B Y T

HA I CNG
(DNG CHO O TO BC S A KHOA)
M S: .01.X.06

NH XUT BN GIO DC
H NI 2007

Ch o bin son:

V KHOA HC V O TO B Y T
Ch bin:

PGS.TSKH. PHAN AN
Tham gia bin son:

PGS.TSKH. PHAN AN
TS. NGUYN S C
DS. L HU TR
Th k bin son:

ThS. NGUYN TH NGUYT

Tham gia t chc bn tho:

PH VN THM
TS. NGUYN MNH PHA

Bn quyn thuc B Y t (V Khoa hc v o to)

7702007/CXB/21676/GD

M s: 7K720M7 DAI

LI GII THIU
Thc hin mt s iu ca Lut Gio dc, B Gio dc v o to v B Y t ban hnh
chng trnh khung o to bc s a khoa. B Y t t chc bin son ti liu dy hc cc
mn c s v chuyn mn theo chng trnh trn nhm tng bc xy dng b sch t chun
chuyn mn trong cng tc o to nhn lc y t.
Sch Ho i cng c bin son da trn chng trnh gio dc ca Trng Trng i
hc Y H Ni trn c s chng trnh khung c ph duyt. Sch c PGS.TSKH. Phan
An (Ch bin), TS. Nguyn S c v DS. L Hu Tr bin son theo phng chm: Kin thc
c bn, h thng; ni dung chnh xc, khoa hc; cp nht cc tin b khoa hc, k thut hin i
v thc tin Vit Nam.
Sch Ho i cng c Hi ng chuyn mn thm nh sch v ti liu dy hc
chuyn ngnh bc s a khoa ca B Y t thm nh nm 2007. B Y t quyt nh ban hnh ti
liu dy hc t chun chuyn mn ca ngnh trong giai on hin nay. Trong thi gian t 3
n 5 nm, sch phi c chnh l, b sung v cp nht.
B Y t chn thnh cm n cc tc gi, ThS. Nguyn Th Nguyt v Hi ng chuyn mn
thm nh gip hon thnh cun sch; Cm n PGS.TS. ng Vn Tnh, TS. ng Vn Hoi
c v phn bin cun sch sm hon thnh kp thi phc v cho cng tc o to nhn
lc y t.
Ln u xut bn, chng ti mong nhn c kin ng gp ca ng nghip, cc bn sinh
vin v cc c gi ln xut bn sau sch c hon thin hn.
V KHOA HC V O TO B Y T

LI NI U
Gio trnh Ho hc dng cho sinh vin nm th nht h o to bc s a khoa ca Trng
i hc Y H Ni c bin son theo khung chng trnh o to bc s a khoa ban hnh theo
quyt nh s 12/2001/Q BGD & T ngy 26 thng 4 nm 2001 ca B Gio dc v o to
v c thng qua ti Hi ng Chuyn mn Thm nh SGK v TLDH chuyn ngnh
BSK (B Y t).
Gio trnh c in thnh 2 tp:
HO I CNG
HO V C V HU C
Vi thi lng 90 tit l thuyt, trong gio trnh ny chng ti ch trnh by nhng kin thc
c bn v cn thit sinh vin c th theo hc tip nhng mn hc c s ca Y hc c lin
quan n ho hc nh: Ho sinh, Dc l hc, V sinh v Mi trng,...
Phn c in ch nghing nh l phn m rng thm tham kho.
Cui mi bi c cc cu hi t lng gi gip sinh vin vn dng v nm chc c l
thuyt.
Sch do mt s cn b ging dy b mn Ho bin son vi s phn cng nh sau:
Phn i cng v V c:
Phn Hu c:
Ch bin:
Th k ca ban bin son:

PGS. TSKH. Phan An

TS. Nguyn S c v DS. L Hu Tr
PGS.TSKH. Phan An.
ThS. Nguyn Th Nguyt

Chng ti mong nhn c kin ng gp ca cc bn ng nghip v sinh vin ln ti

bn sch s hon thin hn.

Thay mt nhm bin son

PGS.TSKH. PHAN AN

Bi 1

CU TO NGUYN T
MC TIU
1. Phn tch c nhng u im v nhc im ca cc mu nguyn t c in ca
Rutherford v Bohr.
2. Trnh by c nhng lun im c bn ca thuyt c hc lng t trong vic nghin
cu nguyn t.
3. M t c nhng c trng ca cc orbital (my electron) nguyn t.
4. Vn dng c nhng quy lut phn b electron trong nguyn t, biu din cu
hnh electron ca nguyn t mt nguyn t.
5. M t c cu trc ca bng tun hon cc nguyn t ho hc v quy lut bin thin
tnh cht ca cc nguyn t trong bng tun hon.
M U

Khi nim nguyn t " " (khng th phn chia) c cc nh trit hc c Hy

Lp a ra cch y hn hai ngn nm.

Nm1807 Dalton, trn c s cc nh lut c bn ca ho hc, a ra gi thuyt

nguyn t, tha nhn nguyn t l ht nh nht cu to nn cc cht, khng th chia nh
hn bng phng php ho hc.

Nm 1811 Avogadro, trn c s gi thuyt nguyn t ca Dalton a ra gi thuyt

phn t, tha nhn phn t c to thnh t cc nguyn t, l ht nh nht ca mt cht,
mang y tnh cht ca cht .

Nm 1861 thuyt nguyn t, phn t chnh thc c tha nhn trong hi ngh ho hc
th gii hp ti Thu S.

Ch n cui th k XIX v u th k XX vi nhng thnh tu ca vt l, cc thnh

phn cu to nn nguyn t ln lt c pht hin.

1. THNH PHN CU TO CA NGUYN T

V mt vt l, nguyn t khng phi l ht nh nht m c cu to phc tp, gm t nht l
ht nhn v cc electron. Trong ht nhn nguyn t c hai ht c bn: proton v ntron.
Ht
electron (e)

Khi lng (g)

in tch (culong)

9,1.1028

1,6.1019

24

proton(p)

1,673.10

ntron(n)

1,675.1024

19

+1,6.10
0

 Khi lng ca

khi lng p.

in tch ca e l in tch nh nht v c ly lm n v in tch, ta ni electron mang

1v in tch m (e) cn proton mang 1v in tch dng (+e).
Nu trong ht nhn nguyn t ca mt nguyn t no c Z proton th in tch ht nhn
l +Ze v nguyn t phi c Z electron, v nguyn t trung ho in.
Trong bng tun hon, s th t ca cc nguyn t cng l s ch in tch ht nhn hay s
proton trong ht nhn nguyn t ca nguyn t .
2. NHNG MU NGUYN T C IN
2.1. Mu Rutherford (Rzfo Anh) 1911
T th nghim bn cc ht qua mt l vng mng, Rutherford a ra mu nguyn t
hnh tinh (hnh 1.1).
Nguyn t gm mt ht nhn gia v cc electron quay xung quanh ging nh cc hnh
tinh quay xung quanh mt tri.
Ht nhn mang in tch dng, c kch thc rt nh so vi kch thc ca nguyn t
nhng li tp trung hu nh ton b khi lng nguyn t.
Mu Rutherford gii thch c kt qu th nghim trn v cho php hnh dung mt cch
n gin cu to nguyn t. Tuy nhin khng gii thch c s tn ti ca nguyn t v hin
tng quang ph vch ca nguyn t.

Hnh 1.1. S th nghim ca Rutherford v mu nguyn t hnh tinh

2.2. Mu Bohr (Bo an Mch) 1913

Da trn thuyt lng t ca Planck (Plng) Bohr a ra hai nh :
Trong nguyn t electron ch c th quay trn nhng qu o xc nh gi l cc qu o
lng t, mi qu o ng vi mt mc nng lng xc nh.
Qu o lng t phi tho mn iu kin sau:
(1.1)
6

h: hng s Planck 6,62.1027 erg.s

m: khi lng electron
v: tc chuyn ng ca electron
r: bn knh qu o
n: s nguyn t 1, 2, 3... n c gi l s lng t
Tch mvr gi l momen ng lng
Khi quay trn nhng qu o lng t electron khng pht hay thu nng lng. N ch
pht hay thu nng lng khi chuyn t mt qu o ny sang mt qu o khc.

Hnh 1.2. Cc qu o lng t theo thuyt nguyn t ca Bohr

v s to thnh cc dy quang ph vch ca nguyn t hydro

Da vo nhng nh lut ca c hc c in Bohr tnh c bn knh rn ca cc qu o

electron trong nguyn t hydro v gi tr nng lng En ca electron tng ng trn cc qu o
:
(1.2)
e: gi tr tuyt i ca in tch electron
Electron chuyn ng c trn qu o nh s cn bng gia lc ly tm v lc ht culong:

hay

mv2r = e2

Kt hp vi iu kin qu o Bohr (1.1) ta c biu thc tnh rn (1.2)

7

Nu thay cc gi tr ca hng s (H n v CGS):

h = 6,62.1027 ec.s
m = 9,1.1028 g
e = 4,8.1010 vt
vo phng trnh (1.2) ta c:
rn = n2.0,53. 108 cm = n2. 0,53. (1 = 108 cm)
T :

r1 = 12. 0,53 = 0,53

r2 = 22. 0,53 = 4r1
r3 = 32. 0,53 = 9r1
....
rn = n2. 0,53 = n2 r1
(1.3)

Nng lng ton phn ca electron bng tng ng nng v th nng:

thay mv2 bng

ta c:

Thay gi tr ca r t (1.2) ta c (1.3)

Nu thay cc gi tr ca hng s vo (1.3) ta c:

T cc cng thc (1.2) v (1.3) ta thy s n lm gin on (nh ngi ta ni n lng t

ho) bn knh qu o electron v nng lng ca electron trong nguyn t. V vy n c gi l
s lng t.
Thuyt Bohr cho php gii thch cu to quang ph vch ca nguyn t hydro v tnh
c bn knh ca nguyn t hydro trng thi c bn.
Bnh thng nguyn t trng thi c nng lng thp nht (trng thi c bn). Khi b kch
thch cc electron chuyn t trng thi c bn (qu o gn nhn nht) sang trng thi c nng
lng cao (qu o xa nhn hn). Trng thi kch thch l trng thi khng bn nn ngay lp tc
electron li tr v trng thi c bn (c th qua mt s trng thi trung gian). Mi bc nhy pht
ra mt lng t tng ng vi mt vch trn quang ph ca nguyn t.
Tuy nhin thuyt Bohr khng gii thch c quang ph ca cc nguyn t phc tp cng
nh s tch vch quang ph di tc dng ca t trng. iu cho thy rng i vi nhng
ht hay h ht vi m nh electron, nguyn t th khng th p dng nhng nh lut ca c hc
c in. Cc h ny c nhng c tnh khc vi h v m v phi c nghin cu bng c hc
lng t.
3. NHNG TIN CA C HC LNG T
3.1. Thuyt lng t Planck (Plng c) 1900
nh sng hay bc x ni chung khng phi l lin tc m gm nhng lng nh ring bit
gi l nhng lng t.
Mi lng t mang mt nng lng tnh bng biu thc:
E = h

(1.4)

: tn s ca bc x.
3.2. Thuyt sng ht ca nh sng
Thuyt sng v nh sng c Maxwell (Macxuen) a ra nm 1865 gii thch c hin
tng nhiu x, giao thoa ca nh sng nhng khng gii thch c hiu ng quang in.
Theo thuyt lng t th nh sng gm nhng lng t nng lng E = h pht i t ngun
sng. Mt khc theo h thc tng i Einstein (Anhxtanh) E = mc2 th mt vt th bt k nu
mang nng lng E s c khi lng
. Nh vy nh sng c tnh cht ht. Ngy nay
ngi ta tha nhn bn cht sng ht ca nh sng. T h thc Einstein v thuyt lng t ta
c:
mc2 = h

t :

(1.5)
9

3.3. Tnh cht sng ht ca ht vi m (electron, nguyn t, phn t...)

Nm 1924 De Broglie ( Bri Php) trn c s thuyt sng ht ca nh sng ra
thuyt sng ht ca vt cht:
Mi ht vt cht chuyn ng u lin kt vi mt sng gi l sng vt cht hay sng lin
kt, c bc sng tnh theo h thc:
(1.6)
m: khi lng ca ht
v: tc chuyn ng ca ht
Nm 1927 Davisson v Germer lm thc nghim cho thy hin tng nhiu x chm
electron. Nh vy bn cht sng ca electron cng c tha nhn.
Nm 1924 ngi ta xc nh c khi lng ca electron ngha l tha nhn electron c
bn cht ht.
V d:
Electron khi lng 9,1.10-28g chuyn ng vi vn tc 108 cm/s s c mt sng lin kt
vi tnh theo biu thc (1.6)

Nh vy: electron va c bn cht sng va c bn cht ht.

i vi nhng vt th v m, m c gi tr rt ln so vi hng s h nn c gi tr rt nh, v
vy c th b qua bn cht sng.
V d:
Mt t c khi lng 1000 kg chuyn ng vi tc 72 km/h s c mt sng lin kt

bc sng ny l v cng nh v vy thc t c th b qua.

3.4. Nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg (Haixenbec c) 1927
i vi ht vi m khng th xc nh chnh xc ng thi c tc v v tr
(1.7)
x: bt nh v v tr
10

v: bt nh v tc
m: khi lng ht
Theo h thc ny th vic xc nh to cng chnh xc bao nhiu th xc nh tc cng
km chnh xc by nhiu.
V d:
Nu ly bt nh ca php o v tr electron trong nguyn t x l 1010 cm (nguyn t c
ng knh c 10 8 cm) th bt nh trong php o tc s l:

ngha l gp mt sai s xp x bng tc ca nh sng.

4. KHI NIM C BN V C HC LNG T
4.1. Hm sng
Trng thi ca mt h v m s hon ton c xc nh nu bit qu o v tc chuyn
ng ca n. Trong khi i vi nhng h vi m, do bn cht sng ht v nguyn l bt nh,
khi nim qu o khng cn ngha na.
Trong c hc lng t mi trng thi ca mt ht hay h ht vi m c m t bng mt
hm xc nh gi l hm sng hay hm trng thi (x, y, z) (c l: pxi) ca cc bin s x, y, z
trong to Decard hay (r, , ) ca cc bin s r, , trong to cu.
Bn thn hm sng khng c ngha vt l g nhng 2 li c ngha vt l rt quan
trng.
2 biu th mt xc sut tm thy ht ti mt im nht nh trong khng gian.
2 dv biu th xc sut tm thy ht ti mt th tch nguyn t dv.
ng vi ngha vt l ca 2, hm sng phi tho mn mt s iu kin nh: n tr, lin
tc, gii ni v phi c chun ho.
Hm phi n tr ngha l ch c mt gi tr ti mt im xc nh, cng chnh l n xc
nh mt cch n gi xc sut tm thy ht ti mt im nht nh.
Hm phi lin tc v gii ni ngha l n phi tin dn n 0 khi r tin dn n v cng.
Hm phi c chun ho. V mt ton hc iu kin ny c th hin phng trnh:
c ngha l xc sut tm thy ht trong ton b khng gian l 1.
Hm sng nhn c khi gii phng trnh sng.
11

4.2. Phng trnh sng

C s ca c hc lng t l phng trnh sng do nh bc hc o Schrodinger (Sring)
a ra nm 1926. l phng trnh m t trng thi chuyn ng ca ht vi m trong khng
gian.
Phng trnh c dng nh sau:
(1.8)
U: th nng ca ht
E: nng lng ton phn ca ht
m: khi lng ca ht
Phng trnh Schrodinger thng c vit dng rt gn:
(1.9)

gi l ton t Laplas
i vi mt bi ton c th, thay U bng biu thc tnh th nng ca ht v gii phng
trnh ta nhn c cc nghim 1, 2, 3... n c trng cho cc trng thi khc nhau ca ht vi
m v cc gi tr nng lng ng vi mi trng thi .
5. NGUYN T HYDRO V NHNG ION GING HYDRO
Nguyn t hydro l nguyn t n gin nht. N ch gm mt electron chuyn ng trong
trng th ca ht nhn mang in tch +1. Cc ht He+, Li2+ cng l nhng h gn ging nguyn
t hydro, ch c mt electron. V vy phng trnh Schrodinger cho cc trng hp ny c th
gii c chnh xc. Nhng kt qu thu c t vic gii bi ton i vi nguyn t hydro l c
s cho h thng l thuyt v cu to nguyn t.
5.1. Phng trnh Schrodinger i vi nguyn t hydro
Nguyn t hydro gm ht nhn mang in tch + e v mt electron mang in tch e. Do
tng tc tnh in vi proton, electron c mt th nng U = e2/r. T phng trnh
Schrodinger cho bi ton nguyn t hydro c dng:
(1.10)
r: khong cch t electron n ht nhn
i vi trng hp He+ v Li2+ biu thc th nng s l:

12

 Ze2/r

Z l in tch nhn

V trng th c i xng cu nn thun tin cho vic tnh ton ngi ta s dng to
cu. Khi hm l hm ca cc bin s r, , .
Gii phng trnh (1.10) ngi ta c cc hm (r, , ), t tm c 2 (r, , ) biu
th xc sut tm thy electron ti nhng im khc nhau trong khng gian nguyn t, nng lng
ton phn E, mmen ng lng M, hnh chiu ca mmen ng lng Mz ca electron tng
ng vi cc hm . Trong biu thc tnh cc i lng ny xut hin nhng con s nguyn n, l,
m tng ng c gi l cc s lng t.
5.2. Orbital nguyn t. My electron
Phng trnh Schrodinger c v s nghim. l nhng hm (r, , ), c gi l cc
orbital nguyn t (atomic orbital) vit tt l AO. Nh vy:
Orbital nguyn t l nhng hm sng m t cc trng thi ca electron trong nguyn t.
Mi hm sng l tch ca hai phn: Rnl (r) gi l phn bn knh v ph thuc vo khong
cch r; Ylm (, ) gi l phn gc ph thuc cc gc , .
nlm (r, , ) = Rnl (r). Ylm (, )

(1.11)

BNG 1.1. MT S ORBITAL CHNH CA NGUYN T HYDRO

V d:
Nghim n gin nht m t trng thi c bn ca electron (trng thi e c nng lng thp
nht) trong nguyn t hydro c dng:

13

Hm ny ch ph thuc vo bin s to r. T hm ny ta bit c 2 (r) biu th mt

xc sut c mt electron ti v tr tng ng.
Biu din s ph thuc ca hm 2 theo khong cch r ta c ng cong phn b mt
xc sut c mt electron trng thi c bn (hnh 1.3). Theo :
Mt xc sut c mt electron gim dn t ht nhn ra ngoi.
khong cch xa ht nhn 2 c gi tr nh nhng khng bng 0. (ng biu din khng
ct trc honh m ch tim cn vi trc ny).
Mt cch hnh nh ngi ta cng c th biu din s phn b mt xc sut tm thy
electron trong nguyn t bng nhng du chm. Mt ca cc chm s ln gn nhn v tha
dn khi cng xa nhn. Khi orbital nguyn t ging nh mt m my electron. d hnh
dung ngi ta thng coi:
My electron l vng khng gian xung quanh ht nhn trong tp trung phn ln xc
sut c mt electron (khong 90 95% xc sut).
Nh vy my electron c th coi l hnh nh khng gian ca orbital nguyn t

Hnh 1.3. My 1s (a) v 2s (b)

5.3. Cc s lng t
Nh ni trn cc s lng t xut hin trong qu trnh gii phng trnh Schrodinger
tm mt s i lng c trng cho mt AO.
Nh vy l mi hm sng (hay mi AO) c c trng (c xc nh) bi 4 tham s n,
l, m, ms gi l cc s lng t.
5.3.1. S lng t chnh n
n nhn cc gi tr t 1, 2, 3.... n.
n xc nh nng lng ca electron trong nguyn t theo biu thc:
14

 Cc AO c cng n s c cng mt mc nng lng v to ra mt lp orbital nguyn t.

n

4...

K hiu lp

N...

Mc nng lng

E1

E2

E3

E4. ....

En

5.3.2. S lng t ph l
Cc gi tr ca l ph thuc vo s lng t chnh: l = 0, 1, 2... (n 1)
l xc nh momen ng lng ca electron trong biu thc:
(1.12)
ng vi mt gi tr ca n (mt lp) c n gi tr ca l (n phn lp)
Lp

n=1

l=0

n=2

l=0

l=1

n=3

l=0

l=1

l=2

n=4

l=0

l=1

l=2

K hiu phn lp

l=3
f

Mun ch ra mt phn lp thuc lp no ngi ta vit s th t lp trc k hiu phn lp.

V d:
2s ch electron (hayAO) thuc phn lp s (l = 0) ca lp 2 (n = 2).
3d........................................................d (l = 2).............3 (n = 3).
5.3.3. S lng t t m
m nhn cc gi tr t l n + l k c s 0. Nh vy ng vi mt gi tr ca l c 2l + 1 gi
tr ca m.
m xc nh hnh chiu ca momen ng lng Mz ca electron trn mt phng z ca
trng ngoi, trong biu thc:

15

(1.13)
Nh vy cc AO c Mz khc nhau (c m khc nhau) s nh hng khc nhau trong khng
gian, m quyt nh hng ca AO hay hng ca my electron.
Phn lp

l=0

m=0

ch c mt cch nh hng.

Phn lp

l=1

m = 1, 0, +1

Phn lp

l=2

m = 1, 2, 0, +1, +2

c 3 cch nh hng tng ng:

px, pz, py
c 5 cch nh hng tng ng:

5.3.4. S lng t spin mS

Nghin cu quang ph ca cc nguyn t ngi ta thy cn gi thit thm rng electron
ngoi chuyn ng quanh nhn cn t quay quanh trc ring ca n. Chuyn ng ny c gi
l spin v c c trng bng s lng t spin ms. ms ch c hai gi tr l:

Nh vy trng thi ca mi electron trong nguyn t c c trng bi bn s lng t n, l,

m, ms:
c gi l orbital ton phn
n l m c gi l orbital khng gian.
BNG 1.2. TRNG THI LNG T CA ELECTRON THUC BA LP U

100

S AO

S e

1s

2s

2px

2pz

+1

2py

3s

3px

3pz

+1

3py

322

3dxy

321

3dyz

200
211

210

21+1
300

311
310
31+1

1
3

AO

16

320

32+1

+1

32+2

+2

10

3dzx

5.4. Hnh dng v du ca cc orbital (cc my electron)

Nh bit hm sng m t trng thi ca mt electron c dng:
nlm (r,,) = Rnl (r). Ylm (, )
R(r) l phn bn knh, quyt nh kch thc ca AO.
Y(, ) l phn gc, quyt nh hnh dng ca AO.
Nu biu din s ph thuc ca phn gc ca hm sng vo cc gc , khi r khng i, (r
c trn nh th no b mt gii hn thu c bao chm mt khng gian trong xc sut
c mt electron chim 90 95%) th cc b mt gii hn ny cho ta hnh dng ca cc orbital
hay cc my electron (hnh 1.4).
Mt khc v orbital l mt hm (x, y, z) hay (r, , ) m cc bin s l cc to khng
gian, nn tu theo cc tr ca bin m hm c th c gi tr dng hay m. Ngi ta thng ghi
du + hoc trn mt gii hn biu din hnh dng cc orbital.
Orbital s c dng hnh cu.
Cc orbital px, py, pz c hnh s 8 ni hng theo 3 trc to ox, oy, oz.
Cc orbital dxy, dyz, dzx u c dng hnh hoa th (4 cnh) hng theo ng phn gic ca
cc gc tng ng xoy, yoz, zox.
Orbital

c dng hoa th nhng hng theo 2 trc ox v oy.

Ring orbital
gm hnh s 8 ni hng theo trc oz v mt vnh khn nm trn mt
phng xoy. Di y l hnh dng ca mt s AO v du ca n:

17

Hnh 1.4. Hnh dng v s sp xp trong khng gian ca mt s orbital nguyn t

6. NGUYN T NHIU ELECTRON

6.1. M hnh v cc ht c lp hay m hnh dng hydro
Khc vi nguyn t hydro, trong nguyn t nhiu electron ngoi nhng tng tc gia cc
electron v ht nhn cn c nhng tng tc gia cc electron vi nhau. Trong trng hp ny
phng trnh Schrodinger cha qu nhiu bin s nn khng gii c chnh xc. V vy ngi
ta phi s dng mt phng php gii gn ng da trn mt m hnh gn ng thch hp gi l
m hnh v cc ht c lp.
Trong nguyn t nhiu electron, mi electron chuyn ng c lp vi cc electron khc
trong mt trng trung bnh c i xng cu to bi ht nhn v cc electron khc.
Trn c s ngi ta xt ring tng electron, c gi l trng thi n electron. Nh vy,
bi ton N electron chuyn thnh N bi ton n electron ging nh trng hp nguyn t
hydro. Ngha l cc orbital trong nguyn t nhiu electron cng c c trng bng cc s
lng t n, l, m, ms v c hnh dng tng t nh nguyn t H, ch khc v kch thc v nng
lng.
18

6.2. Quy lut phn b cc electron trong nguyn t

6.2.1. Nguyn l ngn cm Pauli (PaoliThy S). S electron ti a mi lp
Trong nguyn t khng th c hai electron ging nhau c bn s lng t.
iu ny cng c ngha l trong mt nguyn t nu hai electron c m t bng hm sng
nlm c cc s lng t n, l, m ging nhau th chng phi c spin khc nhau, s lng t th t
phi khc nhau.
V s lng t spin ch c hai gi tr nn theo nguyn l Pauli iu cng c ngha l trong
mi AO ch c th c ti a hai electron. T ta c th tnh c s electron ti a trong mi
phn lp (phn mc), trong mi lp.
ng vi mt gi tr ca n c n gi tr ca l.
ng vi mt gi tr ca l c (2l + 1) gi tr ca m.

