1

Dr.QaiserIqbal(UETPeshawar)

Example2PartB
Determinetherequiredwallthicknessandflexuralsteelatthebottomofthe
stem.Usefc=4000lb/in2andfy=60k/in2
Checkshearatbottomofstem
Themostcriticalsectionforshearoccursatthebottomofthestem.Sincethere
arenostirrups,theconcretemustbesufficienttoresistthisshearforce(i.e.,we
neglectanyshearresistanceprovidedbytheflexuralsteel).

CombiningwithEquation

andsolvingproducesd6.79in

Thissteelareawillneedtobeaddedtothecomputedflexuralsteelarea.
Evaluateflexuralstressesatbaseofstemanddesignflexuralsteel.UsingEquation
9.13

Dr.QaiserIqbal(UETPeshawar)

PerTable1(previouslecture),thesteelratiomustbenogreaterthan0.0214,and
preferablybetweenabout0.0100and0.0143.Theminimumacceptablesteelarea
is(0.0012)(11)(12)=0.16in2/ft.Therefore,thecomputedsteelratioisacceptable.
Thetotalrequiredverticalsteelarea,Asis0.561+0.143=0.704in2/ft.
Use#7barsat9inC/C

Thissteelareaissufficienttoprovidebothflexuralreinforcementandthenormal
forcerequiredforsheartransfer.
Designremainderofstemsteel
Wewilluseataperedstem,withathicknessof8in(d=4.5in)atthetopand11
in(d=7.5in)atthebottom.Thesteelatthebottomofthestemwillbespacedat
9inchesoncenter,butatsomeheightwewillcutoffeveryotherbar,leaving
steelat18inchesoncenter.Themaximumpermissiblesteelspacingis3Tor18
in,whicheverisless[ACI7.6.5),sowecannotcutoffanymorebars.

Dr.QaiserIqbal(UETPeshawar)

Computeatthetopandbottomofthestemforeachsteelspacingusing
Equation9.12,thenuseEquations9.10and9.11with=0.9todeterminethe
correspondingmomentcapacities.
Samplecomputation:

Thefactoredmomentandnominalmomentcapacitiesalongtheheightofthe
stemareshowninFigure1.Weusethisdiagramtodeterminethecutofflocation,
whichisonedevelopmentlengthhigherthantheintersectionofthe#7@18in
curvewiththefactoredmomentcurve.Inotherwords,thisintersectioniswhere
thewidersteelspacingprovidesenoughflexuralcapacity,butweneedtoextend
thesteelonedevelopmentlengthpastthispointtoprovidesufficientanchorage.

Dr.QaiserIqbal(UETPeshawar)

Figure1:FactoredmomentsandflexuralcapacityalongstemforExample2

PerEquation9.14therequireddevelopmentlengthldis:

C=clearcover
Ktr=0forspreadfootings
db=diaofthebar
Basedonthisinformationusethefollowingsteelinthestem:

Dr.QaiserIqbal(UETPeshawar)

Verticalsteel:

MasonryStems
Thedesignofmasonrystemsissimilartothatforconcretestems.However,masonryisa
slightlydifferentmaterial,andhassomeuniquedesignprovisionsandcoderequirements.
Thereforewewillnotconsiderthatasapartofthiscourseforthoseinterestedinfurther
readingseeSchneiderandDickey(1987)formoreinformation.

Footing
Regardlessofthematerialusedforthestem,thefootingisalmostalwaysmadeofreinforced
concrete.Thestructuraldesignprocessforthisfootingisslightlydifferentthanthatforcolumns
ornonretainingwalls,asdescribedinChapter9,becausetheloadingfromretainingwallsis
different.
Theminimumrequiredfootingthickness,T,maybegovernedbytherequireddevelopment
lengthoftheverticalsteelfromthestem.Thissteelnormallyhasastandard90hook,as
showninFigure2,whichrequiresafootingthicknessofatleast:

Dr.QaiserIqbal(UETPeshawar)

Thetotalfootingthickness,T,shouldbeamultipleof100mmor3in,andneverlessthan300
mmor12in.Therequireddevelopmentlengthforhookedbarsmadeofgrade60(metricgrade
420)steelis[ACI12.5]:

(topEnglish,bottomSI)

ThedevelopmentlengthcomputedfromEquationmaybemodifiedbythefollowingfactors
[ACI12.5.3]1:

