentation & quality control

The calculations should be included in a report which describes

the building & the complete fire design process
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Emerging Trends - New Materials

HPM - HSC, FRP, HPS

Benefits

Superior performance

Applications

Bridges, Infrastructure projects

Retrofitting & strengthening

HPM Plastics, Composites

Benefits

FRP Rebar

Column Strengthened
with FRP

Superior strength, Lt.wt

Applications

Strength, Durability
Corrosion resistance

Auto, Aerospace, Transportation

Major Problem Fire Performance

High temperature intolerant
Toxicity
Flame spread (combustible)
Faster strength/stiffness degradation
Ex: Euro-tunnel fire
Ex: Challenger, Colombia crash
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Emerging Trends PB Codes

Current approach to fire safety design

Prescriptive based approach

US/Canada is moving towards performancebased codes

Significant drawbacks

Rational engineering approaches

Offers cost-effective, innovative & alternate designs

Factors hindering PB Approach

Lack of validated models

Lack of test data for validation
Lack of material properties
Lack of design tools/guidelines
Lack of trained personnel
Lack of monitoring tools

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