V ms ch c hai gi tr
nn phn mc l ch c nhiu nht 2(2l + 1) electron v
tng s electron ca mt mc (hay lp) s l:
(1.14)
V d:
Phn mc

(l = 0)

c 1 AO (s), ti a c 2 electron

Phn mc

(l = 1)

c 3 AO (px, py, pz) ti a c 6 electron

Phn mc

(l = 2)

c 5 AO, ti a c 10 electron

Phn mc

(l = 3)

mc

n=1

c 2 electron

mc

n=2

c 8 electron (2e phn mc s + 6e phn mc p)

mc

n=3

c 18 electron (2e ...s + 6e ...p + 10e ... d)

mc

n=4

c 32 electron (2e s + 6e p + 10e d +14e f)

c 7 AO, ti a c 14 electron

6.2.2. Nguyn l vng bn. Cu hnh electron ca nguyn t

Trong nguyn t cc electron chim ln lt cc orbital c nng lng t thp n cao.
Bng phng php quang ph nghim v tnh ton l thuyt ngi ta xc nh c th
t tng dn nng lng ca cc AO theo dy sau y:
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p...
19

 nh c th t bc thang nng lng ny ta dng s sau:

Dy nng lng ny tun theo mt quy tc sau y gi l quy tc Kleskovxky:

Mc nng lng ca AO tng dn theo tr s (n+l)
V d:
3s (3 + 0) 3p (3 +1);

4s (4 + 0) 3d (3 + 2)

Hai AO c (n+l) bng nhau th AO no c n ln hn s c nng lng cao hn.

V d:
4p (4 + 1) 5s (5 + 0);

4d (4 + 2) 5p (5 + 1)

Da vo nguyn l Pauli v nguyn l vng bn ngi ta c th biu din nguyn t ca mt

nguyn t bng cu hnh electron.
c cu hnh electron ca mt nguyn t, trc ht ta in dn cc electron vo bc thang
nng lng ca cc AO. Sau sp xp li theo tng lp AO.
V d:
He

(z = 2)

1s2

Li

(z = 3)

1s2

2s1

Cl

(z = 17)

1s2

2s2

2p6

3s2

3p5

Sc

(z = 21)

1s2

2s2

2p6

3s2

3p6

3d1

4s2

Ch : c mt s ngoi l:
20

Cu

(z = 29)

1s2

2s2

2p6

3s2

3p6

Cr

(z = 24)

1s2

2s2

2p6

3s2

3p6

Cu hnh

(trng thi vi bo ho) bn hn cu hnh

Cc nguyn t Ag (z = 47) v Au (z = 79) cng c cu hnh tng t Cu

Cu hnh

(trng thi vi na bo ho) bn hn cu hnh

Nguyn t Mo (z = 42) c cu hnh tng t Cr

6.2.3. Quy tc Hund (Hun c). Cu hnh electron dng lng t
Ngoi cch biu din cc AO di dng cng thc nh trn, ngi ta cn biu din mi AO
bng mt vung gi l lng t. Cc AO ca cng mt phn mc c biu din bng nhng
vung lin nhau. V d:

Trong mi lng t ch c th c 2 electron c spin ngc nhau c biu din bng 2 mi

tn ngc nhau
Trn c s thc nghim Hund a ra mt quy tc phn b cc electron vo cc lng t
nh sau:
Trong mt phn mc cc electron c xu hng phn b u vo cc lng t sao cho s
electron c thn l ln nht.
V d:

Thng thng ch cn vit cu hnh electron i vi cc phn mc lp ngoi cng v phn

mc d hoc f lp st ngoi cng m cha bo ho.
Cn lu rng cu hnh ni trn l i vi cc nguyn t trng thi c bn. Khi b kch
thch electron c th nhy ln nhng phn mc cao hn trong cng mt mc nng lng.
V d:

21

Nh vy trng thi c bn C c hai electron c thn cn trng thi kch thch (c k

hiu l C*) C* c bn electron c thn. Chnh cc electron c thn ny l cc electron ho tr.
7. H THNG TUN HON CC NGUYN T HO HC
7.1. nh lut tun hon Mendeleev (Menlep Nga) 1869
Tnh cht ca cc nguyn t, thnh phn v tnh cht ca cc hp cht to nn t cc nguyn
t bin thin tun hon theo chiu tng ca khi lng nguyn t.
Ngy nay nh lut tun hon c pht biu chnh xc hn bng cch thay cm t khi
lng nguyn t bng cm t in tch ht nhn.
Trn c s nh lut tun hon, Mendeleev sp xp mt cch c h thng cc nguyn t
thnh mt bng gm nhng hng v ct gi l bng tun hon (BTH) cc nguyn t ho hc.
7.2. BTH cc nguyn t ho hc
7.2.1. Nguyn tc sp xp cc nguyn t trong BTH
Cc nguyn t c sp xp theo th t tng dn ca in tch ht nhn. S in tch ht
nhn trng vi s th t ca nguyn t.
Cc nguyn t c tnh cht ho hc ging nhau c xp trong cng mt ct.
Mi hng (bng di) c gi l mt chu k. Mi chu k c bt u bng mt kim loi
kim, (tr chu k 1, bt u bng hydro) v c kt thc bng mt kh him.
7.2.2. Cu trc ca BTH
BTH gm 7 chu k:
Chu k 1

c 2 nguyn t

Chu k 2 v 3, mi chu k

c 8 nguyn t

Chu k 4 v 5, mi chu k

c 18 nguyn t

Chu k 6

c 32 nguyn t

Chu k 7

c 24 nguyn t (cha hon thnh)

14 nguyn t ng sau lantan thuc chu k 6 gi l cc lantanit.

14 nguyn t ng sau actini thuc chu k 7 gi l cc actinit.
Cc lantanit v actinit xp ra ngoi bng thnh hai hng, mi hng 14 nguyn t.
Tr cc nguyn t c xp ra ngoi bng, mi chu k di (tr chu k 7) c 18 nguyn t
xp thnh 18 ct.

22

 Cc nguyn t thuc cc ct 1, 2 v cc ct t 13 n 18 to thnh 8 nhm nh s t IA

n VIIIA c gi l cc nhm chnh hay cc nhm A.
10 ct cn li to thnh 8 nhm ph (nhm B) nh s theo th t IIIB... VIIIB v sau
l IB v IIB. Mi ct to thnh mt nhm, ring nhm VIIIB gm 3 ct.

BNG 1.3. CU HNH ELECTRON CA MT S NGUYN T

Chu
k

Nguyn
t

Cu hnh electron

Chu
k

Nguyn
t

Cu hnh electron

23

1s1

55

Cs

He

1s2

56

Ba

6s2

Li

[He] 2s1

57

La

5d1 6s2

Be

2s2

58

Ce

4f2 5d0 6s2

2s2 2p1

59

Pr

4f3 5d0 6s2

...

...

....

...

...

....

10

Ne

2s2 2p6

63

Eu

4f7 5d0 6s2

11

Na

[Ne] 3s1

64

Gd

4f7 5d1 6s2

12

Mg

3s2

...

...

....

13

Al

3s2 3p1

71

Lu

4f14 5d1 6s2

...

...

....

72

Hf

5d2 6s2

18

Ar

3s2 3p6

...

...

....

19

4s1

80

Hg

5d10 6s2

20

Ca

4s2

81

Tl

6s2 6p1

21

Sc

3d1 4s2

...

...

....

...

...

....

86

Rn

6s2 6p6

30

Zn

3d10 4s2

87

Fr

31

Ga

3d10 4s2 4p1

88

Ra

7s2

...

...

....

89

Ac

6d1 7s2

36

Kr

3d10 4s2 4p6

90

Th

6d2 7s2

37

Rb

91

Pa

5f2 6d1 7s2

38

Sr

5s

39

4d 5s

...

...

....

...

48

Cd

4d10 5s2

96

Cm

5f7 6d1 7s2

49

In

4d10 5s2 5p1

97

Bk

5f9 6d0 7s2

...

...

....

...

...

....

54

Xe

4d10 5s2 5p6

103

Lr

5f14 6d1 7s2

104

Ku

6d2 7s2

[Ar]

[Kr]

5s1

...
2

93

[Xe]

6s1

[Rn] 7s1

....
Np

5f 6d 7s

....

24

7.3. Cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t trong BTH

Chu k 1: Gm 2 nguyn t, c mt lp electron, cc electron ln lt in vo 1s. Ngi ta
gi cc nguyn t ny l nguyn t s.
Chu k 2: Gm 8 nguyn t, c hai lp electron. Lp trong c cu hnh electron ca He. Hai
nguyn t u l cc nguyn t s (2s). Cc nguyn t tip theo, s electron c in vo hai
phn lp 2s v 2p, trong phn lp 2s bo ho, cn phn lp 2p c s electron tng dn t
2p1 n 2p6. Cc nguyn t ny gi l cc nguyn t p.
Chu k 3: Gm 8 nguyn t, c ba lp electron. Cc lp trong c cu hnh electron ca Ne.
Hai nguyn t u l cc nguyn t s (3s). Su nguyn t tip theo l cc nguyn t p (3p1 3p6).
Chu k 4: Gm 18 nguyn t, c bn lp electron. Cc lp trong c cu hnh electron ca
Ar. Hai nguyn t u l cc nguyn t s (4s). Mi nguyn t tip theo, cc electron c in
vo hai phn lp 3d v 4s, trong phn lp 4s bo ho, cn phn lp 3d c s electron tng
dn t 3d1 n 3d10. Cc nguyn t ny gi l cc nguyn t d hay cc nguyn t chuyn tip.
Cui cng l su nguyn t p (4p1 4p6).
Chu k 5: Gm 18 nguyn t, c nm lp electron. Cc lp trong c cu hnh electron ca
Kr. Hai nguyn t u l cc nguyn t s (5s). Tip theo l mi nguyn t d (4d1 4d10). Su
nguyn t cui cng l cc nguyn t p (5p1 5p6).
Chu k 6: Gm 32 nguyn t. Ngoi cc nguyn t s, p, d nh chu k 5 cn thm 14
nguyn t f. Cc nguyn t f ny c hai lp electron ngoi cng ging nhau 5d1 6s2 nhng phn
lp 4f c s electron ln lt t 4f1 n 4f14.
Chu k 7: Chu k cha kt thc, tuy nhin theo quy lut ngi ta d on phi gm 32
nguyn t. Vi cc nguyn t hin bit, cu hnh electron c s lp li tng t nh cc nguyn
t chu k 6.
Nhn xt:
Chu k 1, 2, 3 l cc chu k nh ch gm cc nguyn t s v p. Cc nguyn t ny c
xp vo cc nhm chnh (nhm A) ca BTH. Tng s electron thuc lp ngoi cng (s + p) bng
ch s ca nhm. S lp electron bng ch s chu k.
Nhm

IA

IIA

IIIA

IVA

VA

VIA

VIIA

VIIIA

Cu hnh e

s1

s2

s2p1

s2p2

s2p3

s2p4

s2p5

s2p6

Chu k 4, 5 l cc chu k ln ngoi cc nguyn t s v p vi cu hnh electron tng t

nh cc nguyn t thuc chu k nh, cn c thm 10 nguyn t d. Cc nguyn t ny c xp
vo cc nhm ph (nhm B) ca BTH.
Nhm

IB

IIB

IIIB

IVB

VB

VIB

VIIB

VIIIB

Cu hnh e

d10s1

d10s2

d1s2

d2s2

d3s2

d5s1

d5s2

d6 d7 d8s2

Chu k 6, 7 l cc chu k ln, ngoi cc nguyn t s, p v d tng t nh cc nguyn t

thuc chu k 4, 5 cn c thm 14 nguyn t f c xp thnh hai hng di BTH.
25

Bit s th t ca mt nguyn t ngi ta c th bit c cu hnh electron ca n. T

suy ra c v tr ca nguyn t trong BTH.
V d:
Bit s th t ca nguyn t ln lt l z = 9, 11, 18, 25, 34. Ta c cu hnh electron nh
sau:

7.4. Bin thin tun hon mt s tnh cht ca cc nguyn t

S lp li tun hon cu hnh electron ca nguyn t theo chiu tng ca in tch ht nhn
chnh l nguyn nhn ca s lp li tun hon cc tnh cht ca nguyn t.
7.4.1. Bin thin tnh cht trong mt chu k
Khi i t u n cui chu k, in tch ht nhn tng ng thi bn knh li gim i. Kt
qu l lm tng lc ht gia ht nhn v electron lp ngoi cng, c ngha l lm gim tnh kh
v tng tnh oxy ho.
Cc kh him c cu hnh bo ho (ns2 np6) nn rt bn vng, khng cho v cng khng thu
thm electron nn hu nh khng tham gia vo phn ng ho hc. Nh vy mi chu k (tr chu
k 1) c bt u bng mt kim loi kim v kt thc bng mt kh him.
Tc bin thin tnh cht ca cc nguyn t cc chu k nh rt nhanh. Trong khi
cc chu k ln chm hn nhiu, chu k cng ln tc bin thin cng chm. V d chu k 2
ch ba nguyn t u (Li, Be, B) chuyn t mt kim loi mnh (Li) sang mt phi kim. Nhng
chu k 4, t K u chu k n Ga (qua 11 nguyn t) vn l mt kim loi.
BNG 1.4. BN KNH NGUYN T CA MT S NGUYN T ()
IA

IIA

IIIA

IVA

VA

VIA

VIIA

VIIIA

He

0,37

1,22

Li

Be

Ne

1,52

1,13

0,88

0,77

0,70

0,66

0,64

1,60

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Ar

1,86

1,60

1,43

1,17

1,70

1,04

0,99

1,91

Ca

Ga

Ge

As

Se

Br

Kr

2,31

1,97

1,22

1,22

1,21

1,17

1,14

2,01

26

Rb

Sr

In

Sn

Sb

Te

Xe

2,44

2,15

1,62

1,40

1,41

1,37

1,33

2,20

Cs

Ba

Tl

Pb

Bi

Po

At

Rn

2,62

1,17

1,71

1,75

1,46

1,40

1,40

Fr

Ra

2,70

2,20

7.4.2. Bin thin tnh cht trong mt phn nhm chnh

Trong mt phn nhm chnh, theo chiu t trn xung di, tnh kh tng dn v tnh oxy
ho gim dn. l v, i t trn xung, bn knh nguyn t tng dn (tng s lp electron), in
tch ht nhn cng tng, nhng bn knh tng nhiu, nh hng ln n lc ht gia ht nhn v
electron ngoi cng.
7.4.3. Bin thin tnh cht trong mt phn nhm ph
Tnh cht ho hc ca cc nguyn t gia cc phn nhm chnh rt khc nhau. T kim loi
in hnh n phi kim, kh him. Cn cc nguyn t thuc phn nhm ph d cho c tnh cht
khc nhau cng u l kim loi. iu cho thy s bin thin tnh cht cc nguyn t thuc
phn nhm ny (nguyn t d v f) l rt chm chp.
Cc nguyn t d thuc cng mt phn nhm ph c phn lp d st lp ngoi cng v lp
ngoi cng ging nhau. Chng ch khc nhau v bn knh nguyn t v in tch ht nhn. Theo
chiu t trn xung, in tch ht nhn tng nhiu nhng bn knh nguyn t tng khng ng
k, dn n tng lc ht ca ht nhn i vi electron lp ngoi cng. Do tnh kim loi
gim.
V d:
Phn nhm IB
Cu
Ag
Au

Phn nhm IIB

Zn
Cd
Hg

Trong nhm IB Cu l kim loi tng i hot ng nhng Au l kim loi tr.
Trong nhm IIB cng tng t: Zn c tnh kh mnh, Hg c tnh kh yu, ng sau H trong
dy hot ng ca kim loi.
BNG 1.5. CU HNH ELECTRON LP NGOI CNG CA CC NGUYN T NHM A
IA

IIA

IIIA

IVA

VA

VIA

VIIA

VIIIA

He

1s1

1s2

27

Li

Be

Ne

2s1

2s2

2s22p1

2s22p2

2s22p3

2s22p4

2s22p5

2s22p6

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Ar

3s1

3s2

3s23p1

3s23p2

3s23p3

3s23p4

3s23p5

3s23p6

Ca

Ga

Ge

As

Se

Br

Kr

4s1

4s2

4s24p1

4s24p2

4s24p3

4s24p4

4s24p5

4s24p6

Rb

Sr

In

Sn

Sb

Te

Xe

5s1

5s2

5s25p1

5s25p2

5s25p3

5s25p4

5s25p5

5s25p6

Cs

Ba

Tl

Pb

Bi

Po

At

Rn

6s

6s

Fr

Ra

7s1

7s2

6s 6p

6s 6p

6s 6p

6s 6p

6s 6p

6s 6p

BNG 1.6. CU HNH ELECTRON LP NGOI V ST NGOI

CA CC NGUYN T NHM B
IB

IIB

IIIB

IVB

VB

VIB

VIIB

VIIIB

Cu

Zn

Sc

Ti

Cr

Mn

Fe

Co

Ni

3d104s1

3d104s2

3d14s2

3d24s2

3d34s2

3d54s1

3d54s2

3d64s2

3d74s2

3d84s2

Ag

Cd

Zr

Nb

Mo

Tc

Ru

Rh

Pd

4d105s1

4d105s2

4d15s2

4d25s2

4d45s1

4d55s1

4d65s1

4d75s1

4d85s1

4d105s0

Au

Hg

La

Hf

Ta

Re

Os

Ir

Pt

5d106s1

5d106s2

5d16s2

5d26s2

5d36s2

5d46s2

5d56s2

5d66s2

5d76s2

5d96s1

Ac
6d17s2

Ch : c mt s bt thng cc nguyn t: Nb, Tc, W, Pd v Ru, Rh.

CU HI T LNG GI
1.1. Pht biu hai nh ca Bohr. Hy nu nhng u im v hn ch ca
thuyt Bohr v cu to nguyn t.
1.2. Ni dung v biu thc ca nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg. p dng biu thc
Heisenberg hy tnh Dx hoc Dv trong cc trng hp sau v cho nhn xt:
Qu bng bn bay, bit m = 10g, x = 0,01mm.
28

Electron trong nguyn t, bit v = 106 m/s.

1.3. Ni dung ca thuyt sng vt cht v h thc De broglie. Tnh bc sng l
ca sng lin kt vi:
Chuyn ng ca mt t, khi lng m = 1tn, tc v = 100 km/h.
Chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t vi tc v = 106 m/s
Cho nhn xt.
1.4. Ti sao ngi ta ni phng trnh Schrodinger l phng trnh c bn ca c
hc lng t? Hy cho bit khi nim v hm sng v ngha vt l ca 2.
1.5. Vit phng trnh Schrodinger i vi nguyn t hydro. Gii thch cc k t
trong phng trnh. Orbital nguyn t l g?
1.6. Vit biu thc ton hc ca hm sng m t trng thi c bn ca electron
trong nguyn t hydro.
T hm suy ra s phn b mt xc sut c mt ca electron nh th no?
Th no l my electron?
1.7. Hy vit nhng biu thc tnh nng lng, momen ng lng, hnh chiu
ca momen ng lng (trn mt phng xc nh) ca electron trong nguyn t
hydro v cho bit ngha ca cc s lng t.
1.8. Tnh nng lng m nguyn t hydro hp th khi electron chuyn t trng
thi c n = 1 ln trng thi c n = 2.
1.9. Cho cc hm s c k hiu nh sau: n,l,m; Rn,l; Yl,m. Mi hm ny ph thuc
vo nhng bin s no? ngha ca mi hm s ny.
1.10. Cc obital ton phn ca nguyn t (
) c c trng bng 4 s
lng t. Hy cho bit cc gi tr c th c ca cc s lng t . T tnh s
phn lp trong mt lp, s AO, s electron trong mt phn lp, trong mt lp.
1.11. Hy cho bit hnh dng ca cc m my electron 2s; 2px; 3dxz;
v ch
r c im ca cc m my . S khc nhau gia cc m my 1s v 2s; 2px
v 2py, 2pz.
1.12. Cho cc orbital nguyn t: 1s; 2s; 2px; 2py; 2pz. Hy vit cc k hiu AO
tng ng vi cc s lng t n,l,m.
1.13. Xt cc AO sau y trong nguyn t hydro: 1,0,0; 2,1,1; 3,2,0 (cc orbital
c c trng bng 3 s lng t n, l, m gi l cc orbital khng gian). Hy v
hnh dng cc AO .
1.14. Quy tc Kleskovxky v gin cc phn mc nng lng i vi nguyn t
nhiu electron. Gin ny c ngha nh th no?
29

1.15. Hy cho bit ni dung ca nguyn l vng bn v ngha ca nguyn l

ny.
1.16. Pht biu nguyn l Pauli v nu ngha ca nguyn l ny.
1.17. Gii thch ti sao mi b 4 s lng t di y khng th l b 4 s lng
t ca mt electron trong mt nguyn t no :

1.18. Hy lp bng cc gi tr 4 s lng t cho tng electron trng thi bnh

thng ca nguyn t nit.
1.19. Pht biu quy tc Hund v nu ngha ca quy tc ny.
1.20. Vit cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t c s th t z = 28; 36; 37; 42; 47;
53; 56; 80. Hy cho bit v tr ca nguyn t trong BTH v tnh cht ho hc c
trng.
1.21. Gii thch v sao
O

(z = 8) c ho tr 2 cn S (z = 16) li c cc ho tr 2, 4, 6.

(z = 7) c ho tr 3 cn P (z = 15) li c cc ho tr 3, 5

(z = 9) c ho tr 1 cn Cl (z = 17) li c cc ho tr 1, 3, 5, 7.

1.22. Vit cu hnh electron ca cc ion: Cu+, Cu2+; Fe2+, Fe3+; Mn2+, Mn7+.
1.23. Vit cu hnh electron ca Ar. Nhng cation, anion no c cu hnh electron
ging Ar?
1.24. Trn c s cu trc nguyn t c th phn cc nguyn t ho hc thnh my
loi (khi)? Hy nu c im cu to electron ca mi loi (khi).
1.25. Pht biu nh lut tun hon cc nguyn t ho hc. Trnh by nhng nguyn
tc sp xp cc nguyn t trong BTH.
1.26. Nu c im cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t nhm IA v tnh cht ho
hc c trng ca chng.
1.27. Nu c im cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t nhm VIIA v tnh cht
ho hc c trng ca chng.
30

1.28. So snh cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t nhm IA v IB; IIA v IIB; IB v

IIB.
1.29. Hy gii thch s bin thin tun hon tnh cht ca cc nguyn t theo chiu
tng in tch ht nhn (ly chu k 2 v chu k 3 lm v d).
1.30. Hy so snh s bin thin tnh cht ca cc nguyn t trong chu k nh v chu
k ln (ly chu k 3 v chu k 4 lm v d).
1.31. Hy so snh v gii thch s bin thin tnh cht ca cc nguyn t trong mt
nhm A v nhm B (ly nhm IIA v IIB lm v d).
1.32. Radi (Ra) z = 88 l nguyn t kim loi kim th. Hy cho bit nguyn t kim
loi kim th tip theo s c s th t bao nhiu?
1.33. S nghin cu hin nay hng v iu ch cc nguyn t c s th t 112 v
118. Hy cho bit chng thuc loi nguyn t g (s, p, d,...)?

Bi 2

LIN KT HO HC V CU TO PHN T
MC TIU
1. nh ngha v nu c mi quan h gia cc i lng c trng ca lin kt.
2. Nu c bn cht v cho v d cc thuyt c in v lin kt.
3. Trnh by c nhng lun im c bn ca thuyt lin kt ho tr (VB).
4. Nu c nhng c im ca cc kiu lai ho v biu din c cu trc khng gian
ca mt s phn t in hnh.
5. Trnh by c nhng lun im c bn ca thuyt orbital phn t (MO) v vit c
cu hnh electron ca mt s phn t v ion.
M U

Tr mt s kh him, cc nguyn t khng tn ti c lp m chng thng lin kt vi

nhau to nn cc phn t. Vy cc phn t c hnh thnh nh th no? Bn cht ca
cc lin kt l g?

Nm 1913 thuyt cu to nguyn t ca Bohr ra i th ch ba nm sau (1916) xut

hin nhng l thuyt u tin v lin kt.

Nm 1926 cc thuyt c hc lng t mi v lin kt ra i.