Forstandardreinforcingbarswithyieldstrengthotherthan60,000lb/in2:fy/60,000

Formetricreinforcingbarswithyieldstrengthotherthan420lb/in2:fy/420

Withatleast50mm(2in)ofcoverbeyondtheendofthehook:0.7

Nextwedesigntheheelextension,whichistheportionofthefootingbeneaththebackfill.The
shearandflexuralstressesinthisportionofthefootingareduetotheweightofthebackfillsoil
immediatelyabovethefootingplustheweightofthefootingheelextension.
Weignorethebearingpressureactingalongthebottomoftheheelextension,whichis
conservative.Thus,theheelextensionisdesignedasacantileverbeam,asshowninFigure2.
Thereisnoneedtodevelopshearandmomentdiagramsforthefooting.Simplycomputethe
factoredshearandmomentalongaverticalplaneimmediatelybelowthebackofthewalland
usethisinformationtochecktheshearcapacityofthefootingandtoselecttherequired
flexuralreinforcement.Sincetheweightofthebackfillisadeadload,usealoadfactorof1.4.

Dr.QaiserIqbal(UETPeshawar)

TheflexuralanalysismaybeperformedusingEquation9.13withtheeffectivedepthobtained
fromtheanchorageanalysis.Thesteelareamustsatisfytheminimumandmaximumsteel
requirementsdescribedearlierinthissection.Thereinforcingsteelshouldbeplaced70mm(3
in)fromthetopofthefooting,andshouldextendto70mm(3in)fromtheend.Theshear
analysisshouldbebasedonEquations9.2and9.9.
Thetoeextensionalsoisdesignedasacantileverbeam.However,itbendsintheopposite
direction(i.e.,concaveupward).sotheflexuralsteelmustbenearthebottom.Inthiscase,the
loadisduethebearingpressureactingonthebottomofthefootingandtheweightofthe
footingtoeextension.Forconservatismandsimplicity,weignoreanysoilthatmaybepresent
abovethispartofthefooting.Sincethisbearingpressureisprimarilyduetothelateralearth
pressureactingonthestem,usealoadfactorof1.7.
Thefootingalsoshouldhavelongitudinalsteel.Asteelratioof0.0015to0.0020isnormally
appropriate.Thereisnoneedtodoalongitudinalflexureanalysis.

Figure2:Loadingfordesignofheelandtoeextensions.

Dr.QaiserIqbal(UETPeshawar)

Example2PartC
Anchorageofverticalsteelfromstem

Thisanalysismustbebasedonthefootingconcrete,whichiscastseparatelyfromthatinthe
stem.Usefc'=3000lb/in2andfy=60,000lb/in2

Td+db/2+3=20.5in
Theshearanalysiscontrolstherequiredfootingthickness,souseT=21in(amultipleof
3in),d=T3indb/2=2130.5=17.5in.Althoughthisislargerthanthe15inchthickness
usedintheexternalstabilityanalysis,thereisnoneedtoredothatanalysis.

Dr.QaiserIqbal(UETPeshawar)

Heelextensionflexure

Use#8barsat9inOC(As/b=1.05in /ft)
Note:Thisisthesamespacingastheverticalstemsteel,whichwillavoidinterferenceproblems
andfacilitatetyingthesteeltogether
Longitudinalsteel(perdiscussioninChapter9):
A,=0.0018A,=(0.0018)(21in)(8.5ft)(l2in/ft)=3.86in2
Use14#5bars(As=4.34in2).

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Finaldesign:
ThefinaldesignisshowninFigure3

Figure3:LoadingdesignforExample2

DRAINAGEANDWATERPROOFING

Thediscussionontheeffectofgroundwateronloadsactingonthewalldemonstratedthe
impactofgroundwateronlateralearthpressures.Becausegroundwaterincreasesearth

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pressuressodramatically,engineersprovideameansofdrainagewheneverpossibletoprevent
thegroundwatertablefrombuildingupbehindthewall.Twotypesofdrainsarecommonly
used:weepholesandperforatedpipedrains.BothareshowninFigure4.Itisalsohelpfulto
includeameansofinterceptingwaterandbringingittothedrain.
.