1. MT S I LNG C LIN QUAN N LIN KT

1.1. m in ca nguyn t
31

 m in l i lng cho bit kh nng nguyn t ca mt nguyn t ht electron lin kt

v pha n. cng ln th nguyn t cng d thu electron

IA: Nng lng ion ho (cn gi l th ion ho) l nng lng cn tch mt electron ra
khi nguyn t A. I cng ln th nguyn t cng kh nhng electron.
EA: i lc electron, l nng lng to ra khi nguyn t A nhn c mt electron. E cng
ln th nguyn t cng d thu electron.
Ngi ta cn phn bit: th ion ho th nht, th hai hay i lc electron th nht, th hai
tng ng vi vic tch (hay nhn) electron th nht, th hai. I v E thng c tnh bng n
v eV.
Trong phn ng: A + B AB
Nu B A th electron lin kt s lch hoc di chuyn v pha nguyn t B.
hnh thnh lin kt gia A v B c hai kh nng:

Kh nng xy ra l kh nng no to ra nng lng ln hn

Kh nng th nht xy ra nu EB IA > EA IB
T EB + IB > EA+ IB
Tc l B > A

Ngi ta quy c ly m in ca Li l 1 th cc nguyn t khc s c m in tng

i nh sau theo thang m in ca Pauling.
BNG 2.1. M IN CA NGUYN T MT S NGUYN T
IA

IIA

IIIA

IVA

VA

VIA

VIIA

H
2,1

32

Li

Be

1,0

1,5

2,0

2,5

3,0

3,5

4,0

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

0,9

1,2

1,5

1,8

2,1

2,5

3,0

Ca

Ga

Ge

As

Se

Br

0,8

1,0

1,6

1,8

2,0

2,4

2,8

Rb

Sr

In

Sn

Sb

Te

0,8

1,0

1,7

1,8

1,9

2,1

2,5

Cs

Ba

Tl

Pb

Bi

Po

At

0,7

0,9

1,8

1,9

1,9

2,0

2,2

Fr

Ra

0,7

0,9

Nhn xt:
Trong mt chu k, t tri sang phi m in ca cc nguyn t tng dn.
Trong mt nhm A, t trn xung di m in gim dn.
Cc nguyn t kim loi kim c 1, Fr c nh nht.
Cc nguyn t phi kim c 2, F c ln nht.
1.2. Nng lng lin kt
Nng lng ca mt lin kt l nng lng cn thit ph v mi lin kt v to ra cc
nguyn t th kh. Nng lng lin kt thng k hiu E v tnh bng Kcalo cho mt mol lin
kt.
V d: nng lng ca lin kt H H trong phn t H2; EHH = 104 Kcal/mol.
Nng lng lin kt cng ln th lin kt cng bn.
i vi cc phn t c s lin kt ging nhau nhiu hn 2 ngi ta dng i lng nng
lng trung bnh ca lin kt.
V d:
Trong phn t H2O c 2 lin kt O H
EOH th nht bng 118 Kcal/mol
EOH th hai bng 102 Kcal/mol. V vy EOH trung bnh bng 110 Kcal/mol.
33

Tng t nh vy, gi tr ECH trong CH4 l trung bnh cng nng lng ca 4 lin kt CH.
1.3. di lin kt
di lin kt l khong cch gia hai nhn nguyn t khi hnh thnh lin kt. di
lin kt thng k hiu r0 v c tnh bng (1 = 108cm).
di lin kt cng nh th lin kt cng bn vng.
BNG 2.2. DI LIN KT V NNG LNG LIN KT CA MT S LIN KT
Lin kt

Phn t

r0 ()

E (Kcal/mol)

C Cl

CHCl3

1,77

75,8

CF

CH3F

1,38

116,3

CC

CnH2n + 2

1,54

79,3

C=C

CnH2n

1,34

140,5

CC

CnH2n 2

1,20

196,7

HH

H2

0,74

104,0

O=O

O2

1,21

118,2

OH

H2O

0,96

109,4

SH

H2S

1,35

96,8

NH

NH3

1,01

92,0

Nhn xt:
cc lin kt cng loi (v d Cl C v F C; O H v S H) khi E cng ln th r0 cng
nh.
1.4. bi ca lin kt
S lin kt c hnh thnh gia hai nguyn t cho trc c gi l bi ca lin kt. V
d bi ca lin kt gia cc nguyn t C trong ethan, ethylen, acetylen ln lt l 1, 2, 3.
bi ca lin kt cng ln th lin kt cng bn, nng lng lin kt cng ln v di lin kt
cng nh (bng 2.2).
1.5. Gc lin kt (gc ho tr)
Gc to bi hai mi lin kt gia mt nguyn t vi hai nguyn t khc.

34

Trong cc gc lin kt th gc 109028 (gc t din) nh phn t CH4 l gc bn vng

nht. V vy trong qu trnh hnh thnh phn t, cc nguyn t c xu hng to c cc gc
lin kt gn vi gc 1090 28.
Nhng hp cht c gc lin kt 600 hay 900 nh cyclopropan, cyclobutan thng khng bn,
d b v vng, cn cyclohexan thng tn ti hai dng: dng thuyn v dng gh l dng c
cc gc lin kt gn vi gc 109028 hn.

1.6. phn cc ca lin kt. Momen lng cc

Trong nhng lin kt gia hai nguyn t khc nhau, do c s chnh lch v m in,
electron lin kt b lch v pha nguyn t c in m ln hn, to ra y mt in tch m
no vi mt t l % in tch nguyn t (thng k hiu ) cn nguyn t kia mang mt
in tch dng. Khi ngi ta ni lin kt b phn cc.

phn cc ca lin kt c nh gi qua momen lng cc (muy). Momen lng cc

l mt i lng vect v c gi tr:
= q. l
vi

q = e (e l in tch nguyn t v l t l %, < 1)

q: in tch ca mi cc (culong)
l: di lin kt (mt).
: i lng vect, hng t nguyn t c nh sang nguyn t c ln

c tnh bng culong.mt (C.m thuc h n v SI). Ngi ta cn hay s dng

mt n v khc gi l bai (D). 1D = 3,3.1030 Cm.

35

Trong thc t momen lng cc v di lin kt c xc nh bng thc nghim. T

c th tnh c gi tr in tch q ca cc v phn trm in tch .
V d:
Lin kt HCl c gi tr = 1,07 D hay 3,56.1030 Cm v di lin kt l = 1,28 hay
1,28.1010 m. T tnh c q v :

i lng cn c gi l ion (% lin kt ion) ca lin kt cng HCl.

Trong mt phn t phn cc ca mt lin kt cn ph thuc vo s phn cc ca cc lin
kt khc.
V d:

Lin kt H O trong HNO3 b phn cc mnh hn so vi HNO2 l do nh hng ca lin

kt N O th ba trong phn t ny.
BNG 2.3. GI TR MMEN LNG CC CA MT S LIN KT
Lin kt

HF

H Cl

H Br

HI

N=O

C=O

(D)

1,91

1,07

0,79

0,38

0,16

0,11

2. NHNG THUYT KINH IN V LIN KT

Nm 1913 thuyt cu to nguyn t ca Bohr ra i th ba nm sau (1916) xut hin
nhng thuyt u tin v lin kt ho hc. l thuyt lin kt cng ho tr v lin kt ion.
Nhng thuyt kinh in ny u da trn quy tc bt t (octet). Xut pht t nhn xt sau
y:
Tt c cc kh him (tr Heli) u c 8 electron lp ngoi cng.
Chng rt t hot ng ho hc: khng lin kt vi nhau v hu nh khng lin kt vi
nhng nguyn t khc to thnh phn t, tn ti trong t nhin di dng nguyn t t do.
V vy, cu trc 8 electron lp ngoi cng l mt cu trc c bit bn vng. Do khi hnh
thnh phn t, cc nguyn t c xu hng lin kt vi nhau t c cu trc electron bn
vng ca cc kh him vi 8 (hoc 2 i vi heli) electron lp ngoi cng.
36

2.1. Lin kt ion. Kossen (Ctxen c) 1916

Lin kt ion c hnh thnh gia nhng nguyn t ca hai nguyn t c s chnh lch
nhiu v m in (thng 2).
Nguyn t ca nguyn t c nh nhng hn 1, 2 hay 3 electron cho nguyn t ca nguyn
t c ln khi to thnh cc ion dng v nguyn t nhn electron to thnh cc ion m c
cu trc electron ging kh him. Cc ion dng v ion m ht nhau to thnh phn t.
V d:

Na

Cl

2s2 2p6 3s1

3s2 3p5

Na+
2s2 2p6

Cl

NaCl

3s2 3p6

Nh vy bn cht ca lin kt ion l lc ht tnh in gia cc ion tri du.

Trong lin kt ion, ho tr ca nguyn t bng s in tch ca ion vi du tng ng. Trong
v d trn Na c ho tr +1, Cl c ho tr 1.
Lin kt ion l lin kt bn, nng lng lin kt kh ln ( 100Kcal/mol)
Lc ht tnh in gia cc ion khng nh hng, mt ion dng c tc dng ht nhiu ion
m v ngc li v vy ngi ta ni lin kt ion khng c nh hng v khng bo ho. Nhng
hp cht ion thng dng tinh th bn vng.
2.2. Lin kt cng ho tr Lewis (Liuyt M) 1916
Thuyt lin kt ion khng gii thch c s hnh thnh phn t v d H2, O2 ( = 0) hay
HCl, H2O ( nh).
Lin kt cng ho tr c hnh thnh gia cc nguyn t ca cng mt nguyn t ( = 0)
hay gia nguyn t ca cc nguyn t c s chnh lch nh v in m (thng 2).
Trong lin kt cng ho tr, cc nguyn t b ra 1, 2, 3 hay 4 electron dng chung mi
nguyn t t c cu trc 8 electron (hoc 2e trong trng hp hydro).
V d:
H.
::

.H
::

H: H

HH

H2

::::

O=O

O2

: :

: C:

: :

NN
::: C:::

O=C=O

N2
CO2

Cc electron gp chung c gi l cc electron lin kt, mt cp electron gp chung to ra

mt lin kt v cng c biu din bng mt gch.

37

Trong hp cht cng ho tr, ho tr ca nguyn t bng s lin kt hnh thnh gia mt
nguyn t ca nguyn t vi cc nguyn t khc hoc bng s electron m nguyn t a ra
gp chung.
V d:
Trong phn t CO2 ho tr ca O l 2 ca C l 4, trong phn t NH3 ho tr ca N l 3 ca H
l 1.
Ngi ta phn bit hai loi lin kt cng ho tr:
Lin kt cng ho tr khng phn cc hay lin kt cng ho tr thun tu. V d lin kt
trong cc phn t H2, O2, N2... ( = 0), lin kt C H trong cc hp cht hu c. Trong cp
electron lin kt phn b u gia hai nguyn t.
Lin kt cng ho tr phn cc. V d lin kt trong phn t HCl, HF lin kt O H trong
phn t H2O, N H trong NH3... Trong cp electron lin kt b lch v pha nguyn t c
m in ln hn.
H : Cl

H: F

H: O: H

H: N: H

Nh vy mc phn cc ca lin kt ph thuc vo m c th bin thin t 0 n

3,2. Do c th coi lin kt cng ho tr thun tu v lin kt ion l hai trng hp gii hn ca
lin kt cng ho tr phn cc. Da vo c th nh gi gn ng mc ion ca mt lin kt
gia hai nguyn t.
Cl Cl
cng thun tu

Na+ Cl
ion

H Cl
cng phn cc

BNG 2.4. PHN TRM C TNH CA CC LIN KT

05

1,0

1,5

1,7

1,8

2,0

2,5

3,0

3,2

c tnh lin
kt ion %

22

43

50

55

63

79

89

92

c tnh lin
kt cng ht %

100

94

78

47

50

45

37

21

11

Qua bng trn ta nhn thy khi = 0 lin kt mang 100% c tnh cng (lin kt cng
thun tu), trong khi khng c lin kt ho hc no mang 100% c tnh ion.
Lin kt cng tng i bn. Nng lng lin kt c hng chc Kcal/mol.
2.3. Lin kt cho nhn
Lin kt cho nhn cn gi l lin kt phi c th xem l mt dng c bit ca lin kt cng.
Trong lin kt ny cp electron dng chung ch do mt nguyn t a ra gi l cht cho, cn
nguyn t kia c mt orbital trng gi l cht nhn.

38

V d:

Nh vy iu kin hnh thnh lin kt cho nhn l cht cho phi c t nht mt i
electron cha lin kt v cht nhn phi c orbital trng.
Ngi ta thng dng du mi tn ch lin kt cho nhn. Tuy nhin trong thc t cc lin
kt ny hon ton ging lin kt cng ho tr thng thng.
2.4. Lin kt hydro
Lin kt hydro c hnh thnh nhng hp cht trong hydro lin kt vi nguyn t ca
nguyn t khc c m in ln v bn knh nh nh N, O, F. Cc lin kt ny b phn cc v
trn nguyn t H c mt phn in tch dng. Trong khi cc nguyn t N, O, F mang mt
phn in m v do ngoi lin kt cng ho tr n cn c th tng tc vi cc nguyn t H
ca phn t bn cnh hnh thnh mt lin kt yu gi l lin kt hydro. Cc lin kt ny thng
c biu din bng nhng du chm.
V d:
Lin kt hydro gia cc phn t.

V d:
Lin kt hydro ni phn t: lin kt hnh thnh trong cng mt phn t.

Lin kt hydro l lin kt yu, nng lng lin kt nh v di lin kt ln. Tuy nhin n
c nh hng nhiu n tnh cht vt l v ho hc ca phn t.
V d:
H2O c nhit si cao hn nhiu so vi phn t tng t vi n H2S.
Cc phn t hu c mang nhm O H c nhit si cao hn cc ng phn ca chng
khng cha lin kt ny: alcol so vi ether; acid so vi ester...
39

 Alcol tan v hn trong nc l do to c lin kt hydro vi nc.

Lin kt hydro to ra gia cc nhm C = O v NH ca amin acid trong cc chui
polypeptid duy tr c cu trc khng gian ca phn t protein.
Lin kt hydro gia cc cp base b sung (A:::: T v G:::: X) trong cc phn t ADN lm
cho ADN ng vai tr m di truyn.
Tm li khi da trn thuyt cu to nguyn t ca Bohr v quy tc bt t, cc thuyt kinh
in v lin kt cho php m t v phn loi mt cch n gin lin kt ho hc, t gii
thch c mt s tnh cht ca phn t. Tuy nhin cc thuyt ny c mt s hn ch sau y:
Nhiu hp cht hay ion khng t c cu trc 8 electron lp ngoi nhng vn tn ti
mt cch bn vng, v d: NO, NO2, BH3, Fe2+...
Cha ni c bn cht ca lc lin kt gia cc nguyn t trong phn t l g.
Khng cho bit cu trc khng gian ca cc phn t.
Khng gii thch c mt s trng hp, v d nh ti sao di cc lin kt ca phn t
benzen li bng nhau trong khi n c biu din bng cc lin kt i v n xen k nhau.
Phn t l nhng h ht vi m, v vy l thuyt v lin kt v cu to phn t phi c xy
dng trn c s ca c hc lng t (CHLT).
Nm 1927 ra i hai thuyt CHLT v lin kt b sung cho nhau nhng s dng nhng
phng php tnh gn ng khc nhau.
3. THUYT LIN KT HO TR
(vit tt l VB valence bond) hay cn gi l thuyt cp electron lin kt do Heiler, London
(Haile, Lnn c) xng nm 1927, tip theo l Pauling, Sleiter (Polinh, Slyt M)
pht trin.
3.1. S hnh thnh lin kt trong phn t H2
Thuyt VB c ra da trn c s nghin cu s hnh thnh lin kt trong phn t H2.
Lun im ch yu ca thuyt ny l khi to lin kt ho hc cc nguyn t vn gi nguyn
cu trc m ch tng tc vi nhau theo tng cp electron.
Mi nguyn t H c mt electron trng thi c bn 1s. Khi hai nguyn t H tin li gn
nhau s c hai kh nng xy ra:
Nu hai electron c s lng t spin cng du, khi khong cch r gim nng lng ca h
tng lin tc, l trng thi khng bn, khng to ra lin kt ho hc.
Nu hai electron c s lng t spin ngc du nhau, nng lng ca h gim dn, v ti
khong cch r0 = 0,74 c gi tr cc tiu tng ng vi nng lng ES E0 khi h trng
thi bn vng, trng thi hnh thnh lin kt (hnh 2.1a).

40

Hnh 2.1a, b. Trng thi nng lng ca h 2 nguyn t H (a) v s hnh thnh phn t H2

Nu lu rng mi orbital s (m my s) c bn knh 0,53 th khi tip xc nhau khong

cch gia hai ht nhn phi l 1,06. Trong khi khong cch khi hnh thnh lin kt ch cn
0,74. iu chng t khi hnh thnh lin kt, hai orbital s xen ph vo nhau, lm tng xc
sut c mt electron vng gia hai ht nhn, mt in tch m tng ln gy ra s ht hai ht
nhn v lin kt chng vi nhau. (Hnh 2.1b)
Nh vy lc lin kt ho hc cng c bn cht tnh in.
3.2. Nhng lun im c bn ca thuyt VB
T nghin cu ca Heiler v London v phn t H2, Pauling v Sleiter pht trin thnh
thuyt lin kt ho tr.
Lin kt cng ho tr c hnh thnh do s ghp i hai electron c thn c spin ngc
du ca hai nguyn t lin kt, khi c s xen ph hai AO.
Mc xen ph ca cc AO cng ln th lin kt cng bn, lin kt c thc hin theo
phng ti s xen ph l ln nht.
Trong thuyt VB ho tr ca nguyn t bng s e c thn ca nguyn t trng thi c bn
hay trng thi kch thch.
V d:

Ho tr cc i ca mt nguyn t bng tng s AO ho tr (AO lp ngoi cng). V d cc

nguyn t thuc chu k 2 c 4 AO lp ngoi cng 2s v 2p3 nn c th c ti a ho tr 4

3.3. S nh hng lin kt. Lin kt (xch ma) v lin kt (pi)

41

Tu theo cch thc xen ph ca cc AO, ngi ta phn bit: lin kt , lin kt , lin kt
(enta).
Lin kt ho hc to ra do s xen ph cc AO trn trc ni hai nhn ca nguyn t c
gi l lin kt xch ma. Lin kt c th hnh thnh do s xen ph cc m my s s, s p hay
p p (hnh 2.2) hoc gia cc m my lai ho L L; L s; L p (xem phn 4.6)

Hnh 2.2. S xen ph cc orbital khi hnh thnh cc lin kt v

Nh vy khi to ra lin kt th t c s xen ph ln nht v vy lin kt xch ma l lin

kt bn. Nu gia hai nguyn t ch c mt lin kt th lin kt lun lun l lin kt .
Lin kt ho hc to ra do s xen ph cc AO hai bn ca trc ni hai nhn nguyn t
c gi l lin kt pi. Lin kt c th hnh thnh do s xen ph cc m my p p, p d hay
d d (hnh 2.2).
So vi lin kt th lin kt bn hn v mc xen ph ln hn v vng xen ph nm trn
trc ni hai nhn nguyn t.
Khi gia hai nguyn t c t hai lin kt tr ln th ch c mt lin kt cn li l cc lin
kt .
V d:
Trong phn t H2 c 1 lin kt do s xen ph 2AO s.
Phn t Cl2 c 1 lin kt do s xen ph 2 AO p.
Phn t O2 c 1 lin kt do s xen ph 2AO pxpx v 1 lin kt do s xen ph 2AO py
py ca 2 nguyn t oxy.
Tng t phn t N2 c 1 lin kt v 2 lin kt .
Trong cc trng hp trn lin kt hnh thnh do s xen ph cc AO thun khit ss hay p
p.
4. S LAI HO CC AO TRONG LIN KT
42

+ Khi nim lai ho c Pauling a ra trong khun kh thuyt VB.

Ta hy xt s hnh thnh phn t CH4

Nu khi hnh thnh phn t CH4 nguyn t C* s dng 4 AO (1 my s v 3 my p) xen ph

vi 4 my s ca 4 nguyn t H (mt lin kt hnh thnh do s xen ph ss v 3 lin kt do s xen
ph ps). Nh vy l ra cc lin kt phi khc nhau (v d bn, gc lin kt) nhng trong
thc t chng li hon ton ging nhau. iu ny c Pauling gii thch bng s lai ho cc
AO.
Khi lin kt cc nguyn t c th khng s dng cc orbital (cc m my) s, p, d thun m
chng c th trn ln (hay cn gi l t hp) vi nhau to thnh nhng orbital mi hon ton
ging nhau (gi l cc AO lai hay cc m my lai L).
Nh vy:
Lai ho l s t hp cc AO khc loi to ra cc AO hon ton ging nhau v hnh dng,
kch thch v nng lng nhng c hng khc nhau.
Khi c n AO tham gia lai ho s to ra n AO lai ho. c s lai ho, cc AO phi c nng
lng khc nhau khng ln. V d: 2s 2p; 3s3p3d...
Cc m my lai b dch chuyn so vi ht nhn nguyn t, mt u phnh to ra (u +) v
do vy n s xen ph hon ton hn vi cc m my tng tc, to c cc lin kt ho hc
bn vng

+ Di y l mt s kiu lai ho v nhng c im ca cc AO lai:

4.1. Lai ho sp
S t hp mt AO s vi mt AO p to ra 2 AO lai ho c hnh dng, kch thc v nng
lng hon ton ging nhau nhng hng theo 2 hng trong khng gian, trc ca 2AO ny to
ra gc 1800. V d s lai ho cc AO trong nguyn t Be khi hnh thnh phn t BeH2

43

Hnh 2.3. Lai ho sp v s to thnh phn t BeH2

4.2. Lai ho sp2

S t hp mt AO s vi hai AO p to ra 3 AO lai ho c hnh dng, kch thc v nng
lng hon ton ging nhau nhng hng theo 3 nh ca mt tam gic u, trc ca 3AO ny
to ra gc 1200. V d s lai ho cc AO trong nguyn t B khi hnh thnh phn t BH3.

Hnh 2.4. Lai ho sp2 v s to thnh phn t BH3

4.3. Lai ho sp3

S t hp mt AO s vi ba AO p to ra 4 AO lai ho c hnh dng, kch thc v nng lng
hon ton ging nhau nhng hng theo 4 nh ca mt t din u, trc ca cc AO ny to ra
gc 109o28. V d, s lai ho cc AO trong nguyn t C khi hnh thnh phn t CH4.

44

Hnh 2.5. Lai ho sp3 v s to thnh phn t CH4

Ngoi cc kiu lai ho trn, cc nguyn t t chu k 3 tr i, cn c orbital d cng c th

tham gia lai ho nh dsp2; dsp3; d2sp3 ln lt to ra 4, 5, 6 m my lai ho s c ni n
phn 3.7.
xc nh kiu lai ho, ngi ta thng s dng quy tc sau y:
S lng orbital lai ho ca mt nguyn t trong phn t bng tng s lin kt xch ma m
n to vi cc nguyn t xung quanh v s cp electron ho tr cha tham gia lin kt. V d:
CH4
C2H2

C c lai ho sp3
C .. sp

(4+0)
(2+0)

NH3

N c lai ho sp3

(3+1)

H 2O

O ....sp3

(2+2)

SO2

S.sp2

(2+1)

4.4. Hnh hc phn t ca mt s hp cht

H3C CH3
ethan

Hnh 2.6. S xen ph cc orbital v hnh hc phn t ca ethan

Mi C c lai ho sp3 to ra 4 orbital lai ho.

Mt orbital lai ho to ra lin kt gia 2 nguyn t C. Cc orbital lai ho cn li to ra 3
lin kt vi H. Phn t c 7 lin kt .
Phn t c dng hnh hc 2 chp t din (hnh 2.6)
45

H2C=CH2
ethylen

Hnh 2.7. S xen ph cc orbital v hnh hc phn t ca ethylen

Mi nguyn t C c lai ho sp2 to ra 3 orbital lai.

Mt orbital lai ho to lin kt gia 2 C v 2 lin kt gia C v H.
AO p thun xen ph bn to 1 lin kt . Phn t c dng hnh hc 2 nh tam gic (hnh
2.7).
HC=CH
acetylen

Hnh 2.8. S xen ph cc orbital v hnh hc phn t ca acetylen

Mi nguyn t C c lai ho sp.

2 orbital lai ho to 1 lin kt gia 2C v 2 lin kt gia C v H.
4 AO p thun xen ph bn tng i mt to 2 lin kt . Phn t c dng hnh hc thng
(hnh 2.8).
CH4
methan

Hnh 2.9. S xen ph cc orbital v hnh hc phn t ca methan

C c lai ho sp3. 4 orbital lai ho xen ph vi 4 AO s ca H to 4 lin kt . Hnh hc phn

t c dng t din u. Gc lin kt 109o28.
NH3
46

amoniac

Hnh 2.10. S xen ph cc orbital v hnh hc phn t ca amoniac

N c lai ho sp3. 3 orbital lai ho xen ph vi 3AO s ca H to 3 lin kt . Hnh hc phn

t c dng chp. Gc lin kt l 107o18.
H2O
Nc

O c lai ho sp3. 2 orbital lai ho xen ph vi 2AO s ca H to 2 lin kt . Hnh hc phn

t c dng gc. Gc lin kt l 104o30.
BNG 2.5. KIU LAI HO CA NGUYN T TRUNG TM
V HNH HC CA MT S PHN T
S
lin kt
2

S cp e
cha lin kt
0

Kiu lai ho

Hnh hc phn t

V d
BeH2; CO2; CN

sp
ng thng

sp2

SO3; CO32

Tam gic phng

3

sp2

SO2

Gc
4

sp

CH4; NH4 ; SO4

T din

47

sp3

NH3

Chp

sp3

H2O

Gc
5

sp3d

PCl5

Lc din
6

sp3d2

SiF62; [Fe(CN)6]4

Bt din

4.5. Lin kt khng nh c

Phn t benzen c cu trc nh thy hnh 2.12. C 6 nguyn t C u c lai ho sp2. Mi C
to 2 lin kt vi 2 C bn cnh v 1 lin kt vi H. Cc orbital p thun cn li (c trc vung
gc vi mt phng ca cc lin kt ) xen ph vi nhau to ra cc lin kt . Nh vy cc
electron c gii to trn c 6 nguyn t C (hnh 2.12). Ngi ta gi cc lin kt l cc lin
kt khng nh c. Mt cch tng t cng thy cc phn t butadien v allen (hnh 2.13).
Cc lin kt khng nh c c m t bng nhng du chm thay v cho cc gch (hnh 2.14).
C6H6 Benzen

Hnh 2.12. Cc orbital p thun v s hnh thnh lin kt khng nh c

trong phn t benzen

C4H6
butadien allen

48

Hnh 2.13. Cc orbital p thun v s hnh thnh lin kt khng nh c

trong phn t butadien v allen

Hnh 2.14. Biu din cc lin kt khng nh c

trong phn t butadien, allen v benzen

4.6. Lin kt trong phc theo thuyt lin kt ho tr v cu trc khng gian ca ion phc
Theo thuyt ny s hnh thnh phc c thc hin nh tng tc cho nhn cc cp electron
cha chia x ca cc phi t v cc orbital cn trng ca ion to phc.
Nh vy: ion phc gm:
Ht to phc (ion to phc) thng l ion kim loi khi d c cc orbital trng.
Phi t, thng l ion hay phn t cn i electron cha lin kt (NH3, CN, Cl).
V d 1:
S to thnh phc [Cr(NH3)6]3+
Cr

z = 24 c cu hnh electron lp ngoi cng v st ngoi cng 3d54s1

Ion trung tm Cr3+ c cu hnh electron lp ngoi cng v st ngoi cng 3d34s04p0

y c s lai ho d2 s p3 to ra 6 AO lai ho (cn trng electron) hng theo 6 nh ca bt

din v phc c hnh hc phn t dng bt din (hnh 2.15).
S lai ho xy ra gia AO lp trong (3d) v cc AO lp ngoi (4s, 4p) v vy gi l s lai
ho trong. Phc l thun t v c e c thn.

49

Hnh 2.15. Cc orbital lai ho d2 s p3 ca Cr3+ v s to thnh ion phc [Cr(NH3)6]3+

V d 2:
S to thnh phc [Ni(CN)4]2
Ni

z = 28 c cu hnh electron lp ngoi cng v st ngoi cng 3d84s2

ion trung tm Ni+2 c cu hnh electron lp ngoi cng v st ngoi cng 3d84s04p0
V CN l phi t mnh (lin kt mnh vi Ni2+) nn c s dn p 2 electron c thn ca 3d vo
1 lng t.

Hnh 2.16. Cc orbital lai ho d2 s p3 ca Ni2 v s to thnh ion phc [Ni(CN)4]2

y xy ra s lai ho trong d s p2 to ra 4 orbital lai ho nm trn mt mt phng hng

theo 4 nh ca mt hnh vung. Phc c hnh hc phn t dng vung phng (hnh 2.16). Phc
l nghch t v khng c e c thn.
V d 3:
Phc [NiCl4]2
phc ny do Cl l phi t yu nn ch xy ra lai ho cc orbital lp ngoi 4 (4s, 4p) ngha
l

xy ra s lai ho sp3 = AO 4s + 3AO 4p

50

Hnh 2.17. Cc orbital lai ho s p3 ca Ni2+ v s to thnh ion phc [Ni(Cl)4]2

V hnh hc phn t dng t din (hnh 2.17), phc ny c s lai ho ngoi nn km bn hn

phc lai ho trong. Phc thun t v cn electron c thn.
Cc cht c cc electron cha ghp i, b t trng ht gi l cht thun t. Ngc li cc
cht trong cc electron ghp i, b t trng y c gi l cht nghch t.
Thuyt VB cho php hnh dung c cu trc khng gian ca phn t, tuy nhin n khng
gii thch c s hnh thnh mt s phn t, v d: H2+ (1e), He2+ (3e), cng nh tnh thun t
ca mt s phn t nh O2, NO,...
5. THUYT ORBITAL PHN T (VIT TT MO MOLECULAR ORBITAL)
Mulliken, Hund (Maliken, Hun c) 1927
5.1. Lun im c bn ca thuyt MO
Phn t c coi nh mt ht thng nht, trong electron lin kt chuyn ng (tng t
nh nguyn t), trong mt in trng gy ra bi cc ht nhn v cc electron cn li.
Trong phn t trng thi ca electron c m t bng cc MO (tng t nh nguyn
t, trng thi ca electron c m t bng cc AO).
Khi nguyn t i vo lin kt, cc AO ca chng t hp (xen ph) vi nhau to ra cc MO.
C t hp 2AO th c 2MO.
iu kin c s t hp l:
+ Nng lng cc AO phi xp x nhau.
+ Cc AO c s i xng ging nhau so vi trc lin kt.
+ S xen ph phi t c mc r rt.
Trong phn t cc electron c phn b dn vo cc MO , *, , *, , cng theo
mt s quy tc nht nh: nguyn l ngoi tr; nguyn l vng bn v quy tc Hund nh i vi
electron trong nguyn t.
5.2. Khi nim v MO lin kt v MO phn lin kt
tm ra cc MO Muliken v Hund s dng phng php t hp tuyn tnh cc AO (vit
tt l LCAO Linear Combination of Atomic orbitals).
51

V d:
HB+

i vi phn t H2+ cc MO (MO) c t hp t hai AOA v B ca nguyn t HA v ion

MO = C1A + C2B
Kt qu thu c 2 hm (2 orbital phn t MO)

Trong hm t hp MO = C1 A + C2 B
C1 v C2 l nhng h s cho bit s ng gp ca cc AO vo MO.
C12, C22 s l xc sut electron c m t bi A v B. Trong trng hp cc phn t
ng hch (cc nguyn t ca cng mt nguyn t), y l hydro th C1 = C2 v C12 = C22. T
C1 = C2
Nh vy khi t hp 2 AO A v B ta thu c 2 hm:

+ = C1 A + C1 B
= C1 A C1 B
T iu kin chun ho ca hm sng ngi ta xc nh c
T :

Khi trng thi electron trong phn t c m t bng hm + th xc sut c mt electron

(+2) tp trung vng gia hai ht nhn nguyn t, to ra sc ht hai ht nhn vi nhau v lin
kt c hnh thnh. MO c m t bng hm + c gi l MO lin kt (MOlk) (hnh 2.18 a).
Ngc li, i vi hm th xc sut c mt electron chnh gia khong cch hai ht
nhn bng 0 dn n lc y gia hai ht nhn, lin kt khng to thnh. V vy MO c m t
bng hm c gi l MO phn lin kt, thng k hiu MO* (hnh 2.18 b).

52

Hnh 2.18 a, b. Xc sut c mt electron gia hai ht nhn nguyn t H khi hnh thnh (a)
v khi khng hnh thnh lin kt (b)

5.3. Cu hnh electron ca phn t

Cc MO khi t hp cc AOS
V d:
Cc AO1S ca nguyn t H

Hnh 2.19. Cc MO lin kt, phn lin kt v gin nng lng phn t khi t hp 2 AOs

Cc MOlk v MO* c hnh dng i xng qua trc lin kt nh trn c k hiu l cc MO
v * (hnh 2.19).
Nh vy khi t hp hai AOS ta c hai MO: v *. Trong MO lin kt c nng
lng thp hn nng lng ca cc AOS, cn cc MO phn lin kt * li c nng lng cao
hn nng lng cc AOs. Ta c bc thang nng lng cc MO nh: 1S 1S*
V vy trong phn t cc electron c sp xp trc ht vo 1S.
V d:
phn t H2+ (1e) c cu hnh e 1 He2+ (3e) 2 *1
53

H2 (2e)2 He2(4e) 2 *2
Ch : khi t hp hai AO2s ta cng thu c 2S v 2S* nhng c nng lng cao hn,
ngha l
1S 1S* 2S 2S*
Cc MO khi t hp cc AO pz

Hnh 2.20. Cc MO lin kt, phn lin kt v gin nng lng phn t khi t hp 2 AO pz

Trong trng hp ny cc MOlk v MO* cng c dng i xng qua trc v vy c k

hiu l z phn bit vi do cc AO s to nn (hnh 2.20).
Cc MO khi t hp cc AO px hay AO py
Nh vy khi t hp hai AO px thu c hai MO lin kt v phn lin kt, cc MO ny khng
i xng qua trc lin kt v c k hiu x v x* vi nng lng x x* (hnh 2.21). Tng
t nh vy i vi hai AO py thu c y v y* vi x = y x* = y*. T ta vit c cc
MO theo trt t nng lng tng dn nh sau:
(1)
Vi bc thang nng lng ny ta c th vit c cu hnh electron ca cc phn t hai
nguyn t ca cc nguyn t cui chu k 2 nh O, F, Ne.

54

Hnh 2.21. Cc MO lin kt, phn lin kt v gin nng lng phn t khi t hp 2 AO px

i vi cc nguyn t u chu k 2 cc MO c bc thang nng lng sau:

(2)

vit cu hnh electron ca phn t ta phi tnh tng s electron ca phn t ri in vo

thang nng lng tng ng theo nguyn l Pauli (mi MO ti a 2e), nguyn l vng bn (vo
cc MO c nng lng t thp n cao v quy tc Hund) vi cc MO c mc nng lng nh
nhau th phn b sao cho c nhiu electron c thn nht.
V d:
O2

(16e)

N2

(14e)

Lu : n gin ngi ta thng ch vit t cc MO 2s (ch tnh s electron lp ngoi

cng). Khi ta c:
O2
N2
Ne2

(20e)

Cc gin nng lng tng ng ca cc phn t ny cho hnh 2.22a, b.

55

Trong thuyt MO ngi ta cng a vo khi nim bc lin kt ( bi lin kt) . c

tnh theo cng thc:

n: s e trn cc MO lin kt
n*: s e trn cc MO phn lin kt
Theo cng thc trn bi ca O2, N2, Ne2 tng ng bng 2, 3, 0. ca Ne2 bng 0 iu
c ngha l khng tn ti phn t Ne2.
Da vo cu hnh electron ngi ta cng bit c t tnh ca phn t: nu trong cu hnh
electron c electron c thn th phn t l thun t, ngc li l nghch t.

Hnh 2.22. a, b. Gin nng lng ca phn t O2 (a) v N2 (b)

BNG 2.6. CU HNH ELECTRON CA MT S PHN T V PHN T ION
A2
H2

Cu hnh electron

l ()

E(Kcal/mol)

0,74

104,0

56

N2

1,10

225,4

O2

1,21

118,2

F2

1,42

37,1

O2+

2,5

1,12

150,5

Ne2+

0,5

Cu hnh electron v gin nng lng ca phn t hay ion dng AB (B A).
V d:
NO, CO, CN...
Cu hnh electron ca cc phn t loi ny cng thuc dy (2). Nhng gin nng lng
cc AO ca nguyn t B c xp thp hn (hnh 2.23a).
BNG 2.7. CU HNH ELECTRON CA PHN T V ION DNG AB
AB

Cu hnh electron

l ()

E(Kcal/mol)

CO

1,28

255,7

NO

2,5

1,15

162,2

CN

1,14

224,9

Cu hnh electron v gin nng lng ca phn t dng AB (B A)

V d:
Phn t HF
H:

1s1

F:

1s2 2s2 2p5

V nng lng ca cc phn mc 1s v 2s ca F qu thp so vi nng lng 1s ca H nn

trong trng hp ny ch xy ra s t hp AO 1s ca H vi mt AO pZ ca F to ra hai MO:
v *. AO 2s v cc AOpx, py cn li ca F to ra cc MO khng lin kt, thng k hiu
MOklk. Bc thang nng lng ca cc MO nh sau:
vi gin nng lng hnh (2.23b).

tng ng

57

Hnh 2.23 a, b. Gin nng lng ca phn t CO (a) v HF (b)

6. S PHN CC CA PHN T
Mt phn t c gi l phn cc khi trng tm in tch dng khng trng vi trng tm
in tch m. Khong cch gia hai trng tm gi l di lng cc.
Khi phn t ch gm hai nguyn t nu lin kt l phn cc th phn t cng phn cc v
di lng cc chnh l di lin kt. V d, cc phn t HCl, HBr, CO, NO... l cc phn t
phn cc.
i vi nhng phn t gm nhiu nguyn t (t 3 nguyn t tr ln) ch phn cc khi trong
phn t c lin kt phn cc v cc lin kt phn cc khng trit tiu nhau (tng cc vct
mmen lin kt khc 0 hay phn t c cu trc bt i xng). V d: CO2, SO3, CCl4 l cc phn
t khng phn cc v chng c cu trc i xng.

Trong khi cc phn t H2O, SO2, CHCl3 l cc phn t phn cc v c cu trc phn t
bt i xng

58

 nh gi phn cc ca phn t ngi ta cng dng mt i lng gi l momen lng

cc ca phn t, c k hiu

q: in tch ca trng tm
l: chiu di lng cc, y l khong cch gia hai trng tm in tch
p.t cng c tnh bng C.m hay bai
Phn t c hai nguyn t th momen lng cc ca lin kt chnh l momen lng cc ca
phn t.
Phn t c t hai lin kt tr ln th momen lng cc ca phn t bng tng momen lng
cc ca cc lin kt

Momen lng cc ca nhiu phn t c th xc nh c bng con ng thc nghim

hoc tnh ton da vo momen lng cc ca lin kt:
V d i vi phn t 3 nguyn t ABC, gi tr ca momen lng cc phn t c tnh theo
s sau:
= 12 + 22 + 21 2 cos
Phn t CO2 c tng vect momen lin kt = 0 v vy
khng phn cc.
Phn t H2O c tng momen lin kt 2 = 212(1+ cos)
0 ( =104o30 v 1 l momen lng cc ca lin kt O
H). V vy nc l phn t phn cc.
BNG 2.8. MOMEN LNG CC CA MT S PHN T
Phn t

BeCl2

CO2

SO3

H2O

H2S

SO2

NH3

CH3Cl

p.t (D)

1,86

1,02

1,60

1,46

1,86

Momen lng cc l mt thng s c li trong nghin cu cu trc ca phn t.

S phn cc ca phn t c nh hng c bit n mt s tnh cht vt l ca phn t: cc
phn t phn cc d dng tan trong dung mi phn cc v ngc li.
59

CU HI T LNG GI
2.1. nh ngha: nng lng ion ho, i lc electron v m in ca mt
nguyn t. Biu thc tnh m in.
2.2. Nhng i lng c trng ca lin kt v mi lin h gia chng.
2.3. S phn loi cc lin kt da vo m in. Cho cc v d v nu cc iu
kin, qu trnh hnh thnh cc lin kt ion, lin kt cng ho tr, lin kt cho nhn.
2.4. Theo quy tc bt t hy biu din lin kt trong cc phn t v ion sau y:
H2O; NH3; NH4+; CO2; SO2; SO3; HNO2; HNO3; H2SO4.
2.5. iu kin hnh thnh lin kt hydro so snh nng lng lin kt nng lng
lin kt ion v lin kt cng ho tr. Nu nhng v d cho thy nh hng ca lin
kt hydro n tnh cht vt l ca cc cht.
2.6. Thuyt ho tr lin kt (VB) c a ra trn c s nghin cu no? Hy nu
nhng lun im c bn ca thuyt .
2.7. Cho v d, c im ca lin kt v lin kt . So snh v gii thch v
bn ca hai lin kt ny.
2.8. Lai ho l g? c im cc m my lai ho sp; sp2; sp3. Cho cc v d v
nhng hp cht c s lai ho ny.
2.9. Hnh hc phn t v s xen ph cc m my electron trong cc phn t:
CH4; C2H2; C2H4; C2H6; NH3; H2O; SO2; SO3; CO; CO2.
Trong cc phn t ny C; N; O; S c kiu lai ho g?
2.10. Hnh hc phn t ca cc phn t butadien, benzen, allen (CH2 = C = CH2).
Cho bit cch biu din chng bng cng thc:
c chnh xc khng? Ti sao?
2.11. Hy nu nhng lun im c bn ca thuyt orbital phn t (MO) v lin kt.
Cc MO tm c da vo phng php no? ngha g ca cc MO? Th no l
MO lin kt v MO phn lin kt (so snh v hnh dng v nng lng trong khng
gian).
2.12. Cu hnh electron v gin nng lng ca cc phn t dng A2 trong A
thuc chu k 1 (H2+, H2, He2+, He2). Ti sao khng tn ti phn t He2.
2.13. Cu hnh electron v gin nng lng ca cc phn t dng A2 trong A
thuc cc nguyn t cui chu k 2: O, F, Ne (O2, F2, O22,...). bi v t tnh ca
chng?

60

2.14. Cu hnh electron v gin nng lng ca cc phn t dng A2 trong A

thuc cc nguyn t u chu k 2: Li, B, Be, C, N (Li2, Be2, N2,...). bi v t
tnh ca chng.
2.15. Cu hnh electron v gin nng lng ca cc phn t v ion dng AB:
CN, CO, NO+, HF. bi v t tnh ca chng.
2.16. So snh di lin kt v bn lin kt trong cc ion v phn t: O2+, O2,
O22, O2.
2.17. Khi no mt lin kt b phn cc? Mt phn t phn cc? M men lng cc
l g? Trong cc cht sau y phn t no phn cc? CO2, H2O, CHCl3, SO2, SO3
2.18. Ti sao CCl4 khng tan trong nc cn C2H5OH li tan v hn trong nc.

Bi 3

NHIT NG HC
MC TIU
1. Trnh by c ni dung ca nguyn l th nht ca nhit ng hc v nu c
ngha ca cc hm trng thi: ni nng v enthalpy.
2. Vn dng c nhng nh lut ca nhit ho hc tnh ton hiu ng nhit ca
nhng phn ng ho hc khc nhau.
3. Trnh by c ni dung v gii thch biu thc nguyn l th hai ca nhit ng hc.
4. Nu c ngha ca cc hm trng thi: entropy v nng lng t do trong nghin
cu cc phn ng ho hc.
M U

Nhit ng hc nghin cu nhng quy lut chuyn ho gia cc dng nng lng khc
nhau.

C s ca nhit ng hc l hai nguyn l rt ra t kinh nghim sng ca con ngi. Cc

nguyn l ny khng th chng minh bng con ng ton hc nhng nhng h qu rt
ra t n khng mu thun vi thc tin.

Nhit ng hc ho hc s dng nhng kt qu nghin cu ca nhit ng hc vo ho

hc tnh ton thng bng v nng lng v rt ra mt s i lng lm tiu chun
xt on chiu hng ca mt qu trnh ho hc.

1. MT S KHI NIM V NH NGHA

1.1. H nhit ng hc: i tng m ta ang nghin cu v mt nhit ng hc. Ngoi h gi
l mi trng.

61

 H c lp: khng trao i vt cht v nng lng vi mi trng.

H kn: khng trao i vt cht nhng c th trao i nng lng vi mi trng.
1.2. Hm s trng thi: Cc i lng xc nh trng thi ca h. V d nhit , p sut, th
tch, ni nng,...
Nhng i lng l hm trng thi c c im l bin thin ca n trong bt k qu trnh
no cng ch ph thuc vo trng thi u v cui m khng ph thuc vo cch din bin ca
qu trnh. V d, bin thin ca th nng ca mt vt hai trng thi khc nhau ch ph thuc
vo cao hai trng thi m khng ph thuc con ng a vt t trng thi ny sang trng
thi kia.
1.3. Qu trnh nhit ng: Khi h chuyn t trng thi ny sang mt trng thi khc ta ni h
thc hin c mt qu trnh.
Qu trnh ng tch: th tch khng i.
Qu trnh ng p: p sut khng i.
Qu trnh ng nhit: nhit khng i.
Qu trnh on nhit: khng trao i nhit vi mi trng.
2. NGUYN L TH NHT CA NHIT NG HC
2.1. Ni dung v cc cch pht biu
Ni dung: tnh cht bo ton ca nng lng.
Pht biu:
Nng lng khng t sinh ra v khng t mt i m n ch c th chuyn t mt dng ny
sang mt dng khc. (nh lut bo ton v bin ho nng lng ca Lmnxp)
Khng th c ng c vnh cu loi 1. (ng c lin tc sinh cng m khng cn tiu tn
nng lng hay ch cn mt lng ban u).
Tn ti mt hm trng thi U gi l ni nng m bin thin ca ni nng khi h chuyn t
mt trng thi ny sang mt trng thi khc (U) bng tng i s nng lng trao i vi
mi trng trong qu trnh bin i ny.
Nng lng ca mt h c lp lun lun c bo ton.
2.2. Ni nng Biu thc ca nguyn l I
Nng lng ca mt h gm 3 phn:
ng nng (nu h ang chuyn ng).
Th nng (do h nm trong trng trng lc).
62

 Ni nng.
Trong nhit ng hc ngi ta nghin cu nhng h khng chuyn ng v tc dng ca
trng hp dn l khng i v vy ch ch n ni nng.
Ni nng: Nng lng tim tng bn trong mt vt hay h bao gm:
+ Tng ng nng (chuyn ng tnh tin, quay, dao ng) ca cc phn t, nguyn t,
electron, ht nhn nguyn t.
+ Tng nng lng tng tc (th nng) gia chng.
Ni nng (thng k hiu bng ch U) l mt hm trng thi v ng vi mi trng thi c
mt gi tr ca U v bin thin U khng ph thuc vo qu trnh.
Gi tr tuyt i ca ni nng khng xc nh c nhng bin thin ca n khi h chuyn t
trng thi 1 c ni nng U1 sang trng thi 2 c ni nng U2.
U = U2 U1 c th xc nh c qua lng nhit Q v lng cng A m h trao i
(cho hoc nhn) trong qu trnh .
U = Q +A

(3.1)

y l biu thc nguyn l I ca nhit ng hc.

Lu : Theo quy c, nu h nhn c nng lng di dng nhit hay cng th Q v A c
gi tr dng. Ngc li nu h sinh nng lng th Q v A c gi tr m.
V d:
Khi ni h phn ng to ra mt nhit lng l 100 Kcalo c ngha l Q = 100 Kcal
Trong biu thc trn, cng A bao gm hai loi cng:
Cng dn n Ad.n = P.V
Cng c ch A' gm tt c cc loi cng khc m h trao i vi mi trng nh cng
in, cng ho hc, cng c hc... Khi biu thc nguyn l I c dng:
U = Q + A' P.V

(3.2)

Chng ta hy xem xt biu thc nguyn l I trong mt s v d sau y:

V d 1:
Ta hy hnh dung mt th nghim nh hnh 3.1. trng thi u h gm mt xilanh c
pittong trong c mt l ng dung dch HCl v mt t km. Lc ny h c ni nng U1. Khi
nghing xilanh thc hin phn ng gia acid v km, h to ra mt nhit lng Q v sinh ra
mt cng dn n (cng chng p sut kh quyn P) And = P.V.
Kt thc th nghim h nm trng thi cui c ni nng U2. Theo nguyn l I ta c:
63

U = Q P. V.
V

Q 0 nn U 0

iu ny c ngha l lng nhit to ra v lng cng m h thc hin c l do s gim

ni nng ca h.

Hnh 3.1. M hnh th nghim minh ho biu thc nguyn l th nht ca nhit ng hc

V d 2:
Hot ng ca mt chic pin:
Nu hai cc ca pin c ni vi mt mt (v d mt ci qut) th trng thi u (khi
cha ng cng tc) ton b h c mt ni nng l U1 chng hn. Sau khi ng cng tc v cho
qut quay n khi dng, h sinh ra mt cng A (cng c nng) c ch. n trng thi ny h
c mt ni nng l U2. Nh vy trong qu trnh ny c mt bin i ni nng U = U2 U1.
Nu coi nhit to ra y l khng ng k (Q = 0), h khng thay i th tch (And = 0) th
biu thc ca nguyn l th nht trong trng hp ny l:
U = A' m A' 0 (v h sinh cng)
Khi U 0. iu ny c ngha l cng in sinh ra y l do s gim ni nng ca h.
Cng v d ny, nu pin ch ni vi in tr to nhit. Khi Q 0, Ad.n = 0, A' = 0)
U = Q U 0. iu ny c ngha l nhit lng to ra trn in tr do s gim ni nng
ca pin.

64

Hnh 3.2. M hnh th nghim minh ho biu thc nguyn l th nht ca nhit ng hc
khi h ch sinh cng hoc ch to nhit

2.3. Enthalpy
Nh trn thy trong mt qu trnh ng tch V = 0 Ad.n = 0. Nu h khng thc hin
cng c ch (A' = 0) th Qv = U.
C ngha l nhit trao i trong mt qu trnh ng tch bng bin thin ca ni nng.
Trong mt qu trnh ng p nu h khng sinh cng c ch ta c:
U = Q P.V hay Qp= U + P.V
Qp = U2 U1 + PV2 PV1 = (U2 + PV2) (U1 + PV1)
K hiu U + PV = H ta c:
Qp = H2 H1 = H
Nh vy nhit trao i trong mt qu trnh ng p bng bin thin ca mt hm trng thi
mi gi l enthalpy k hiu bng H. Ni nng v enthalpy c bn cht ging nhau, u l nng
lng tim tng bn trong mt h hay vt bt k.
H = U + PV hay H = U + P.V

(3.3)

Cc phn ng ho hc thng c thc hin trong iu kin p sut kh quyn khng i

v nu khng c s tham gia ca cc cht kh (V = 0) th
H = U; H = U
3. NHIT HO HC
3.1. Hiu ng nhit ca phn ng (nhit phn ng)
Trong mt phn ng ho hc, v d:
A+BC+D
Thng nng lng ton phn (ni nng hay enthalpy ca cc cht tham gia phn ng khc
vi nng lng ton phn ca cc cht sn phm phn ng. Kt qu l sau phn ng c mt phn
ni nng hay enthalpy b bin i. Phn ny c chuyn thnh nhit.
Lng nhit to ra hay hp thu vo trong mt phn ng ho hc c gi l hiu ng nhit
ca phn ng. Hiu ng nhit ca phn ng thng c k hiu bng bin thin ca enthanpy
H (phn ng ho hc thng thc hin p sut khng i v khng sinh cng c ch).
Phng trnh phn ng ho hc c ghi r trng thi ca cc cht v hiu ng nhit c gi
l phng trnh nhit ho hc.
V d:
65

C(r) +O2(k) CO2(k); H = 94,05 Kcal

3.2. nh lut Hess
Hiu ng nhit ca mt phn ng ch ph thuc vo bn cht v trng thi ca cc cht u
v cui m khng ph thuc vo cch thc din bin ca phn ng.
V d, vi phn ng:
Bng thc nghim ngi ta xc nh c:
H1 = 94,1;

H2 = 26,4; H3 = 67,6 Kcal

H1 = H2 + H3
3.3. Tnh hiu ng nhit ca phn ng da vo nhit sinh
Nhit sinh ca mt cht l nhit ca phn ng to ra 1mol cht t cc n cht trng
thi bn vng.
V d:

Lu : Nhit sinh xc nh iu kin 1 atm v 298oK c gi l nhit sinh tiu chun

v k hiu l HS0.
Nhit sinh ca cc n cht bn bng 0.
BNG 3.1. NHIT SINH TIU CHUN, ENTROPY TUYT I
V BIN THIN NNG LNG T DO SINH TIU CHUN CA MT S HP CHT
Hp cht

Cng thc

HS
(Kcal/mol)

Trng
thi

S0
(cal/mol.K)

GS
(Kcal/mol)

hydro

H2

31,2

oxy

O2

49,0

nit

N2

45,8

clo

Cl2

53,3

carbon

1,4

natri

Na

12,2

nc

H2O

57,8

45,1

54,69

nc

H2O

68,3

16,7

56,74

carbon oxyd

CO

26,4

47,3

32,84

cacbon dioxyd

CO2

94,1

51,1

94,33

66

amoniac

NH3

11,0

45,8

3,91

amoniac

NH3

dd

19,3

hydroclorid

HCl

22,1

44,7

22,79

hydrobromid

HBr

8,67

47,48

12,73

hydroiodid

HI

+ 6,3

49,4

+0,31

natri clorid

NaCl

98,6

17,32

91,87

natri hydroxyd

NaOH

102,3

125,12

90,19

anhydrid sulfur

SO2

71,0

59,3

71,86

anhydrid sulfuric

SO3

94,5

61,4

88,61

methan

CH4

17,9

44,5

12,15

ethan

C2H6

20,4

54,8

7,86

ethylen

C2H4

+12,5

52,5

+16,3

acetylen

C2H2

+54,2

48,0

+50,05

benzen

C6H6

+11,7

64,4

+41,34

ethanol

C2H5OH

66,4

38,4

41,81

acetaldehyd

CH3CHO

39,8

63,56

32

aceton

CH3COCH3

59,3

47,55

36,73

a.acetic

CH3COOH

115,7

38,2

93,18

a.butyric

C3H7COOH

128,1

a.benzoic

C6H5COOH

91,7

a.fumaric

C4H4O4

194,1

a.sucynic

C4H6O4

225,0

L alanin

C3H7NO2

134,6

30,91

88,56

glycin

C2H5NO2

128,5

24,76

90,36

a.glutamic

C5H9NO4

241,2

a.aspartic

C4H7NO4

233,3

ure

NH2CONH2

76,3

ure

NH2CONH2

dd

79,6

48,72

Dglucose

C6H12O6

304,6

219,24

sacarose

C12H22O11

531,5

86,19

369,45

glycerin

C3H8O3

160,45

48,95

114,71

25

67

V d:
Xc nh hiu ng nhit HX ca phn ng:
Al2O3
Bit HS0

399,1

3SO3

94,5

Al2(SO4)3
821,0 Kcal/mol

Theo nh lut Hess ta c:

HX = H1 H2
HX = HS0 (sp) HS0 (tg)
HX = 821 [3( 94,5) 399,1] = 138,5 Kcal.
Hiu ng nhit ca mt phn ng bng tng nhit sinh ca cc cht sn phm tr i tng
nhit sinh ca cc cht tham gia phn ng.
V d 1:
Tnh hiu ng nhit ca phn ng oxyho glucose iu kin tiu chun.
C6H12O6 (r) + 6O2 (k) 6CO2(k) + 6H2O(l)
Bit HS0
Hx0

304,0

94,6

68,3

= 6( 94,6) + 6( 68,3) ( 304,6 +0) = 670 Kcal.