Figure4:Methodsofdrainingthesoilbehindretainingwalls:(a)weepholes;(b)perforatedpipedrains

Inadditiontocontrolgroundwateritisalsoimportanttocontrolthemigrationofmoisture
throughthewall.Thisisespeciallyimportantonbasementwallsbecauseexcessivemoisture
insidebasementscanbebothnuisanceandahealthhazard.Eveninexteriorwalls,excessive
moisturemigrationcanbeanaestheticproblem.Thesematerialsmaybecategorizedasfollows
(Meyers,1996):
Dampproofingisthetreatmentofthewallsurfacetoretarddampnessorwaterpenetration
undernonhydrostaticconditions.Thesemethodsareusedwhenthewallisalwaysabovethe
groundwatertable,buttheadjacentsoilmaybesubjecttomoisturefromrainfall,irrigation,
capillaryrise,orothersources.

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Waterproofingisthetreatmentofthewallsurfacetopreventpassageofwaterunder
intermittentorfullhydrostaticpressureconditions.Thesemethodsareusedwhenthewallis
occasionallyorpermanentlybelowthegroundwatertable.

Dampproofingmethodsinclude:
Thinbituminouscoatings
Thincementitiouscoatings
Acryliclatexcoatings
6milpolyethylenesheets

Waterproofingmethodsaremoreexpensive,andmoreeffective.Theyinclude:
Bituminousmembranes,whichconsistofmultiplelayersofmoppedonbituminousmaterial
(i.e.,asphaltorcoaltar)withalternatinglayersofreinforcingfabricorfelt.Thefinalproductis
similartobuiltuproofing.
Liquidappliedelastometricwaterproofing,whichconsistsofspecialchemicalsappliedtothe
wall.
Sheetappliedelastometricwaterproofing,whichareprefabricatedsheetsappliedtothewall.
Cementitiouswaterproofingthatconsistsofseveralcoatsofaspecialmortar.
Bentoniteclaypanels
Troweledonmixturesofbentoniteclayandabindingagent

Alternatively,specialadmixturesmaybeusedwiththeconcreteinthewalltomakeitmore
impervious.Thismethodissometimescalledintegralwaterproofing.However,itssuccess
dependsontheabsenceofsignificantcracks,whichisdifficulttoachieve.Inaddition,this
methodrequiresspecialwaterstops,whichareplasticorrubberstrips,atconstructionjoints,
suchasthatbetweenthestemandthefooting.

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AVOIDANCEOFFROSTHEAVEPROBLEMS
Concreteisarelativelypoorinsulatorofheat,soretainingwallslocatedinareaswithfrost
heaveproblemsmaybedamagedasaresultoftheformationoficelensesbehindthewall.In
somecases,icelenseshavecausedretainingwallstomovesofaroutofpositionthatthey
becameunusable.
Reducefrostheaveproblemsbyusingallofthefollowingpreventivemeasures:
Incorporategooddrainagedetailsinthedesigntoavoidthebuildupoffreewaterbehindthe
wall.Deepperforateddrainagepipesareusuallyabetterchoicethanweepholesbecausethey
arelesslikelytobecomeblockedbyfrozenwater.
Usenonfrostsusceptiblesoilfortheportionofthebackfillimmediatelybehindthewall.This
zoneshouldextendhorizontallybehindthewallforadistanceequaltothedepthoffrost
penetrationinthatlocality.

Evenwiththeseprecautions,engineersworkingincoldclimatesoftendesignretainingwalls
withanadditional5to10kPa(100200lb/ft2)surchargepressureactingonthegroundsurface.
Theresultinglateralearthpressurefromthissurchargeresultsinastrongerwalldesignthatis
betterabletoresistfrostheave.

SUMMARY
MajorPoints
1.Cantileverretainingwallsarethemostcommontypeofearthretainingstructure.
2.Cantileverretainingwallsmustsatisfytwomajorrequirements:externalstability(toavoid
failureinthesoil)andinternalstability(toavoidfailureinthestructure).
3.Externalstabilityrequirementsincludethefollowing:
Sliding
Overturning
Resultantinmiddlethird
Bearingcapacity

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Deepseatedshear
Settlement
4.Internalstabilityrequirementsaresatisfiedbyprovidingastructuraldesignthatsatisfiesthe
followingrequirements:
Sufficientflexuralstrengthinthestem
Sufficientshearstrengthinthestem
Adequateconnectionbetweenthestemandthefooting
Sufficientanchorageofthestemsteelintothefooting
Sufficientflexuralstrengthinthefooting
5.Wallsalsomusthaveproperdrainageandwaterproofingdetails.
6.Inregionswithcoldclimates,wallsmustbeprotectedagainstfrostheaveproblems.