V d 2:
Tnh hiu ng nhit ca phn ng thu phn ure thnh CO2 v NH3 (phn ng ny thc t
khng xy ra nu thiu urease)

Bit

HS0
Hx0

76,3

68,3

98,7

19,3 Kcal/mol

= [ 98,7 +2(19,3)] [76,3 + (68,3)] = 7,3 Kcal.

3.4. Xc nh hiu ng nhit ca phn ng da vo nhit chy

Nhit chy ca mt cht l nhit ca phn ng t chy 1 mol cht to ra cc oxyd
cao nht.
68

V d:
Hc0= 327 Kcal/mol

C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O

Lu :

Nhit chy xc nh iu kin tiu chun c gi l nhit chy tiu chun v c k

hiu l Hc0
Nhit chy ca cc oxyd cao nht bng 0.
Bng 1.2. l gi tr nhit chy tiu chun ca mt s hp cht. Da vo bng nhit chy ta c
th tnh c hiu ng nhit ca mt phn ng.
V d:
Xc nh hiu ng nhit HX ca phn ng:
2CO

4H2

Bit:

Hx0

H2O + C2H5OH

67,6

68,3

326,7 Kcal/mol

Theo nh lut Hess ta c:

HX = H1 H2
HX = Hc0(tg) Hc0(sp)
HX = [2( 67,6)+ 4(68,3)] ( 326,7) = 81,8 Kcal.
Hiu ng nhit ca mt phn ng bng tng nhit chy ca cc cht tham gia tr i tng
nhit chy ca cc cht sn phm phn ng.
BNG 3.2. NHIT CHY TIU CHUN CA MT S CHT
Hp cht

Trng thi

H0C
(Kcal/mol)

Hp cht

Trng thi

H0C
(Kcal/mol)

hydro

68,3

phenol

372,0

methan

212,8

aceton

430,9

ethan

372,8

a.acetic

208,3

ethylen

337,2

a.benzoic

771,8

69

acetylen

310,6

ethyl acetat

538,0

benzen

783,4

anilin

811,9

naphthalen

123,0

toluen

934,5

cloroform

89,2

methanol

173,7

CCl4

37,3

ethanol

326,7

3.5. Nhng tnh ton da vo nhit nguyn t ho v nng lng lin kt

Nhit nguyn t ho ca mt cht l nhit lng cn thit phn hu 1 mol cht th kh
thnh cc nguyn t th kh.
Nhit nguyn t ho c k hiu bng H
V d:

Nng lng ca mt lin kt l nng lng cn thit ph v 1 mol lin kt thnh cc

nguyn t th kh.
BNG 3.3. NNG LNG LIN KT TRUNG BNH CA MT S LIN KT
7

Phn t

E (Kcal/mol)

Lin kt

Phn t

E
(Kcal/mol)

HH

H2

104,2

OH

H2O

110,0

CH

CH4

99,0

OH

ROH

104,7

CC

C2H6

78,0

NH

NH3

93,4

C=C

C2H4

140,0

NN

CC

C2H2

193,0

NN

N2

225,4

CC

C6H6

120,0

SH

H2S

82,0

CO

C2H5OH

75,0

S=O

C=O

ceton

156,0

Cl Cl

Cl2

58,0

C=O

aldehyd

150,0

H Cl

HCl

103,2

C=O

CO2

168,0

C Cl

RCl

75,8

CN

HCN

207,9

CN

RNH2

65,9

OO

H2O2

33,0

O=O

O2

117,0

38,0

92,0

Nng lng lin kt c k hiu bng E.

70

V d:
EHH l nng lng lin kt gia hai nguyn t hydro trong phn t H2. Nng lng ny cng
chnh bng nhit nguyn t ho ca H2.

i vi phn t CH4 th

v trong phn t ny c 4 lin kt CH. Mt cch

tng t
V d 1:
Tnh nng lng lin kt O H trong phn t H2O bit:

Theo nh lut Hess ta c:

V d 2:
Tnh nng lng lin kt C = C trong phn t C2H4 bit:

71

Theo nh lut Hess ta c:

EC=C = 2HC(r) C(k) + 2EHH HS0 4ECH
EC=C = 2.171,5 + 2.104,2 12,5 4.99,0 = 142,5 Kcal/mol
V d 3:
Tnh hiu ng nhit ca phn ng hydro ho ethylen:
CH2 = CH2 + H2 C2H6 bit:
EC=C = 142,5 Kcal/mol
ECH = 99,0 Kcal/mol
EHH = 104,2 Kcal/mol
ECC = 78,0 Kcal/mol

Theo nh lut Hess ta c:

H = EC = C + EH H 2EC H EC C
= 142,5 + 104,2 2.99,0 78,0 = 29,3 Kcal/mol
Hiu ng nhit ca mt phn ng bng tng nng lng lin kt trong cc cht tham gia tr
i tng nng lng lin kt trong cc cht sn phm phn ng.

72

4. NGUYN L TH II CA NHIT NG HC
4.1. Ni dung v cc cch pht biu
Ni dung:
Nguyn l th II cp n mt c tnh khc ca nng lng. l trong khi cc dng
nng lng khc c th bin hon ton thnh nhit th nhit li ch c th bin mt phn thnh
cc dng nng lng khc.
Nghin cu nguyn l th II cho php rt ra mt s hm s trng thi lm tiu chun xt
on mt phn ng nht nh c th t xy ra khng.
Pht biu:
Nhit khng th t truyn t mt vt lnh sang mt vt
nng hn. Clausius 1850.
Khng th c ng c vnh cu loi 2 l ng c bin
hon ton nhit nhn c thnh cng (cng c ngha ng c
lm vic m khng chu mt s mt mt nhit no).
Tn ti mt hm s trng thi gi l entropy k hiu l S
m bin thin ca n trong mt qu trnh thun nghch S
bng t s gia nhit lng trao i trong qu trnh v nhit
ti xy ra s trao i nhit. Ngha l:
(3.4)
i vi qu trnh khng thun nghch:
(3.5)
Ta hy xem xt s mt my nhit
Hiu sut ca my:
(3.6)
T c th i n kt lun:
Hiu sut ca mt my nhit khng bao gi t c 100% v T2 khng khi no t c
gi tr 0o tuyt i. iu ny cng c ngha khng th no bin hon ton nhit nhn c thnh
cng (khng c mt mt nhit nng).
V vy biu thc (3.6) c gi l biu thc ca nguyn l II.
4.2. Khi nim v entropy
73

4.2.1. Qu trnh t din bin

Cc qu trnh t din bin l qu trnh t n c kh nng xy ra m khng cn tc ng t
bn ngoi.
V d:
Nhm qu trnh A:
Nc chy t ch cao n ch thp.
Kh chuyn t ni c p sut cao n ni c p sut thp.
Nhit truyn t vt nng sang vt lnh.
Trong nhm ny h mt dn kh nng sinh cng (gim nng lng) v chuyn dn n trng
thi cn bng.
Nhm qu trnh B:
Cc nc t chy thnh nc.
S khuych tn vo nhau ca hai kh khc nhau.
Nhiu phn ng phn hu cht cng t xy ra, v d: N2O4 2NO2
Trong nhm ny h chuyn t trng thi sp xp c trt t sang trng thi km trt t hn.
Tt c cc qu trnh t din bin ni trn u khng th t xy ra theo chiu ngc li, chng
l nhng qu trnh bt thun nghch.
4.2.2. Entropy
Trong cc v d nhm A d dng tm thy tiu chun qu trnh t din bin. l s
chnh lch v cao (h), v p sut (p), v v nhit (T). Vy nhm B tiu chun t
din bin l g? V tiu chun no c th p dng chung cho cc qu trnh t din bin? l
bin thin ca mt i lng mi S gi l entropy v k hiu l (S).
V ngha vt l, entropy l thc o mc hn n ca vt cht: ng vi trng thi c
trt t (t hn n) S c gi tr nh, h trng thi cng hn n S c gi tr cng ln.
Trong nhit ng hc thng k ngi ta lin h mc hn n ca h vi mt i lng
gi l xc sut nhit ng W.
Theo Boltzmann, entropi c quan h vi W qua h thc:
S = klnW
Trong : k l hng s Boltzmann
W l xc sut nhit ng ca h, biu th s trng thi vi m ng vi mt trng thi v m
ca h.
74

V d: Trng thi v m ca mt khi kh c c trng bng cc thng s v m nh p, V,

T, n.
Trng thi vi m ca n c trng bng cc thng s vi m ca tng tiu phn nh ng
nng, vn tc ca phn t.
Theo gi thit ca Planck, ch nhit 0 tuyt i (00K) th s trng thi vi m mi bng
1(W= 1) v S = 0.
V vy vt cht cng hn n th s trng thi vi m (W) cng ln, entropy cng ln.
Qu trnh t din bin c xu hng a h t trng thi c trt t sang trng thi mt trt t
cng c ngha l theo chiu tng entropy (S 0).
i vi nhng qu trnh c lin quan n nhit
(3.7)
Q l nhit lng m h trao i trong qu trnh h chuyn
t trng thi 1 sang trng thi 2 cn T l nhit ti xy ra s
trao i nhit.
Du = i vi qu trnh thun nghch, du i vi qu trnh
bt thun nghch.
V d:
Tnh bin thin entropy ca 1 mol nc nng chy chm chp (coi l thun nghch) 0oC
= 373oK, bit nhit nng chy ca nc l 1436,3 cal/mol.

T biu thc (3.7) c th rt ra kt lun:

Trong mt h c lp (Q = 0) th mt qu trnh t din bin (bt thun nghch) km theo s
tng entropy ca h S 0, mt qu trnh thun nghch hay cn bng c S = 0
Ni mt cch khc trong mt h c lp nu bin thin entropy ca mt qu trnh c gi tr
dng th qu trnh c th t din bin, nu bng 0 th h nm trng thi cn bng. Nh vy
bin thin entropy l mt tiu chun xt on mt qu trnh c t xy ra khng trong h c
lp.
4.3. Nng lng t do v tiu chun t din bin ca mt qu trnh
T hai nhm qu trnh t din bin ni trn ta thy c hai khuynh hng:
H gii phng nng lng (H 0) v t ti trng thi bn vng hn.
H t trng thi c trt t chuyn n trng thi v trt t (S 0).

75

Nh vy c hai yu t enthalpy v entropy quyt nh khuynh hng t din bin ca mt

qu trnh nht nh. xt on mt qu trnh c th t xy ra hay khng cn phi nh gi ng
thi hai yu t trn.
Nu mt qu trnh no c H 0 v S 0 th chc chn l mt qu trnh t din bin.
Tuy nhin iu g s xy ra nu mt qu trnh khng ng thi tho mn hai tiu chun trn v
khi th tiu chun no cho php nh gi chiu hng t din bin.
Gii php ny c thc hin khi s dng mt hm trng thi mi bao gm c hai yu t ni
trn. l th ng p ng nhit hay nng lng t do, k hiu G.
G = H TS
Bin thin nng lng t do khi h chuyn t mt trng thi ny sang mt trng thi khc
c xc nh bng biu thc:
G = H TS
Nh vy G l nng lng lin quan vi bin thin nng lng ton phn ca h H tr i
nng lng lm tng hn n ca h Q = TS. Ni mt cch khc l nng lng c gii
phng bi h v c th thc hin cng c ch.
V rng mt h bt k lun lun c xu hng gim nng lng v sinh cng nn mt qu
trnh s t din bin khi G 0. Khi G = 0 h t n trng thi cn bng.
T biu thc nguyn l I:

U = Q + A' PV

T nguyn l II ta c:

Q = TS

T :

A' = U + PV TS
= U2 U1 + PV2 PV1 TS2 TS1
= (U2 + PV2 TS2) (U1 + PV1 TS1)
= (H2 TS2) (H1 TS1)

Nu thay

H TS = G ta c:
A' = G2 G1 = G = H TS

T biu thc G = H TS ta thy nng lng t do l mt phn nng lng ton phn ca h,
phn trong bin i c th sinh cng c ch (A = G), phn cn li (TS = Q) khng th sinh
cng, tn ti di dng nhit, lm tng hn lon ca h.
Nh vy xem xt mt qu trnh c th t xy ra khng ta phi xc nh G.
BNG 3.4. TC NG CA CC YU T ENTHALPY V ENTROPY
LN CHIU HNG DIN BIN CA MT PHN NG

Kt lun

V d

76

T xy ra

2O3 3O2

Khng t xy ra

3O2 2O3

t0 thp

T xy ra t0 thp

O2 + 2H2 H2O

t0 cao

T xy ra t0 cao

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

T xy ra

Zn + Cu2+

Khng t xy ra

Cu + Zn2+

T xy ra

Khuch tn 2 kh vo nhau

Khng t xy ra

Tch ring hn hp 2 kh

4.4. Cc phng php tnh bin thin nng lng t do ca phn ng

4.4.1. Tnh theo bin thin enthalpy v entropy
G0 = H0 TS0
k hiu 0 ch cc gi tr ly iu kin tiu chun (T = 2980K, p = 1atm)
H0 bng hiu ng nhit ca phn ng iu kin tiu chun, c th tnh c da vo nhit
sinh hay nhit chy ca cc cht (bng 1.1 v 1.2).
S0 l bin thin entropy ca phn ng, c th tnh c qua cc gi tr entropy chun ca
cc cht S0 (bng 1.1). V S l hm trng thi nn:

V d 1:

Cho phn ng

CaCO3(r)

Bit S0 (Kcal/mol)

288,5

151,9

94,0

22,2

9,5

51,1

S0 (cal/mol)
Hy

CaO(r)

CO2(k)

Xc nh chiu t xy ra ca phn ng iu kin chun.

Xc nh nhit ti CaCO3 bt u b phn hu.

Gii:

G0p/ = H0 p/ T S0p/
H0 p/ = 151,9 94,0 + 288,5 = 42,6 Kcal/mol
S0p/ = 51,1 + 9,5 22,2 = 38,4 cal/mol
G0p/ = 42,6. 103 298. 38,4 = 33.156,8 cal/mol 0

77

Vy phn ng thun c G0 > 0, tc l phn ng phn hu CaCO3 khng xy ra iu kin

chun.
Phn ng ny ch xy ra nhit T khi:
GTp/ = HT p/ TSTp/ 0
tc l khi

TSTp/ HTp/

Nu b qua nh hng ca nhit n hiu ng nhit v bin thin entropy ca phn ng

tc l coi

ta c:

V d 2:
Tnh bin thin nng lng t do ca phn ng:
DL leucin

Bit HS0 154,2

S0
Gii:

49,5

glycin

leucylglycin

H2 O

126,7

207,1

68,3

21,6

67,2

16,7

H0p/ = 207,1 68,3 (154,2 126,7) = 5,4 Kcal/mol

S0p/ = 67,2 + 16,7 (49,5 + 26,1) = 8,3 cal/mol
G0p/ = 5400 298. 8,3 = 2920 cal/mol 0

Vy iu kin tiu chun phn ng khng t xy ra.

4.4.2. Tnh theo bin thin nng lng t do sinh ca cc cht G0S
Hin nay ngi ta tnh c nng lng t do sinh ca nhiu cht. T cc s liu ny c
th tnh bin thin nng lng t do ca phn ng tng t nh tnh hiu ng nhit ca phn ng
khi bit H0S ca cc cht trong phn ng.

V d:
Tnh bin thin nng lng t do chun (G0) ca phn ng:
fumarat

H 2O

malat

78

Bit S0S 144,4

Gii:

56,7

202,0 Kcal/mol

G0p/ = 202,0 (144,4 + 56,7) = 0,88 Kcal/mol

Tnh theo th oxy ho kh tiu chun

Bin thin nng lng t do chun ca mt phn ng oxy ho kh lin quan vi sut in
ng tiu chun E0 ca nguyn t Ganvanic trong xy ra phn ng bng biu thc:
G0 = n F E0
Trong

(xem phn in ho hc)

n: S electron trao i trong phn ng

E0: Sut in ng tiu chun = 0 (+) 0 ()
F: S Faraday bng 23.061 calo/lg

V d:
Tnh G0 ca phn ng xy ra trong chui h hp t bo vi s tham gia ca cc coenzym
cytochrom (cyt):
cyt C(Fe2+) + cyt f (Fe3+) cyt C(Fe3+) + cyt f (Fe2+)
T bng ta c E0 = 0,11 V
Vy

n=1

G0 = 1 23061 0,11 = 2540 calo/mol

4.4.3. Tnh theo hng s cn bng ca phn ng

Bin thin nng lng t do tiu chun ca mt phn ng lin quan vi hng s cn bng K
ca n qua biu thc:
G0 = 2,303RT lgK
Trong

T: Nhit tiu chun

R: Hng s kh l tng bng 1,987 calo/mol.K

V d:
Tnh G0 ca mt trong nhng giai on trao i glycogen:
(s transphosphoryl ho)
glucose -1- phosphat = glucose - 6 - phosphat
Bng phng php ho hc ngi ta xc nh c rng pH = 7 v 250C nu nng
ban u ca G-1-P hay G-6-P l 0,02 M th nng lc cn bng tng ng l 0,001 v 0,019
M.

79

Vy G0 = 2,303. 1,987. lg 19 = 1745calo/ mol

Ngha l iu kin tiu chun, qu trnh transphosphoryl ho l t din bin.
4.4.4. Tnh ton da vo bin thin nng lng t do ca cc phn ng ni tip
Ngi ta c th tnh c bin thin nng lng t do ca mt phn ng da trn tnh cht
cng ca nng lng t do.
Nu c mt s phn ng ni tip vi cc G0 tng ng:
A

th bin thin nng lng t do ca phn ng tng cng

A

G0p/

D
+

V d:
Xc nh bin thin nng lng t do G0ATP ca phn ng:
ADP +P

ATP + H2O
Bit:

ADP + glucose- 6-P

ATP + glucose
K1 = 661

= 4,0 Kcal/mol

glucose-6-P + H2O glucose + P

K2 = 171
T

= 3,3 Kcal/mol
+

= 4,0 3,3 = 7,3 Kcal/mol

4.5. S ph thuc ca bin thin nng lng t do vo nng

Cc gi tr G0 tng ng vi nng chun l 1M. Bin thin nng lng t do trong iu
kin khc vi nng chun c tnh bng biu thc:
80

Nu c phn ng: A + B C + D th

iu kin cn bng ta c G = 0. T

Thay gi tr ca G0 vo biu thc ta c:

T biu thc ny, khi xc nh c G0 ta c th tnh bin thin G ca mt phn ng

nhng nng bt k. V d qua tnh ton hoc bng thc nghim in vitro xc nh G0 ta c
th tnh bin thin G iu kin in vivo.
V d:
Phn ng thu phn ATP thnh ADP iu kin tiu chun:
ATP + H2O ADP +P
1M

1M

1M

c G0 = 7000 cal/mol. Tnh G ca phn ng iu kin sinh l.

Ngi ta xc nh c trong c th [ATP] [ADP] [P] 10-2 - 10-3M
T :

G = 7000 + RT ln [P] c gi tr t 9800 11000 cal/mol

4.6. Th chuyn nhm Cc hp cht giu nng lng (cao nng)
Cng nh nhng phn ng ho hc thng thng, cc phn ng ca qu trnh trao i cht
trong c th lun lun km theo mt bin thin nng lng t do (G hay G0).
Cc nh ho sinh thng quan tm n nhng phn ng c bin thin nng lng t do m
(G hay G0 < 0) vi ngha y l phn nng lng m c th c th dng thc hin cng
c ch nh cc qu trnh sinh tng hp, vn chuyn ion, co c, thc hin cc sung in ca t bo
thn kinh
Ngi ta thng s dng danh t th chuyn nhm ch bin thin nng lng t do ca
phn ng chuyn mt nhm nht nh t mt phn t cht ny (cht cho) sang mt cht khc
81

(cht nhn) thng l nc. Nh vy th chuyn nhm theo mt ngha hp chnh l bin thin
nng lng t do ca phn ng thu phn mt hp cht sinh hc (chnh xc hn l thu phn
mt lin kt).
V d, phn ng thu phn ATP trong iu kin c th:
ATP + H2O ADP + H3PO4
G0 = 7,3 Kcal/mol c gi l th chuyn nhm phosphat ca ATP.
Phn ng thu phn acetyl CoA:

G0 = 8,2 Kcal/mol l th chuyn nhm acetyl ca acetyl CoA sang nc.

BNG 3.5. TH CHUYN NHM CA MT S HP CHT
Hp cht

G0 Kcal/mol

Hp cht

G0 Kcal/mol

creatinphosphat

10,3

glucose1phosphat

5,0

acetylSCoA

8,2

glucose6phosphat

3,3

argininphosphat

7,7

alanylglycin

4,1

ATP

7,3

acetyl cholin

3,2

Nhng hp cht c G0 > 6 Kcal/mol thng c gi l nhng hp cht giu nng lng
(hay hp cht cao nng). Trong cng thc cu to ca cc hp cht ny, lin kt ti xy ra s
thu phn c k hiu bng du .
V d phn t

ATP: Adenosin P P P
acetylSCoA: CH3COO SCoA

Cc phn ng thu phn ca cc cht cao nng thng ng vai tr "km" nhng phn ng
i hi nng lng theo c ch phn ng lin hp rt ph bin trong c th.
CU HI T LNG GI
3.1. Th no l ni nng ca mt h? Ni nng ph thuc vo nhng yu t no?
3.2. Ni dung v biu thc ca nguyn l th nht ca nhit ng hc.
3.3. Hiu ng nhit ca phn ng. Pht biu nh lut Hess v hiu ng nhit ca
phn ng. Ti sao ni nh lut Hess l h qu ca nguyn l th nht ca nhit
ng hc.
3.4. nh ngha nhit sinh, nhit chy ca mt cht. Cng thc tnh hiu ng nhit
ca phn ng da vo nhit sinh, nhit chy.
82

3.5. nh ngha nhit nguyn t ho ca mt cht. Nng lng lin kt l g?

Chng c quan h vi nhau nh th no?
3.6. Tnh Hs0 ca Ca(OH)2 bit hiu ng nhit ca phn ng:
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
H = 15,26 Kcal/mol
Hs0 ca CaO v H2O tng ng l: 151,8 v 68,3 Kcal/mol.
3.7. Khi t chy 1 mol glucose thy thot ra 673 Kcal. Tnh Hs0ca glucose bit
Hs0 ca CO2 v H2O tng ng l: 94,1 v 68,3Kcal/mol.
3.8. Tnh hiu ng nhit ca phn ng: C2H4 + H2 = C2H6 bit nng lng lin kt
EHH = 104; EC=C = 147; ECC = 83; ECH = 98,8 Kcal/mol.
3.9. Ni dung v cch pht biu nguyn l th II ca nhit ng hc. Entropy l
g? ngha ca hm s ny.
3.10. Nng lng t do l g? Da vo n khi no mt phn ng t din bin?
3.11. Tc ng ca cc yu t enthalpy v entropy ln chiu hng din bin ca
mt phn ng.
3.12. Cc phn ng sau y c xy ra khng iu kin tiu chun?

3.13. Phn ng sau y xy ra theo chiu no iu kin tiu chun?

Bit Hs0
S02 98

4,8
49,1

57,8
49,0

45,1

Kcal/mol.
7,6 cal/mol.K

3.14. Cho phn ng:

NH4OCONH2 CO2
Bit HS300 K
GS300K

+ 2 NH3

154,4

94,1

11,0

Kcal/mol.

109,6

94,4

3,98

Kcal/mol.
83

Hi: iu kin ny (3000K) phn ng xy ra theo chiu no? nhit

no th phn ng din ra theo chiu ngc li?
3.15. Cho phn ng:
C2H4 +
Bit GS0
S0298

16,3
52,5

H2O(h)

54,6
45,1

C2H5OH(h)
40,3 Kcal/mol
54,5 cal/mol.K

Hi: 250C phn ng din ra theo chiu no? To nhit hay thu nhit.
3.16. Nu mt vi phng php xc nh bin thin nng lng t do ca phn
ng. Th chuyn nhm l g? i vi nhng hp cht sinh hc th th chuyn
nhm c quy c nh th no? Hy cho bit ngha ca bng th chuyn
nhm. Th no l lin kt giu nng lng (lin kt c nng lng cao).

Bi 4

NG HO HC
MC TIU
1. Pht biu v gii thch biu thc ca nh lut tc dng khi lng v nh hng ca
nng n tc phn ng.
2. Thit lp c phng trnh ng hc ca mt s phn ng n gin c bc khc
nhau.
3. Trnh by c nhng quy lut v nh hng ca nhit n tc phn ng.
4. Trnh by c c ch chung v gii thch c vai tr ca cht xc tc trong phn
ng ho hc.
5. Vn dng c nguyn l Le Chatelier d on chiu chuyn dch ca mt cn
bng khi c tc ng ca mt s yu t.
6. Phn bit v vit c s ca mt s phn ng phc tp.
M U
ng ho hc nghin cu v tc ca cc phn ng ho hc v cc yu t nh hng n
tc nh: nng cht phn ng, nhit , cht xc tc. Trn c s cho php tm hiu v c
ch ca cc phn ng.
1. MT S KHI NIM
1.1.Tc phn ng
84

Nu ta c phn ng ho hc:
AB
Tc trung bnh ca phn ng c xc nh bng bin thin nng ca cht tham gia
hay cht sn phm ca phn ng trong mt n v thi gian.

Tc tc thi c tnh bng o hm bc nht ca nng theo thi gian

hay
Vi phn ng: aA + bB pP
tc phn ng l n gi, v c tnh theo biu thc:

1.2. Phn ng n gin v phn ng phc tp

Phn ng n gin l phn ng ch din ra qua mt giai on (mt tng tc)
V d:
CH3 N = N CH3 CH3CH3 + N2
H2 + I2
2NO + O2

(1)

2HI

(2)

2NO2

(3)

Mi phn ng trn c gi l mt phn ng c s.

Phn ng phc tp l phn ng din ra qua mt s giai on (gm nhiu phn ng c s).
V d:
2NO + 2H2

N2 + 2H2O

(4)

Phn ng ny din ra qua mt s giai on sau y:

2NO
N2O2 + H2

N 2 O2

N2 + H2O2
85

H2O2 + H2

2H2O

Nhng phn ng c h s trong phng trnh ln thng l nhng phn ng phc tp v xc

sut nhiu phn t ng thi va chm vo nhau l rt nh. Tuy nhin cng cn lu l c
nhng phn ng nhn b ngoi tng l n gin nhng thc t li l phn ng phc tp ngha l
gm nhiu phn ng c s.
V d:

N2O5
CO + Cl2

2NO2 + 1/2O2
COCl2

(5)
(6)

Ton b cc phn ng c s din ra trong mt phn ng phc tp th hin c ch ca phn

ng.
2. NH HNG CA NNG N TC PHN NG
2.1. nh lut tc dng khi lng
Xut pht t quan im cho rng mun c phn ng xy ra th cc phn t hay nguyn t
phn ng phi va chm vo nhau, v vy nu s va chm cng ln th tc phn ng cng ln
m s va chm li ph thuc vo nng .
Vo nhng nm 1864 1867 Gulberg, Waager (Guynbec v Oag) ngi Na Uy nu ra
mt nh lut c ni dung nh sau:
" mt nhit khng i tc phn ng t l thun vi tch s nng cc cht tham gia
phn ng vi nhng lu tha xc nh"
Nu c phn ng:
aA + bB pP
th theo nh lut ta c:
v = k [A]m [B]n

(4.1)

Cc lu tha m, n c xc nh bng con ng thc nghim. Trong trng hp phn ng

n gin n trng vi h s ca A v B trong phng trnh ho hc.
V d:
i vi cc phn ng (1) (2) (3) trn ta c:
v = k1 [C2H6N2]
v = k2[H2][I2]
v = k3[NO]2[O2]

86

cn i vi phn ng phc tp th cc s m ca nng c th khng trng vi h s ca

phng trnh ho hc. V d i vi cc phn ng (4) v (6) bng thc nghim ngi ta thit
lp c phng trnh sau:
v = k3[NO]2[H2]
v = k [CO][Cl2]3/2
Trong phng trnh ca nh lut tc dng khi lng (phng trnh 4.1):
[A], [B]: nng cht A v B tnh bng mol/l.
k: hng s tc phn ng. Nu [A] = 1, [B] = 1 khi v = k.
Nh vy k chnh l tc ca phn ng khi nng cc cht phn ng l 1 n v. V vy k
cn c gi l tc ring ca phn ng.
Gi tr ca k khng ph thuc vo nng , ch ph thuc vo nhit v bn cht ca cc
cht phn ng.
2.2. Bc v phn t s ca phn ng
Trong ng ho hc cc phn ng c phn loi theo bc v phn t s.
Bc phn ng
Bc phn ng l tng cc s m ca nng vit trong biu thc ca nh lut tc dng khi
lng, tc l bng m + n.
V d:
Cc phn ng (1), (2), (3), (4), (6) tng ng l cc phn ng bc 1, 2, 3, 3 v 5/2.
Nh vy bc phn ng c th l s nguyn nhng cng c th l phn s.
Phn t s ca phn ng
S phn loi phn ng theo phn t s lin quan trc tip vi c ch thc ca phn ng. N
c xc nh bng s tiu phn (phn t, nguyn t hay ion) ng thi tng tc vi nhau trong
mt phn ng n gin. V vy phn t s ch c th l s nguyn.
V d:
Trong phn ng:
CH3 N = N CH3 CH3 CH3 + N2
tham gia vo tng tc ch c mt phn t. V vy phn ng c phn t s l mt hay phn ng
n phn t.
Trong phn ng: H2 + I2 2HI to thnh sn phm hai phn t H2 v I2 phi ng thi
tham gia vo mt tng tc v vy phn ng c coi l phn t s bng hai hay phn ng lng
87

phn t. Nhng phn ng c phn t s bng 3 hay cao hn thng t gp v xc sut ng

thi 3 phn t phn ng vi nhau rt nh.
Cn lu rng trong nhng phn ng n gin th bc phn ng thng trng vi phn t
s.
3. PHNG TRNH NG HC CA CC PHN NG
Phng trnh m t quan h nh lng gia nng cc cht phn ng v thi gian. Da
vo phng trnh ng hc c th xc nh c mt s thng s quan trng nh hng s tc
phn ng, bc phn ng, chu k na phn hu...

3.1. Phn ng bc 1
Phn ng bc 1 c dng tng qut:

V d:

Th

Ra + He

Theo nh ngha tc v nh lut tc dng khi lng ta c:

t :

Gii phng trnh vi phn ny ta c:

ln [A] + ln [A0] = k1t
hay

ln [A] = k1t + ln [A0]

(4.2)

[A]: nng cht A ti thi im t

[A0]: nng ban u ca cht A (khi t = 0)
Phng trnh (4.2) c biu din trn th l mt
ng thng to vi trc honh mt gc c tg = k1 (hnh
4.1)
Phng trnh (2.2) cn vit di dng:

88

Hnh 4.1. th phn ng bc 1

Hng s tc phn ng bc mt c th nguyn thi gian 1

Gi t1/2 l thi gian nng ban u cn li mt na, tc l khi:

thay gi tr ny vo phng trnh (4.3) ta c:

(4.4)
Nh vy thi gian bn hu ca phn ng bc mt khng ph thuc vo nng ban u.
Cc phng trnh (4.2), (4.3) v (4.4) l cc phng trnh c trng cho phn ng bc mt.
V d:
Phn ng bc 1 500C c k1 = 0,071 min1. Hi sau bao lu nng ban u [A0] = 0,01
mol/l gim i 10 ln.
Gii:

3.2. Phn ng bc 2
Phn ng bc 2 c cc dng:

2A
A+B

P
P

Dng:
V d:
2O3

3O2

2C4H6 C8H12

Gii phng trnh vi phn trn ta c:

89

(4.5)
(4.6)

hay
Phng trnh (4.5) c biu din trn th l mt ng
thng to vi trc honh mt gc c tg = k2 (hnh 4.2)
Hng s tc phn ng bc hai c th nguyn lt.mol1 t1

(4.7)
Nh vy i vi phn ng bc 2, t1/2 ph thuc vo nng Hnh 4.2. th phn ng bc 2
dng 2A P
ban u ca cht phn ng.
Cc phng trnh (4.5), (4.6) v (4.7) l cc dng phng trnh ng hc ca phn ng bc
2.
Dng
V d:
CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH CH3COONa + C2H5OH
Nu [A0] = [B0] th ti mi thi im [A] = [B]. V vy:

v do c th p dng cc phng trnh (4.5), (4.6) v (4.7)

Nu

[A0] [B0]

Gii phng trnh vi phn trn ta c:

(4.8)
Phng trnh (4.8) c biu din trn th l mt ng thng to vi trc honh mt gc
c tg = k2 [A0] [B0] (hnh 4.3)

90

Hnh 4.3. th phn ng bc 2 dng A + B P vi [A0] [B0]

V d:
Phn ng thu phn acetat ethyl bng NaOH 100C c hng s tc phn ng k2 = 2,38
lt.mol1. min1. Tnh thi gian cn x phng ho 50% lng ester khi trn 1 lt dung dch
ester 0,05M vi:
a) 1 lt NaOH 0,05M.
b) 1 lt NaOH 0,1M.
Gii:

a) Ta c: [A0] = 0,025M; [B0] = 0,025M

[A] = [B] = 0,0125M

Thay cc gi tr ca [A0] v [A] vo phng trnh (4.6) ta c:

b) Ta c: [A0] = 0,025M; [B0] = 0,05M

[A] = 0,0125M; [B] = 0,0375M.
Thay cc gi tr ca [A0], [A] v [B0], [B] vo phng trnh (4.8) ta c:
t = 6 min 49 s
3.3. Phn ng bc 3
Cc phn ng bc 3 c dng:
2A + B
A+B+C

P
P

91

Xt trng hp n gin nht.

Gii phng trnh vi phn ta c:

(4.9)
Phng trnh (4.9) c biu din trn th l mt
ng thng to vi trc honh mt gc c tg = 2k3
(hnh 4.4)

Hnh 4.4. th phn ng bc 3

dng 3A P

3.4. Phn ng bc 0

Tc phn ng khng ph thuc vo nng ca cht

phn ng.

Gii phng trnh vi phn trn ta c:

[A0]

[A] = k0 t +

(4.10)

Phng trnh (4.10) c biu din trn th l mt

ng thng to vi trc honh mt gc c tg = k0
(hnh 4.5)

Hnh 4.5. th phn ng bc 0

3.5. Phng trnh tc ca phn ng enzym

Phng trnh tc ca cc phn ng ny c dng c bit:
(4.11)
Trong [S] l nng cht phn ng, [E]0 l nng enzym, KM l hng s. Trong cc
phn ng enzym ngi ta khng s dng khi nim bc phn ng v chng l nhng phn ng
phc tp (xem phn 8).
3.6. Phng php xc nh bc v hng s tc ca phn ng
Bng thc nghim ngi ta theo di s thay i nng cc cht phn ng theo thi gian
sau x l cc s liu theo hai phng php.
92

3.6.1. Phng php th

Xy dng th tng ng vi cc phn ng bc khc nhau. th no cho dng ng
thng th bc phn ng s l bc tng ng vi th v trn th c th xc nh c hng
s tc ca phn ng.
3.6.2. Phng php thay th
Thay th cc s liu thc nghim vo cc phng trnh ng hc ca cc phn ng c bc
khc nhau. Kt qu ta thu c mt s gi tr ca hng s tc . Nu cc gi tr ny t ra l
hng nh th bc phn ng s l bc tng ng vi phng trnh .
V d:
Phn ng phn hu H2O2 theo phng trnh:
2H2O2 = 2H2O + O2 bng thc nghim thu c cc s liu sau:
Thi gian phn ng (min)

11,5

27,1

42,5

Nng [H2O2] (mM)

23,89

19.30

14,50

10,55

k1 theo (4.3) (min1)

1,86.102

1,84.102

1,92.102

k2 (4.6) (min1.mM1.l)

8,70.104

1,00.103

1,20.103

Hy xc nh bc v hng s tc ca phn ng trn.

Gii: Xy dng th ln[H2O2] t ta c mt ng
thng (hnh 4.6) v vy phn ng l bc nht. T tang ca gc
to bi ng thng v trc honh tnh c k1.
Mt khc nu ln lt thay cc s liu bng vo phng
trnh:

Cc gi tr ca k1 thu c bng trn cho thy l hng

nh. Vy phn ng phn hu H2O2 l phn ng bc nht.

Hnh 4.6. th phn ng bc 1

s phn hu H2O2

4. NH HNG CA NHIT N TC PHN NG

Nghin cu nh hng ca nhit n tc phn ng cho php tm hiu bn cht ca
nhng tng tc ho hc ng thi tm c ch nhit ti u cho phn ng ho hc.
Nhit nh hng n tc phn ng theo nhng cch khc nhau.

93

Hnh 4.7. ng biu din cc dng khc nhau nh hng ca nhit n tc phn ng

Dng ng cong (4.7a) l ph bin i vi phn ng ho hc.

Dng ng cong (4.7b) thng gp nhng phn ng c lin quan n cc hp cht sinh
hc nh cc protein enzym.Vi cc protein trng thi t nhin tc tng theo nhit .
Nhng khi t n mt nhit no chng b bin tnh, mt hiu qu xc tc v do tc
phn ng gim.
Dng ng cong (4.7c) t gp. N xy ra trong trng hp phn ng thun nghch m tc
phn ng nghch ph thuc mnh vo nhit .
Dng ng cong (4.7d) c trng cho cc phn ng dy chuyn. Ti mt nhit nht nh
tc pht trin mch cc k ln, v d s n.
Nhng ni chung tc ca a s phn ng ho hc tng ln khi tng nhit . nh hng
ny tun theo mt s quy tc sau y:
4.1. Quy tc Van't Hoff (Van Hp)
" Khi nhit ca phn ng tng ln 100 th hng s tc phn ng (cng l tc phn
ng) tng ln t 2 n 4 ln"

kT+10: hng s tc nhit T+100

kT: hng s tc nhit T
: c gi l h s nhit ca phn ng
Trong trng hp tng qut biu thc ca nh lut Vant Hoff c dng:
(4.12)
V d:
Mt phn ng c h s nhit = 3. Hi tng nhit ln 400 th tc phn ng tng ln
bao nhiu ln.
94

Gii: Theo quy tc Vant Hoff ta c:

4.2. Biu thc Arrehnius (Arniux)

nh hng ca nhit n tc phn ng c biu th mt cch chnh xc hn v p
dng c trong mt khong nhit rng hn qua biu thc Arrehnius:
(4.13)
R: Hng s kh l tng c gi tr bng 1,98 cal/mol.K
A: Hng s hay cn gi l tha s trc lu tha. Vi nhng cht phn ng c cu trc n
gin th A nhn nhng gi tr tng t nhau. i vi nhng phn ng trong cht phn ng c
cu trc phc tp, cng knh v mt khng gian hay phn ng nhng trung tm hoc nhm
chc nht nh th A nhn nhng gi tr khc nhau.
E: Hng s i vi mt phn ng xc nh, ngha l n ph thuc vo bn cht ca cc cht
phn ng. E c gi l nng lng hot ho ca phn ng.
T biu thc Arrehnius ta thy khi nhit tng tc phn ng tng. Mt khc phn ng
c nng lng hot ho cng ln s din ra vi tc cng nh.
4.3. Thuyt va chm hot ng v nng lng hot ho
4.3.1. Thuyt va chm
cc nguyn t hay phn t c th phn ng c vi nhau chng phi va chm vo nhau.
Do tc phn ng s tng ln khi s va chm (hay tn s va chm) tng.
Thuyt va chm khng gii thch c s khc bit rt ln gia kt qu tnh ton l thuyt
v cc kt qu thc nghim.
V d:
i vi phn ng: 2HI H2 + I2
khi [HI] = 1 mol/l th s va chm tnh c l 6.1031 va chm/s.cm3 nhng thc t s va chm
dn n phn ng ch l 2.1014, c ngha l c 3.1017 va chm mi c 1 va chm c hiu qu.
Phn ng: Br + H2 HBr + H
hng s k2 xc nh c bng thc nghim 103 nhng qua tnh ton l thuyt th k2= 1,5.1011
l/mol.s.
Theo tnh ton khi nhit tng 100 s va chm ch tng 2% ngha l tc ch c th
tng 2% nhng trong thc t theo quy tc Vant Hoff tc phn ng li tng t nht l 200%.
iu ny khng th gii thch c nu ch da vo s va chm n thun.
4.3.2. Thuyt va chm hot ng (hay thuyt hot ho) v nng lng hot ho
95

Thuyt ny cho rng khng phi mi va chm, m ch nhng va chm ca cc nguyn t hay
phn t hot ng (gi l cc va chm hot ng) mi dn n phn ng.
Cc nguyn t hay phn t hot ng l cc nguyn t hay phn t c mt nng lng d
ln so vi nng lng trung bnh ca chng.
Nng lng ti thiu m mt mol cht phn ng cn phi c chuyn cc phn t ca
chng t trng thi khng hot ng tr thnh hot ng gi l nng lng hot ho ca phn
ng.
Nh vy theo thuyt hot ho phn ng: A + B
A + B A* + B*

P c th hnh dung nh sau:

AB* P

Cc phn t A v B cn phi c hot ho thnh A* v B* khi to thnh hp cht trung

gian hot ng AB* v cui cng phn hu to ra sn phm P.
Nh vy c th phn ng c vi nhau phn t cc cht phn ng dng nh phi vt
qua mt hng ro nng lng. chnh l nng lng hot ho ca phn ng (hnh 4.8). Nu
nng lng hot ho cng nh th tc phn ng s cng ln. V vy khi xt kh nng phn ng
ngi ta thng dng i lng ny so snh.

Hnh 4.8. ng biu din bin i nng lng trong qu trnh phn ng
(a) Phn ng thu nhit H > 0; (b) Phn ng to nhit H < 0

Theo thuyt hot ho tc phn ng t l thun vi s va chm hot ng cng l t l vi

s nguyn t hay phn t hot ng, ngha l nu c phn ng:
A+BP
th

v = k [A*].[B*]

Gi: nng lng hot ho phn t ca A v ca B tng ng l EA v EB.

nng ca A v B tng ng l [A] v [B].

96

Theo nh lut phn b Boltzman nng ca cc phn t A v B c nng lng EA hay EB

tc l nng cc phn t hot ng s l:

T :
So snh vi phng trnh ca nh lut tc dng khi lng:
v = k [A] [B] ta c:

Gi EA + EB = E l nng lng hot ho ca phn ng ta c phng trnh thc nghim

ca Arrehnius. y k' chnh l hng s A.
(4.14)
4.3.3. Xc nh nng lng hot ho ca phn ng
Bng thc nghim, xc nh hng s tc ca phn ng t nht hai nhit khc nhau T1
v T2. Khi ta c:

(4.15)

V d:
Xc nh nng lng hot ho ca mt phn ng bit rng trong khong nhit t 17 n
270C phn ng c h s nhit = 2,8.
Gii:

T1 = 17+ 273 = 2900K

T2 =27 + 273 = 3000K.

xc nh mt cch chnh xc nng lng hot ho ngi ta xc nh hng s tc ca

phn ng mt s nhit khc nhau ri xy dng th
ng thng vi trc honh xc nh c E.

(hnh 4.9). T gc lch ca

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Hnh 4.9. Xc nh nng lng hot ho bng phng php th

5. NH HNG CA XC TC N TC PHN NG
5.1. Mt s khi nim v xc tc
Xc tc l hin tng lm tng tc ca phn ng khi c mt nhng cht c bit, gi l
nhng cht xc tc, cc cht ny sau khi tham gia vo phn ng c hon tr li v lng v
cht.
Thng xc tc c chia thnh 3 loi:
Xc tc ng th: Cc cht phn ng v cht xc tc to thnh mt pha ng nht kh.
SO2 + O2

SO3 ng pha kh

CH3COOC2H5 + H2O

CH3COOH + C2H5OH ng pha lng

Trong xc tc ng th phn ng xy ra trong ton b th tch ca h phn ng (trong khng

gian ba chiu), tc phn ng t l thun vi nng cht xc tc.
Xc tc d th: Cc cht phn ng v cht xc tc to thnh mt h d th (khng ng
nht).
V d
H2O2 (l)
C2H4+ H2

2H2O + O2
C2H6

d th lng rn
d th kh rn

Trong xc tc d th phn ng din ra trn b mt cht xc tc (trong khng gian hai chiu).
Tc phn ng t l thun vi b mt cht xc tc.
Xc tc enzym (xc tc men)
V d:

98

Enzym l cc cht xc tc sinh hc, c bn cht protein. Trong xc tc enzym cc cht phn
ng c gi l c cht. Phn ng gia enzym v c cht c thc hin trung tm xc tc v
tc phn ng enzym cn ph thuc vo c nng ca enzym.
5.2. C ch v vai tr ca xc tc
Phn ng c xc tc thng din ra qua nhiu giai on trung gian (to ra cc hp cht trung
gian):
A+B

C+D

A+K

[AK]*

[AK]* + B
[ABK]*

[ABK]*
C+D+K

Hnh 4.10. Bin i nng lng trong phn ng khng v c mt xc tc

V d:
Phn ng thu phn acetat ethyl c xc tc H+ din ra nh sau:

99

Trong xc tc d th cc hp cht trung gian hnh thnh gia cc nguyn t trn b mt xc

tc v cc cht phn ng.
V d:
Phn ng hydro ho hydrocarbon khng no c xc tc Ni.

Giai on 1: S hp ph cc cht phn ng ln b mt cht xc tc.

Giai on 2, 3: Hnh thnh hp cht trung gian v phn ng trn b mt xc tc.
Giai on 4: To thnh sn phm phn ng v tch ra khi b mt.
Trong xc tc enzym th gia cht phn ng (c cht) v enzym to ra cc phc ES.
Nh vy s c mt ca cht xc tc lm cho phn ng din ra qua mt s phn ng trung
gian c nng lng hot ho thp hn so vi phn ng khng c xc tc (hnh 4.10) v do
lm tng tc phn ng.
Phn ng

E (Kcal/mol)

khng xc tc

30 45

xc tc v c

15 30

xc tc enzym

8 12

V d, phn ng phn hu hydro peroxyd nu khng c xc tc th i hi mt nng lng

hot ho l 35,96 Kcal/mol. Khi c xc tc platin E = 24,02 Kcal/mol, cn khi c xc tc bng
enzym catalase ch cn mt nng lng hot ho 14 Kcal/mol.
5.3. Mt s c im ca xc tc
Cht xc tc khng gy ra c phn ng ho hc. iu ny c ngha l i vi nhng
phn ng khng c kh nng xy ra v mt nhit ng hc th khng th c cht xc tc cho n.
Cht xc tc khng lm thay i cn bng ca phn ng m ch lm cho cn bng t ti
nhanh hn, cng c ngha l n khng lm thay i hiu sut ca phn ng v khi lm tng tc
phn ng thun bao nhiu ln th cng lm tng tc phn ng nghch by nhiu ln.
Cht xc tc c tnh chn lc. Mt cht xc tc thng ch c th xc tc cho mt phn
ng hoc mt loi phn ng nht nh. Tnh chn lc th hin c bit r i vi cc enzym v
vy ngi ta thng ni cc enzym c tnh c hiu cao.
C2H5OH

CH3CHO

C2H5OH

C2H4 + H2O
100

 Mt lng nh cht xc tc c th xc tc cho mt lng ln cht phn ng. S d nh vy

l v, v nguyn tc, xc tc khng b thay i sau phn ng.
6. CN BNG HO HC
6.1. Phn ng thun nghch Hng s cn bng
Phn ng thun nghch l phn ng din ra theo hai chiu

V d:
CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
H 2 + I2

CH3COOH + C2H5OH
2HI

Tc phn ng thun vt = k1 [A] [B]

Tc phn ng nghch vn = k2 [C] [D]

Hnh 4.11. S ph thuc ca tc phn ng thun nghch vo thi gian

Trong qu trnh phn ng, tc phn ng thun gim dn cn tc phn ng nghch tng
dn. Khi vt = vn ngi ta ni phn ng t ti trng thi cn bng:
k1[A]' [B]' = k2 [C]' [D]'
T rt ra:
(4.16)
Nh vy K l t s gia tch s nng cc cht sn phm phn ng v tch s nng cc
cht tham gia phn ng n c gi l hng s cn bng ca phn ng.
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101

K l i lng c trng cho mt cn bng, K c gi tr cng ln chng t cn bng chuyn

nhiu hn theo chiu thun.
V d:
4100C hng s cn bng ca phn ng:
H2

I2

2 HI

KC = 48

Hi khi trn 1 mol H2 vi 1 mol I2 trong bnh c dung tch 1 lt th nng lc cn bng ca
cc cht trong bnh l bao nhiu?
H2
Nng ban u:

Nng lc cn bng: 1x

Gii phng trnh ta c:

I2

2 HI

1
1x

2x

x = [H2] = [I2] = 0,766 mol/l

[HI] = 2x = 1,552 mol/l

K hiu: KC khi hng s cn bng c biu th qua nng cc cht.

KP khi hng s cn bng c biu th qua p sut ring ca cc cht kh.
(4.17)

Khi :
Trong P'A, P'B, P'C, P'D l p sut lc cn bng ca A, B, C, D trong h.
i vi phn ng kh th gia KC v KP c mi lin h nh sau:
KP = KC (RT)n
Trong :

(4.18)

R l hng s kh bng 0,082 lt at/mol.K

T l nhit tuyt i
n = s mol sn phm s mol cht tham gia

i vi cn bng d th th pha ngng t s khng c mt trong biu thc v d cn bng sau

y:
C(r) + H2O(h)

CO(k) + H2(k)

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102

6.2. Nguyn l chuyn dch cn bng (Le Chatelier L Satli)

"Khi mt trong nhng iu kin tn ti ca cn bng nh: nng , nhit , p sut b thay
i th cn bng s chuyn dch theo chiu chng li tc dng thay i ".
V d 1:
FeCl3 + 3KSCN

Fe(SCN)3 + 3KCl

vng nht

Khi cn bng c thit lp nu ta thm vo h mt t tinh th KCl s nhn thy mu nht

i. iu chng t cn bng chuyn dch theo chiu nghch tc l chiu lm gim bt nng
KCl. Ngc li mu s m ln nu ta thm KSCN hay FeCl3, chng t cn bng
chuyn dch theo chiu thun lm gim nng cc cht thm vo.
V d 2:
N2 + 3H2

2NH3

H<0

Phn ng theo chiu thun lm cho h nng ln do to ra nhit ng thi lm gim p sut
do to ra t s phn t hn v ngc li. V vy nu ta tng p sut ca h v d bng cch nn th
cn bng s phi chuyn dch theo chiu thun. Kt qu tng t nh vy khi ta lm lnh h
phn ng.
Trong tng hp amoniac, tng hiu sut ca phn ng ngi ta thng thc hin p sut
rt cao, tuy nhin khng th h nhit qu thp v iu ny li lm gim tc v do lm
gim nng sut ca qu trnh sn xut.
7. CC PHN NG PHC TP
Cc phn ng phc tp l cc phn ng din ra qua nhiu giai on hay gm nhiu phn ng
thnh phn.
7.1. Phn ng thun nghch
Gm hai phn ng thnh phn: phn ng thun v phn ng nghch.
A

thun nghch bc nht.

A+B

C+D

thun nghch bc hai.

Tc ca phn ng thun nghch:

v = vt vn
Khi vt = vn phn ng thun nghch t ti trng thi cn bng.
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103

 trng thi cn bng nng cc cht khng thay i

7.2. Phn ng ni tip

Phn ng din ra theo nhng giai on ni tip nhau.

Hnh 4.12. S ph thuc ca nng cc cht trong phn ng ni tip vo thi gian

V d:
Phn ng thu phn trisacarid C18H32O16
C18H32O16 + H2O C12H22O11 + C6H12O6
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
glucose

fructose

Tc ca phn ng ni tip l tc ca phn ng no chm nht trong cc phn ng

thnh phn. Trong phn ng ni tip s c mt thi im nng ca cht trung gian khng thay
i khi m tc to ra n bng tc chuyn ho n. Trng thi c gi l trng thi
dng.

7.3. Phn ng dy chuyn

Phn ng dy chuyn c lin quan n s xut hin cc gc t do. V vy ngi ta cn gi l
phn ng gc t do.
V d 1:

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104

Phn ng

H2 + Cl2 2HCl
Cl2 + h 2Cl
Cl + H2 HCl + H
H + Cl2 HCl+ Cl ...

l dng phn ng dy chuyn khng phn nhnh.

V d 2:
Phn ng

H2 + O 2 H 2 O

l phn ng dy chuyn phn nhnh.

Mt phn ng gc t do thng c ba giai on: khi mo, pht trin mch, ngt mch hay
dp tt.
Giai on ngt mch l kt qu phn ng gia cc gc t do.
V d:
OH

H2 O

H2

O2

7.4. Phn ng song song

T nhng cht ban u phn ng din ra theo mt s hng to ra
nhng sn phm khc nhau.
V d:
Khi nitro ho phenol ta thu c ng thi ba sn phm khc nhau:
ortho-, meta- v para- nitrophenol.
Tc ca phn ng song song:
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105

Nh vy trong phn ng song song nng cc sn phm phn ng t l vi hng s tc

ca cc phn ng thnh phn.
7.5. Phn ng lin hp hay phn ng km nhau
A+BC+D

(1)

Phn ng t xy ra c (G < 0)

E+FG+H

(2)

Phn ng khng t xy ra c (G > 0)

Phn ng (1) c gi l lin hp vi phn ng (2) nu nh khi xy ra n c th ko theo

phn ng (2) l phn ng khng th t xy ra.
V d:
S tng hp glucose-6-phosphat trong c th c thc hin do lin hp gia hai phn ng:
arginin phosphat + H2O arginin + H3PO4 t xy ra
glucose + H3PO4 glucose-6-phosphat + H2O
Phn ng tng cng l:
arginin phosphat + glucose glucose6phosphat + arginin
8. PHN NG XC TC ENZYM
8.1. Phng trnh ng hc ca phn ng enzym
Mt phn ng enzym n gin cng gm t nht 2 giai on nh sau:

Giai on thun nghch din ra nhanh to ra ES, cn giai on phn hu ES din ra chm.
Trong :

S: Cht phn ng hay cn gi l c cht.

E: Enzym.
ES: Sn phm trung gian hay cn gi l phc enzym c cht.
P: Sn phm phn ng.
k+1; k1; k2 l cc hng s tc tng ng.
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106

Nh vy phn ng enzym l mt phn ng phc tp (thun nghch v ni tip).

Phng trnh ng hc c dng:
(4.19)
[S]: Nng c cht.
V: Tc cc i ca phn ng enzym.
KM: Hng s c trng cho kh nng phn ng gia enzym
v c cht cn c gi l hng s Michaelis (Mikelix).

Theo c ch trn th giai on phn hu phc cht ES l giai on chm v vy tc ca

phn ng enzym c quyt nh bi giai on ny:
V = k2[ES]
p dng trng thi dng ta c th tnh c nng ca ES nh sau:
Ti trng thi dng tc hnh thnh ES s bng tc phn hu n, ngha l:
k+1[E][S] = k1[ES] + k2[ES]
Thay [E] = [E0] [ES], trong [E0] l nng ban u ca enzym
t ta c:

Chia c t v mu s cho k+1 ta c:

V tc ca phn ng:

Tc phn ng t c cc i V khi ton b enzym chuyn thnh phc ES tc l khi

[ES] = [E0]
Thay V = k2[ES] = k2[E0] ta c phng trnh (4.19)
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107

 th biu din s ph thuc tc phn ng vo nng c cht cho hnh 4.13.

T phng trnh tc v th cho thy phn ng xc tc enzym khng tng ng vi mt
phn ng bc n gin no. Tuy nhin trong nhng iu kin gii hn th n c bc xc nh.

Hnh 4.13. th s ph thuc ca tc phn ng enzym vo nng c cht

Khi [S] >> KM th v = V tc phn ng khng ph thuc vo [S] v khi phn ng l bc

0 (on BC).

Khi
Tc phn ng t l thun vi [S] v khi phn ng l bc mt (on OA)
Trn ng cong thc nghim (hnh 4.14) c th xc nh c gi tr ca KM. l hng
s c trng cho mi enzym. Nu coi:

th KM chnh l hng s cn bng ca phn ng ES E + S

Nh vy, enzym no c KM cng ln th phc ES cng khng bn hay nh ngi ta thng
ni i lc ca enzym i vi c cht cng nh.
9. XC NH C CH CA PHN NG
l mt trong nhng nhim v rt quan trng ca ng ho hc.
xc nh c ch ca phn ng phi tin hnh mt s bc sau y:
Tp hp cc d kin thc nghim gm:
Xc nh cc cht tham gia v sn phm phn ng.
Xc nh cc cht trung gian bng thc nghim hoc gi thit.
Lp phng trnh thc nghim tc ca phn ng.
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108

 Gi thit mt c ch n gin v hp l nht.

Da trn c ch gi thit tnh phng trnh tc ca phn ng.
So snh phng trnh tnh ton l thuyt vi phng trnh thc nghim xc nh xem
c ch gi thit c ph hp khng.
V d:
Xc nh c ch phn ng:
2NO + 2H2 N2 + 2H2O
Sn phm trung gian ca phn ng l N2O2 v H2O2
Thc nghim xc nh c tc phn ng (vtn) tun theo phng trnh sau:
vtn= k[NO]2[H2]
Phn ng c gi thit theo c ch ba giai on nh sau:
2NO
N2O2 + H2

N2O2

(1) cn bng c thit lp nhanh

N2 + H2O2

H2O2 + H2 2H2O

(2) giai on chm nht

(3) giai on nhanh

Hp cht trung gian hot ng R+ c to ra phn ng (1) v (2) nhng bin mt phn
ng (3).
Gi thit cn bng (1) c hng s cn bng K. Ta c:
(4.20)
Theo c ch gi thit , tc phn ng:
v = k2 [N2O2] [H2]
Thay gi tr ca [ N2O2] t (4.20) vo phng trnh tc trn ta c:
v = k2. K[NO]2 [H2]
Thay k2. K = k ta c:
v = k[NO]2[H2]
Phng trnh tc rt ra t tnh ton l thuyt (v) trng vi phng trnh thu c t thc
nghim (vtn)
V vy c ch gi thit l ng.
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CU HI T LNG GI
4.1. Tc trung bnh, tc tc thi ca mt phn ng c tnh nh th no?
4.2. Th no l phn ng n gin, phn ng phc tp. Cho cc v d.
4.3. Nng cc cht phn ng nh hng n tc phn ng nh th no?
Pht biu v vit biu thc nh lut tc dng khi lng. Bc phn ng l g?
4.4. Phn bit bc phn ng v phn t s ca phn ng.
4.5. Thit lp phng trnh ng hc ca phn ng bc 0, bc 1, bc 2 (dng 2A
P). Cho bit dng th ca chng.
4.6. Mt phn ng bc 1 c hng s tc k1= 8.103 min1. Hi sau thi gian bao
lu nng ban u ca cht phn ng gim i 4 ln.
4.7. Mt phn ng bc 1 dng A B. Nng ban u ca A bng 0,5 mM. Sau
2 giy cn li 0,25 mM. Hi sau 3 giy nng ca A l bao nhiu?
4.8. Mt phn ng bc 1, nhit 270C nng ban u gim 1/2 sau 5000
giy, cn nhit 370C nng ban u gim 1/2 sau 1000 giy. Tnh nng
lng hot ho ca phn ng.
4.9. Cho phn ng: H2 + I2 2HI. Vit biu thc tc phn ng v cho bit bc
phn ng. Bit rng:
Nu tng nng hydro ln gp i, gi nguyn nng iod th tc phn
ng tng ln gp i.
Nu tng nng iod ln gp ba, gi nguyn nng hydro th tc phn
ng tng ln gp ba.
4.10. Phn ng 2NO + O2 2NO2 l mt phn ng n gin. Tc phn ng
thay i nh th no khi:
Tng nng O2 ln 4 ln
Tng nng NO v O2 ln 3 ln.
Gim nng NO 2 ln.
4.11. Nhit nh hng nh th no n tc phn ng, th hin qua biu thc
v quy tc no?
4.12. Mt phn ng c h s nhit = 3,1. Hi khi tng nhit thm 400 tc
phn ng tng ln bao nhiu ln?
4.13. H s nhit ca mt phn ng bng 3. Hi cn phi tng nhit ln bao
nhiu tc phn ng tng ln 243 ln?
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4.14. Mt phn ng c h s nhit bng 2. 00C phn ng kt thc sau 1024

ngy. Hi 300C phn ng kt thc sau thi gian bao lu?
4.15. Trnh by ni dung c bn ca thuyt hot ho. Nng lng hot ho ca
mt phn ng l g?
4.16. Hng s tc phn ng 200C l 3.102 v 500C l 4.101 ltmol1.min1.
Vit biu thc Arrhenius i vi phn ng ny.
4.17. Mt phn ng c nng lng hot ho 30.000 calo/mol. Tc phn ng s
tng ln bao nhiu ln khi tng nhit t 200C ln 300C.
4.18. nhit 100C mt phn ng kt thc sau 95 giy cn 200C sau 60 giy.
Tnh nng lng hot ho ca phn ng.
4.19. Ti sao s c mt ca cht xc tc li lm tng tc phn ng? V v gii
thch gin nng lng ca phn ng khi c v khng c mt cht xc tc.
4.20. Hy nu mt s c im ca xc tc.
4.21. Hng s cn bng ca mt phn ng l g? Hy pht biu v minh ho
nguyn l chuyn dch cn bng qua cc v d.
4.22. Cc cn bng sau y chuyn dch th no khi tng nhit , khi tng p
sut:
H > 0

a) N2+ O2

2NO

b) 2CO + 2 H2

CH4 + CO2

H < 0

c) CaO + CO2

CaCO3

H < 0

d) H2 + I2

2HI

H = 0

e) N2O4

2NO2

H > 0

4.23. Th no l phn ng thun nghch, phn ng ni tip? Cho v d. Phn bit

trng thi cn bng v trng thi dng.
4.24. Cho v d v phn ng dy chuyn. Nhng giai on c bn ca mt phn
ng dy chuyn.
4.25. T phng trnh tc ca phn ng enzym hy gii thch dng th v
[S] thng nhn c i vi phn ng xc tc enzym.

Bi 5

I CNG V DUNG DCH

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MC TIU
1. nh ngha ng v tnh ton c nhng loi nng khc nhau s dng trong ho
hc.
2. M t hin tng thm thu v gii thch c biu thc ca nh lut Vant Hoff v
p sut thm thu.
3. So snh v gii thch c s khc nhau v nhit si, nhit ng c ca dung
dch v ca dung mi.
4. Nu ln c nhng ng dng ca vic o p sut thm thu, tng nhit si,
h nhit ng c ca dung dch trong vic xc nh khi lng mol ca cc cht.
M U
Cc h phn tn v dung dch
H phn tn l nhng h trong c t nht mt cht phn b (gi l cht phn tn) vo mt
cht khc (gi l mi trng phn tn) di dng nhng ht c kch thc nh b.
Da vo kch thc ht ngi ta chia thnh:
H phn tn phn tion hay cn gi l dung dch thc. V d, dung dch mui acid,
base... Kch thc ht y 1 nm.
H phn tn keo hay cn gi l dung dch keo. V d, gelatin, h tinh bt, keo acid
silicic... c kch thc ht t 1 100 nm.
H phn tn th c 2 dng l huyn ph v nh tng. V d, nc sng cha nhng ht
ph sa; sa... Kch thc ht ca nhng h ny 100 nm.
Trong chng ny chng ta cp n dung dch phn t v nhng tnh cht chung ca
chng.
1. NH NGHA V PHN LOI DUNG DCH
Dung dch l mt h ng nht ca hai hay nhiu cht c t l khc nhau thay i trong
mt phm vi rng.
T nh ngha c th c:
Dung dch rn. V d, cc hp kim.
Dung dch kh. V d, khng kh.
Dung dch lng. V d, dung dch ca cc cht rn (ng, NaCl...) kh (O2, NH3...) lng
(C2H5OH, benzen...) trong nc.

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Cc nh ho hc v sinh hc thng tip xc vi cc dung dch lng m cht lng y

thng l nc. Trong cc dung dch ny nc l mi trng phn tn c gi l dung mi, cc
cht phn tn gi l cc cht tan.
Theo bn cht ca cht tan ngi ta phn chia thnh:
Dung dch khng in ly: Cht tan c mt trong dung dch di dng phn t. V d dung
dch ng, C2H5OH, O2 trong nc.
Dung dch in ly: Trong dung dch c mt c phn t v ion. V d dung dch ca cc
mui, acid, base... trong nc.
2. NNG DUNG DCH
Nng dung dch l i lng biu th lng cht tan trong dung dch.
C mt s cch biu th nng tu thuc vo mc ch s dng.
2.1. Nng phn trm. K hiu %
Nng phn trm biu th bng s gam cht tan trong 100g dung dch.
V d:
Dung dch huyt thanh ngt l dung dch glucose 5% (5g glucose ho tan trong 95g nc).
2.2. Nng mol hay mol/lt. K hiu M hay CM
Nng mol c biu th bng s mol cht tan trong 1 lt dung dch.
V d:
Dung dch NaOH 0,1M l dung dch c 4g NaOH trong 1 lt dung dch. Mun c dung dch
ny ngi ta phi cn chnh xc 4g NaOH v thm nc n th tch cui cng l 1 lt.
2.3. Nng ng lng. K hiu N hay CN
Nng ng lng c biu th bng s ng lng gam cht tan trong 1 lt dung dch.
ng lng gam ca mt cht l lng cht tnh bng gam khi phn ng tng ng
(kt hp hay thay th) 1 mol nguyn t hidro (1,008g).
ng lng gam ca mt cht ph thuc vo phn ng m n tham gia vo.
2.3.1. ng lng gam ca n cht
V d 1:
Trong phn ng:

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16 g oxy kt hp vi 2 mol nguyn t hydro. Vy ng lng gam ca oxy (

) l

=8

g.
V d 2:
Trong phn ng:
Mg + 2HCl H2 + MgCl2

24g Mg thay th 2 mol nguyn t hydro. Vy EMg =

= 12 g.

Nh vy: ng lng gam ca mt n cht bng khi lng mol nguyn t ca n chia
cho ho tr.
Lu : i vi nhng nguyn t c nhiu ho tr th ng lng gam ca n c th khc
nhau.
V d:
Trong cc phn ng sau y:

2.3.2. ng lng gam ca hp cht tham gia phn ng trao i

V d 1:
Trong phn ng:
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
40g NaOH phn ng tng ng vi mt mol HCl (36,5g) tc l tng ng vi mt mol
nguyn t hydro. V vy ENaOH = 40g/1 v EHCl = 36,5g/1.
V d 2:
Trong phn ng:
3NaOH + H3PO4 = Na3PO4 + 3H2O
mt mol H3PO4 khi phn ng tng ng vi 3 mol nguyn t hydro (a ra 3 mol nguyn
t hydro trao i). V vy:

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cn trong phn ng:

2NaOH + H3PO4 Na2HPO4 + 2H2O
1 mol H3PO4 khi phn ng tng ng vi 2 mol nguyn t hydro:

Nh vy: ng lng gam ca mt cht trong phn ng trao i bng khi lng mol
phn t chia cho s in tch dng hay m m mt phn t cht trao i.
2.3.3. ng lng gam ca hp cht tham gia phn ng oxy ho kh
V d 1:
Trong phn ng:
2KMnO4 + 10FeSO4 + 8H2SO4 2MnSO4 + 5Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + 8H2O
Mt mol KMnO4 nhn 5 mol electron (tng ng vi 5 mol nguyn t hydro).

V vy:
Nh vy: ng lng gam ca mt cht trong phn ng oxy ho kh bng khi lng
mol phn t chia cho s electron m mt phn t cht cho hoc nhn.
V d 2:
Tnh ng lng gam ca acid oxalic trong cc phn ng sau y v cho bit mun pha
c dung dch 0,1 N ca acid ny cn phi tin hnh nh th no?

8H2O

H2C2O4 + 2NaOH

Na2C2O4 + 2H2O

5H2C2O4 + 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4

10CO2 + 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 +

(1)
(2)

Gii: Trong phn ng (1) H2C2O4 trao i 2 in tch dng (2H+) hay 2 in tch m
(C2O42). V vy:

Trong phn ng (2) mt phn t H2C2O4 cho i 2e (2C+3 2C+4). V vy ng lng gam
ca H2C2O4 trong phn ng ny cng bng

Mun pha dung dch H2C2O4 0,1N ta phi cn chnh xc 4,5g H2C2O4 v thm nc n th
tch 1 lt.
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Nng ng lng gam c s dng rng ri trong ho hc, c bit trong ho hc phn
tch.
T nh ngha v ng lng gam c th suy ra rng: khi hai cht phn ng va vi
nhau th s ng lng gam phn ng ca cht ny ng bng s ng lng gam phn
ng ca cht kia.
V d 3:
Nu VA lt dung dch cht A nng NA phn ng va vi VB lt dung dch cht B c
nng NB. Khi ta c:
VA. NA = VB. NB
l biu thc ca nh lut ng lng: Cc cht ho hc (n cht hay hp cht)
phn ng vi nhau theo cng s ng lng gam c s dng trong ho hc phn tch
xc nh nng ca cht tan trong dung dch.
2.4. Nng molan. K hiu m hay Cm
Nng molan biu th s mol cht tan trong 1000g dung mi.
V d: Dung dch glucose 0,5 m l dung dch gm 90g glucose trong 1000g nc.
2.5. Nng phn mol hay nng mol ring phn
Nng phn mol ca mt cht i no c tnh bng t s s mol ca cht v tng s
s mol ca tt c cc cht to nn dung dch:

Ni: Nng phn mol ca cht i.

ni: S mol cht i
ni: Tng s mol ca cc cht to nn dung dch.
3. P SUT THM THU CA DUNG DCH
3.1. Hin tng thm thu
Hai nhnh A v B ca mt ng hnh ch U c ngn cch bng mt mng thm thu tc l
mng c kch thc cc l ch cho cc phn t dung mi i qua cn cc tiu phn cht tan b gi
li (hnh 5.1).

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Hnh 5.1. M hnh th nghim v hin tng thm thu

Bn nhnh A cha mt dung dch ng bn nhnh B cha nc nguyn cht (hay mt dung
dch ng c nng nh hn nng dung dch nhnh A). Sau mt thi gian nht nh,
nhn thy mc cht lng trong nhnh A nng ln mt cao h no , cn mc cht lng trong
nhnh B b h thp xung. iu chng t c nhng phn t dung mi t nhnh B chuyn
sang nhnh A.
Hin tng cc phn t dung mi khuych tn mt chiu qua mng thm thu t dung mi
sang dung dch (hoc t dung dch c nng thp sang dung dch c nng cao hn) c
gi l hin tng thm thu.
3.2. p sut thm thu nh lut Van't Hoff (Van Hp 1887 H Lan)
p sut thm thu l p sut gy nn bi hin tng thm thu. V ln n c gi tr bng
p sut gy nn bi ct nc c chiu cao h trong th nghim trn hoc bng p sut cn t ln
dung dch lm ngng hin tng thm thu.
p sut thm thu (thng k hiu ) ph thuc vo nng v nhit ca dung dch theo
nh lut Vant Hoff:
p sut thm thu ca mt dung dch t l thun vi nng v nhit ca dung dch.
= R.C.T
R: Hng s kh l tng, bng 0,082 lt.at/mol.K.
C: Nng mol/lt ca dung dch.
T: Nhit tuyt i ca dung dch.
Hin tng thm thu c ngha sinh hc rt quan trng v mng ca cc t bo l cc mng
thm thu.
Nh c hin tng thm thu nc c vn chuyn t r cy ln ngn.
Dch trong hng cu c p sut thm thu 7,4 7,5 at. V vy trnh hin tng v hoc
teo hng cu ngi ta thng s dng nhng dung dch ng trng (c p sut thm thu bng
p sut thm thu ca mu) a vo c th.
Da vo nh lut Vant Hoff ngi ta c th xc nh c khi lng mol phn t ca mt
cht bng cch o p sut thm thu.
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V d:
Xc nh khi lng mol phn t ca hemoglobin bit rng dung dch 80g hemoglobin/lt c
p sut thm thu 0,026 at, 40C.
Gii: gi MA l khi lng mol phn t ca hemoglobin ta c:

T MA 70.000g
4. NHIT SI V NHIT NG C CA DUNG DCH
4.1. p sut hi ca dung dch
p sut hi ca mt cht lng l p sut gy nn bi nhng phn t ca n trn mt thong
ca cht lng.
p sut hi bo ho l p sut to ra trn mt thong khi qu trnh bay hi t ti trng thi
cn bng.
p sut hi tng khi tng nhit ca cht lng.
cng mt nhit , p sut hi hay p sut hi bo ho ca dung dch lun lun nh hn
p sut ca dung mi nguyn cht do trn mt thong ca dung dch c cc tiu phn cht tan n
ng (hnh 5.2).

Hnh 5.2. S ph thuc ca p sut hi bo ho ca dung mi v dung dch vo nhit

4.2. Nhit si ca dung dch

Mt cht lng si khi p sut hi bo ho ca n bng p sut kh quyn. V d, nc si
1000C v nhit ny p sut hi ca n bng p sut 1 atm. Trong khi t c p sut
1 atm cn phi tng nhit ca dung dch hn 1000C.
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118

Tm li: Mt dung dch s si nhit cao hn nhit si ca dung mi. Nng dung
dch cng ln th nhit si ca n cng cao. Hiu nhit si ca dung dch v dung mi
c gi l tng im si ca dung dch, k hiu TS.
4.3. Nhit ng c ca dung dch
Mt cht lng s ng c nhit ti p sut hi bo ho trn pha lng bng p sut
hi bo ho trn pha rn. Trn hnh (5.2) ng biu din bin i p sut hi bo ho trn pha
rn (on OA) ct ng p sut hi trn dung dch im tng ng vi nhit thp hn 00C.
Tm li: Mt dung dch s ng c nhit thp hn nhit ng c ca dung mi.
Nng dung dch cng ln th nhit ng ca n cng thp.
Hiu nhit ng ca dung mi v dung dch c gi l h im ng ca dung dch,
k hiu T.
4.4. nh lut Raoult (Raun. 1886 Php)
tng im si hay h im ng c ca dung dch t l thun vi nng molan
ca dung dch.
Ts = ks. Cm
T = k.Cm
ks v k tng ng c gi l hng s nghim si v hng s nghim ng c ca dung
mi. N l nhng i lng c trng i vi mt dung mi nht nh.
BNG 5.1. NHIT SI V NHIT NG CA MT S DUNG MI
Ts0C

Dung mi

T0C

ks

H2O

100

0,52

1,86

C6H6

80

2,57

5,5

5,12

C2H5OH

79

1,19
3,04

40

7,27

C6H5OH
C6H12

81

2,79

6,5

2,02

CHCl3

61,1

3,6

63,2

4,9

CCl4

76,5

5,0

24,7

29,8

C6H5NH2

182

3,22

Da vo nh lut Raoult v bng thc nghim xc nh h im ng c (phng php

nghim ng) hay tng im si (phng php nghim si) ca dung dch ngi ta c th tm
c khi lng mol ca mt cht tan nht nh.
V d:
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Ho tan 10g cht A (khng in ly) trong 100g nc. Dung dch thu c ng c nhit
2,120C. Tnh khi lng mol phn t cht A.
Gii:

T = 0 ( 2,12) = 2,120

5. P SUT THM THU, NHIT SI V NHIT NG C CA DUNG

DCH IN LI
nh lut Vant Hoff v Raoult ch p dng ng cho cc dung dch long (tng tc ca cc
tiu phn cht tan khng ng k) ca cc cht khng bay hi, khng in ly (s tiu phn chnh
bng s phn t cht tan).
i vi dung dch cht in ly th s tiu phn trong dung dch (gm cc phn t v ion) s
ln hn s tiu phn trong dung dch cht khng in ly c cng nng mol. Trong khi cc
tnh cht nh: p sut thm thu, tng im si hay h im ng c li ch ph thuc vo
nng tiu phn trong dung dch. Do cc i lng ny thc t o c ln hn so vi tnh
ton theo cng thc ca Vant Hoff v Raoult. c th p dng c cho c dung dch in ly
Vant Hoff a thm vo cc cng thc mt h s b sung i gi l h s ng trng. Khi :
= i. RCT
TS = i.kS.m
T = i. k.m
Nh vy v ngha th i cho bit s tiu phn cht tan ln hn s phn t bao nhiu ln. i
vi dung dch khng in ly th i = 0, cn i vi dung dch in ly th i >1. V d, trong nhng
iu kin l tng th dung dch NaCl c i = 2, cn dung dch Na2SO4 c i = 3 v mi phn t
ny c th cho ti a 2 v 3 tiu phn l cc ion.
xc nh i ngi ta o p sut thm thu hoc tng im si, h im ng c ca
dung dch ri so snh chng vi cc gi tr tnh ton theo cc cng thc ca nh lut Vant Hoff
v Raoult.

CU HI T LNG GI
5.1. nh ngha cc nng : phn trm (%), mol (M), molan (m), ng lng
gam (N).
5.2. Nu quy tc tnh ng lng gam ca mt cht trong phn ng trao i,
phn ng oxy ho kh.
5.3. Pht biu nh lut ng lng v nu ng dng ca nh lut trong tnh
ton ca phn tch th tch.
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5.4. Trnh by hin tng thm thu. Pht biu nh lut Vant Hoff v p sut
thm thu.
5.5. p sut hi trn dung dch, nhit si v nhit ng c ca dung dch.
5.6. nh lut Raoult v cc phng php nghim si v nghim lnh.
5.7. Tnh p sut thm thu ca dung dch 5 g/lt glucose 250C.
5.8. Bit rng 370C (thn nhit) dch hng cu c p sut thm thu l 7,5 atm.
Tnh nng mol ca cc cht tan trong hng cu.
5.9. Dung dch trong nc ca cht A (khng in ly) 0,184g trong 100ml dung
dch c p sut thm thu 560mm Hg 300C. Tnh khi lng mol ca A.
5.10. Dung dch 0,4 g/lt mt polypeptid c p sut thm thu 3,74 Torr 270C
(1Torr = 1,32.103 atm). Tnh khi lng mol ca polypeptid .
5.11. Dung dch trong nc ca cht B (khng in ly) l 3 g trong 250 ml dung
dch 120C c p sut 0,82 atm. Tnh khi lng mol ca B.
5.12. Tnh nhit si v nhit ng c ca dung dch 9 g glucose trong 100g
nc.
5.13. Phi ly bao nhiu gam glucose tan trong 150 g nc h nhit ng
c ca dung dch thu c xung 0,750C? Dung dch si nhit bao nhiu?
5.14. Dung dch mt cht tan khng in ly trong nc ng c 2,470C. Hi
dung dch ny si nhit bao nhiu?
5.15. Dung dch cht C (khng in ly) 1,38 g trong 100 g nc ng c
0,2790C. Tnh khi lng mol ca C.
5.16. Nhit ng c ca dung dch cha 0,244 g acid benzoic trong 20 g
benzen l 5,2320C. Xc nh dng t hp phn t ca n trong benzen. Bit rng
benzen ng c 5,478oC. K ca benzen l 4,9.
5.17. Dung dch cha 16,9 gam mt cht khng in ly trong 250 g nc ng
c 0,7440C. Cht ny c 57,2% C; 4,77% H v 38,1% O. Xc nh cng thc
phn t ca hp cht.

Bi 6

DUNG DCH CC CHT IN LY

MC TIU
1. nh ngha ng v tnh ton c mt s i lng c trng cho mt cht in ly,

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mt dung dch cht in ly.

2. Nu c mt s quan nim v acidbase (theo arrehnius, Lewis v Bronsted). Nhn
bit c acid, base theo Bronsted.
3. Tnh ton c pH ca cc dung dch cht in ly (acid, base, mui, acid amin).
4. Nu c thnh phn tng qut, gii thch c c ch tc dng v tnh c pH ca
mt s h m khc nhau.
5. nh ngha ng tch s tan ca cht in ly mnh kh tan v nu c mi quan h
ca i lng ny vi tan.
6. Trnh by c s hnh thnh, cu to v cu trc khng gian ca phc cht.
7. Trnh by c bn cht, c im ca nhng phng php phn tch th tch (trung
ho, permangnat, complexon).
1. MT S KHI NIM V I LNG V DUNG DCH CHT IN LY
1.1. Thuyt in ly. Arrehnius (Arniux. 1884 Thu in)
Nhng cht trng thi ho tan hay nng chy c kh nng dn in c gi l cc cht
in ly. Trong nc cht in ly phn ly thnh cc ion dng v ion m.
Tu thuc vo kh nng phn ly ca cc cht in ly trong dung dch, ngi ta phn chia
chng thnh cc cht in ly yu v cht in ly mnh.
Cht in ly mnh l nhng cht c kh nng phn ly hon ton thnh cc ion trong dung
dch, thng l nhng hp cht c lin kt ion hay lin kt cng ho tr phn cc mnh.
V d:
Tt c cc mui v c v hu ht cc mui hu c nh:
KNO3

K+

NaCH3COO

Na+

RNH3Cl

RNH3+ +

NO3
CH3COO
Cl

Mt s acid, base v c mnh nh:

H2SO4
NaOH

2H+

Na+

+
+

SO42
OH

Cht in ly yu l nhng cht phn ly khng hon ton trong dung dch, thng l nhng
cht c lin kt cng ho tr phn cc yu hay lin kt cho nhn.
V d:
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 Mt s acid v base v c yu nh:

HNO2

H+

NO2

H2CO3

H+

HCO3

NH4OH

NH4+

OH

CH3COO

Hu ht cc acid v base hu c nh:

CH3COOH

H+

R NH2 + H2O

RNH3+ +

OH

Fe2+

6CN

Cc ion phc nh:

[Fe(CN)6]4

1.2. Hng s in ly
i vi cht in ly yu, qu trnh in ly ca chng trong dung dch thc cht l mt qu
trnh thun nghch, ngha l trong dung dch c cn bng ng gia cc phn t v cc ion phn
ly ra:
AB

A+

Hng s cn bng ca qu trnh phn ly mt cht in ly yu:

c gi l hng s in ly, k hiu l K

K l i lng c trng cho cc cht in ly yu, n ph thuc vo bn cht cht in ly,
nhit v dung mi. K cng ln th kh nng phn ly cng nhiu.
Nu AB l mt acid yu th K c gi l hng s in ly ca acid, k hiu l Ka.
V d:
CH3COOH

H+

CH3COO

Nu AB l mt base yu th K c gi l hng s in ly ca base, k hiu l Kb.

V d:
R NH2 + H2O

RNH3+ +
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123

Nu AB l mt ion phc th K c gi l hng s khng bn, k hiu Kkb.

V d:
[Fe(CN)6]4

Fe2+

6CN

Trong tnh ton ngi ta cn s dng i lng pK vi quy c pK = lgK. Nh vy tng

ng ta s c pKa, pKb, pKkb,... Mt cht in ly c pK cng nh th c kh nng in ly cng
mnh trong dung dch.
1.3. in ly
Kh nng phn ly ca cc cht in ly trong dung dch cn c nh gi qua mt i lng
gi l in ly ca dung dch, k hiu l .
in ly l t s gia s phn t phn ly thnh ion n v tng s phn t ho tan no.

in ly c biu din bng phn trm (%).

V d:
Dung dch HF trong nc nng 0,1 M 25oC c = 0,09 hay 9%. iu c ngha l c
ho tan 100 phn t th c 9 phn t phn ly thnh ion.
i vi dung dch cc cht khng in ly, v d: ng... th = 0
i vi dung dch cc cht in ly mnh, phn ly hon ton th = 1
Nh vy in ly c th c gi tr 0 1.
Tuy nhin trong thc t khi xc nh in ly (v d, bng phng php o dn in)
ca dung dch nhng cht in ly mnh, v d: HCl, NaOH, K2SO4,... th thng < 1 (n ch =
1 khi dung dch c pha long v cng). S d nh vy l v nhng dung dch c nng cao,
xy ra tng tc tnh in gia cc ion hoc s t hp gia cc ion vi phn t.
K ch ph thuc vo bn cht dung mi v nhit , trong khi cn ph thuc c vo
nng . Nh vy K c trng cho kh nng in ly ca mt cht in ly yu, cn c trng
cho kh nng in ly ca mt dung dch in ly ni chung.
Gia K ca mt cht in ly yu v c mt mi tng quan nh sau:
Nu AB l cht in ly yu c hng s in ly K. Trong dung dch c cn bng:
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124

AB

A+ +

Gi nng ban u ca AB l C, in ly ca n nng ny l .

Sau khi cn bng in ly c thit lp c [A+] = [B] = C v [AB] = C C
Theo nh ngha

Khi << 1 ( < 0,1) c th coi 1 1 khi ta c biu thc n gin hn

Biu thc cho thy: in ly t l nghch vi cn bc 2 ca nng cht in ly. l

ni dung ca nh lut pha long Ostwald (toan).
Khi nng gim, ngha l khi pha long th in ly ca dung dch tng ln.
Cc biu thc trn cho php tnh hng s K khi bit in ly mt nng xc nh v
ngc li.
V d 1:
Tnh hng s in ly ca CH3COOH bit rng dung dch 0,1M c in ly 0,0132.
V << 1 nn c th p dng cng thc gn ng:
K = 2C = (0,0132)2. 101 = 1,76 105
V d 2:
Hng s in ly ca HNO2 = 5.10 4. Hi dung dch c nng bao nhiu in ly bng
20%
V c gi tr tng i ln, khng th b qua nn phi p dng biu thc:

1.4. Khi nim v hot ca ion Lc ion ca dung dch

i vi cc cht in ly mnh, khi nim hng s in ly khng c ngha v cc cht ny
phn ly hon ton. Tuy nhin do tng tc gia cc ion tch in tri du m nng hot ng
ca cc ion thng nh hn nng vn c. V vy ngi ta a ra mt khi nim gi l hot
, k hiu l a. l nng hot ng hay nng hiu dng ca ion no trong dung dch.
Hot v nng lin quan vi nhau qua biu thc:
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125

a = f.C
C: Nng vn c ca ion trong dung dch.
f: H s hot , f c th c cc gi tr 0 f 1. i vi dung dch cht in ly mnh nng
thp tng tc gia cc ion khng ng k th f = 1, khi hot bng nng .
Theo Debye v Huckel h s hot ca mt ion c tnh bng biu thc:

Trong Z l in tch ca ion. I c gi l lc ion ca dung dch.

Lc ion l mt i lng phn nh nh hng ca nng v in tch ca cc ion khc c
mt trong dung dch ln ion ang nghin cu. I c tnh bng biu thc:

Ci l nng ca mi loi ion trong dung dch

Zi l in tch ion.
V d:
Tnh lc ion ca dung dch cha 0,1 M KH2PO4, 0,2 M K2HPO4 v 0,4 M KCl. Hot ca
ion K+ trong dung dch ny l bao nhiu?
Gii: Nng ca cc ion trong dung dch l:
[K+]= 0,1 + 0,4 + 0,4 = 0,9 M
[Cl] = 0,4 M
[H2PO4] = 0,1 M
[HPO42] = 0,2 M
Lc ion ca dung dch:

H s hot ca ion K+:

Hot ion K+ trong dung dch:

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a = f.C = 0,3. 0,9 = 0,27M.

1.5. S in ly ca nc Tch s ion ca nc pH
Nc l cht in ly rt yu
H 2O

H+ + OH

Hng s in ly ca nc 250C:

T : Kn = [H+] [OH] = 55,5.1,8.1016 = 1014 gi l tch s ion ca nc

Nh vy trong nc [H+] = [OH] = 107 mol/l
Trong dung dch nc bt k nng ion H+ hay OH c th thay i nhng tch s nng
ca chng lun lun bng 1014 mol/l.
c trng cho acid, base hay trung tnh ca mt dung dch ngi ta s dng mt i
lng gi l pH
pH = lg [H+]
Nc nguyn cht c

[H+] = 107

pH = 7

Dung dch acid c

[H+] 107

pH 7

Dung dch base c

[OH] 107 hay [H+] 107

pH 7

Ngi ta cn dng i lng pOH vi quy c:

pOH = - lg [OH-]
Ta li c:

[H+].[OH] = Kn Nu ly lg ca 2 v v k hiu lgKn = pKn

lg[H+]lg[OH] = lgKn = pKn hay
pH + pOH = -lg10-14 = 14

Nh vy c th tnh pH ca mt dung dch khi bit pOH ca n:

pH = 14 pOH
1.6. Cht ch th pH
Cc cht ch th pH l cc cht c mu sc thay i ph thuc vo pH. Chng thng l acid
hay base hu c yu m dng phn t v dng ion c mu khc nhau.
V d:
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Mt cht ch th pH l acid th trong dung dch c cn bng phn ly:

H+

HInd

Ind

Mu dng phn t

Mu dng ion

Khong chuyn mu

Phenolphtalein

khng mu

hng

8 10

Bromothymol

xanh vng

xanh

6,2 7,6

Qu tm

hng

xanh

58

Methyl

hng

vng

4,4 6,2

Methyl da cam

da cam

vng

3,1 4,5

i lng c trng i vi mi cht ch th pH l khong chuyn mu ca cht ch th.

l khong pH m cht ch th bt u chuyn t mu ny sang hon ton mu khc (t mu dng
phn t sang mu dng ion).
V d:
Vi methyl th pH 4,4 c mu hng (mu dng phn t)
4,4 pH 6,2 mu hng chuyn dn sang vng.
pH 6,2 c mu vng (mu dng ion).
S dng cht ch th pH thch hp c th nh gi s b pH ca mt dung dch trong khong
no.
V d:
Nu nh phenolphtalein vo mt dung dch thy xut hin mu hng th chng t dung
dch c pH 8.
Nu nh methyl vo mt dung dch thy xut hin mu hng th dung dch c pH nh
hn 4,4. Nu c mu vng th pH ca dung dch ln hn 6,2.
xc nh pH bng cc cht ch th mu pH mt cch chnh xc hn ngi ta thng dng
dung dch ch th tng hp. l mt dung dch cha nhiu cht ch th pH c cc khong
chuyn mu khc nhau v do n s c mt mu xc nh mt pH xc nh. Ngi ta cng
dng giy o pH l giy tm cht ch th tng hp.
Khi o pH ngi ta nh mt vi git cht ch th tng hp hay nhng mt mu giy o pH
vo dung dch cn o ri so mu vi mt thang mu tng ng vi nhng pH khc nhau. V d:
pH
mu

10

da cam

Da cam

vng

vng lc

xanh lc

xanh

tm

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Vi nhng thang mu chi tit hn ngi ta c th xc nh c pH vi chnh xc n 0,5

hoc 0,2 n v pH.
2. ACID V BASE
2.1. Thuyt proton v acid base ca Bronsted (Bronstet 1923 an Mch)
Theo Bronsted acid l cht c kh nng nhng proton, base l cht c kh nng nhn
proton:
CH3COOH

H+

CH3COO

NH4+

H+

NH3

RNH3+

H+

RNH2

H+

Hay tng qut ta c:

HA

Mt acid HA khi phn ly cho ra proton v mt base A

HA/A c gi l mt cp acid base lin hp.
2.2. Thuyt electron v acid base ca Lewis (Liuyt)
Acid l cht c kh nng nhn cp electron cn base l cht c kh nng cho cp
electron.

Theo nh ngha ca Lewis th nhng phn ng khng c s trao i proton cng thuc loi
phn ng acid base.
V d:

Thuyt Lewis thng c s dng trong ho hc hu c.

2.3. S in ly ca acid v base trong nc
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129

HCl
CH3COOH

H+

Cl

H+

CH3COO

V ion H+ c th tch nh nn mt in tch ln do n c th tham gia vo tng tc

vi cc phn t nc to ra ion hydroxoni H3O+. V vy phn ng phn ly ca acid thc cht l
phn ng ca n vi nc
H3 O+ +

Cl

CH3COOH + H2O

H 3 O+ +

CH3COO

HA+ H2O

H3O+ +

HCl + H2O

Tuy nhin n gin ngi ta vn vit

H+

HA

v hng s in ly vn c tnh bng biu thc:

Tng t nh vy s in ly ca mt base l phn ng ca n vi nc to ra ion OH.
V d:
NH3 + H2O

NH4+ +

CH3COO + H2O

CH3COOH + OH

OH

v hng s in ly c tnh bng biu thc:

thun li ngi ta cn dng i lng pKa v pKb vi quy c:
pKa = lg Ka v pKb = lgKb
Gia Ka v Kb (hay pKa v pKb) ca mt cp acid base lin hp c mi lin h sau y:
Ka. Kb = Kn
pKa + pKb = pKn = 14
V d:
i vi cp

CH3COOH / CH3COO

S in ly ca acid CH3COOH

H+ + CH3COO

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130

S in ly ca base lin hp
CH3COO + H2O

CH3COOH + OH

Ka. Kb = [ H+] [OH] = Kn hay pKa + pKb = pKn = 14

Ch : i vi mt cp acid base lin hp dng acid cng mnh th dng base lin hp
cng yu.
BNG 6.1. HNG S IN LY Ka V pKa CA MT S ACID YU
Tn axit
a. oxalic

a. phosphoric

a. malonic

Cng thc phn t

HOOCCOOH

H3PO4

HOOCCH2COOH

Ka

pKa

7,5.102

1,27

5,4.105

4,27

7,5.103

2,13

6,2.108

7,21

2,2.1012

11,66

1,5.103

2,83

2,0.106

5,70

a. salicylic

o HOC6H4COOH

1,0.10

3,00

a. fumaric

HOOCCH=CHCOOH

9,0.104

3,05

3,0.105

5,52

8,0.10

3,10

2,0.105

4,70

4,0.106

6,39

a. citric

HOOCCH2C(OH)(COOH)CH2COOH

a. flohydric

HF

6,5.104

3,19

a. nitr

HNO2

4,5.104

3,35

a. malic

HOOCCH(OH)COOH

4,0.104

4,39

8,0.106

5,10

a. formic

HCOOH

1,8.104

3,74

a. lactic

CH3CHOHCOOH

1,4.104

3,86

a. benzoic

C6H5COOH

6,5.10

4,19

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131

a. sucinic

HOOC(CH2)2COOH

6,3.105

4,20

2,4.106

5,63

a. acrylic

CH2=CHCOOH

5,5.105

4,26

a. acetic

CH3COOH

1,8.105

4,76

a. caproic

CH3(CH2)4COOH

1,6.105

4,81

a. butyric

CH3(CH2)2COOH

1,5.105

4,82

a. isobutyric

(CH3)2CHCOOH

1,4.105

4,85

a. propyonic

CH3CH2COOH

1,4.105

4,85

a. carbonic

H2CO3

4,3.107

6,37

5,6.1011

10,26

1,1.107

6,96

1,0.1014

14,00

a. sulfuhydric

H2S

a. hypoclor

HClO

3,1.108

7,51

a. cyanhyric

HCN

4,9.1010

9,31

a. phenic (phenol)

C6H5OH

1,0.10

10

10,00

BNG 6.2. HNG S IN LY Kb V pKb CA MT S BASE YU

Tn Baz

Cng thc ho hc

Kb

pKb

diethylamin

(C2H5)2NH

9,6.104

3,02

ethylamin

C2H5NH2

4,26.104

3,36

nbutylamin

CH3(CH2)3NH2

4,1.104

3,39

methylamin

CH3NH2

3,7.104

3,43

amoniac

NH3

1,8.105

4,74

hydrazin

H2NNH2

1,7.106

5,77

hydroxylamin

H2NOH

1,1.108

7,97

pyridin

C5H5N

1,7.109

8,77

anilin

C6H5NH2

3,8.1010

9,42

ure

(NH2)2CO

1,5.10

14

13,82

2.4. pH ca dung dch acid mnh, base mnh

Acid mnh phn ly hon ton trong dung dch:

HnA nH++An
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132

[H+] = n.Ca

Ca

pH = lg [H+] = lg n.Ca
V d:
Tnh pH ca dung dch H2SO4 0,05M:
pH = lg 2. 0,05 = 1

Base mnh phn ly hon ton trong dung dch:

B(OH)n nOH + Bn+
[OH] = n.Cb

Cb

V d:
Tnh pH ca dung dch Ba(OH)2 0,01M
pH = 14 + lg 2. 0,01 = 12,3
Ch : cng c th tnh pH nh sau:
T [OH] tnh c pOH v khi pH = 14 pOH
Trong v d trn pOH = lg2.102 = 1,7
pH = 141,7 = 12,3
2.5. pH ca dung dch axit yu
Trong dung dch, acid yu phn ly theo phng trnh:
HA
Ca

H+

[H+] = ?

Ka =
Lu rng [H+] = [A], [HA] = Ca [H+]. Thay vo biu thc Ka:

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133

Gii phng trnh bc hai ny ta c [H+] v tnh c pH.

Kinh nghim cho thy khi Ca khng qu nh (khng nh hn 0,01) v Ka khng qu ln
(khng ln hn 104) th c th coi Ca [H+] Ca
T

V d:
Tnh pH ca dung dch acid acetic 0,01M bit pKa = 4,76

2.6. pH ca dung dch base yu

Trong dung dch, base yu phn ly theo phng trnh:
B
Cb

H2O

BH+

[OH] =?

OH
[H+] =?

Lu rng [BH+] = [OH], [B] = Cb [OH]. Thay vo biu thc Kb:

Gii phng trnh bc hai ny ta c [OH] v tnh c [H+] v pH.

Trong trng hp gn ng coi Cb [OH] C b

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134

V d:
Tnh pH ca dung dch anilin nng 0,01M bit pKb = 9,4

3. S IN LY CA CC ACID HAY BASE YU NHIU NC

i vi nhng cht in ly ny v d: H3PO4, H2CO3, Pb(OH)2,... th s in ly trong dung
dch gm nhiu nc v mi nc c mt gi tr K in ly tng ng.
V d:
H3PO4

H+

H2PO4

K1

H2PO4

H+

HPO42

K2

HPO42

H+

PO43

K3

Hng s in ly K1 thng c gi tr ln gp hng chc ngn ln so vi K2, v vy trong

nhng tnh ton thng thng ngi ta ch ch n nc phn ly th nht.
V d:
Tnh pH ca dung dch H2CO3 0,1M. Trong dung dch c cn bng in ly sau y:
H2CO3

H+

HCO3

K1 = 4,3. 107

pK1 = 6,37

HCO3

H+

CO32

K2 = 5,6. 1011

pK2 =10,26

H 2O

H+

OH

V K1 >> K2; K1 >>

nn c th coi [H+] do HCO3 v H2O phn ly ra khng ng k
+
so vi [H ] do nc th nht ca H2CO3 phn ly ra.
Khi p dng cng thc tnh pH ca dung dch acid yu mt nc, ta c:

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135

Ch : Trong trng hp tng qut, tnh chnh xc nng ca ion H+ trong dung dch
ta phi lp h 5 phng trnh
(1)
(2)
(3)
Theo tnh cht trung ho in tch ta c:
[H+] = [OH ] + [HCO3 ] + 2[CO32 ]

(4)

Theo tnh cht bo ton nng ta c:

[0,1] = [H2CO3] + [HCO3 ] + [CO32 ]

(5)

Gii h phng trnh 5 n s ta c cc gi tr ca

[H+], [OH ], [HCO3 ], [CO32 ], [H2CO3]
T nhng nghin cu v ng cong chun ca acid nhiu nc cho thy nng ca cc
ion trung gian ln nht gi tr pH bng trung bnh cng hai pK cn k.
V d:
H3PO4 in ly 3 nc nh sau:

Dng ion HPO42 c nng ln nht

4. S IN LY CA CC AMIN ACID
Cc amin acid dng proton ho hon ton (ton b cc nhm NH2 u chuyn thnh
NH3+) l nhng acid yu nhiu nc phn ly.
V d 1:
Xc nh dng ng in v pHi ca glycin
Glycin phn ly nh sau:

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136

Dng (B) trung ho in (lng cc) c gi l dng ng in ca glycin.

Khi
glycin tn ti ch yu di dng ng in. pH gi l pH ng in ca glycin, k hiu pHi.
nhng pH pHi glycin tn ti di dng cation (A), cn nhng pH pHi n tn ti di
dng anion (C).
Tu thuc vo bn cht v s lng cc nhm chc mi amin acid c pHi khc nhau (bng
V) v mt pH xc nh n tn ti u tin di mt dng nht nh.
V d 2:

Dng (C) l dng ng in, vy

BNG 6.3. CC GI TR pKA V pHI CA MT S AMIN ACID

Tn amin acid

alanin

CH3

arginin

pKa

pKa

pKa

COOH

NH3+

pHi

2,35

9,69

6,02

2,17

9,04

12,48

10,76

aspartic

HOOCCH2

2,09

9,82

3,86

2,98

cystein

HSCH2

1,71

8,90

8,50

5,02

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137

glycin

leucin

2,34

9,60

5,97

2,36

9,60

5,98

lysin

H3N+(CH2)4

2,18

8,95

serin

HOCH2

2,21

9,15

5,68

threonin

CH3CHOH

2,09

9,10

5,60

2,20

9,11

thyrosin

10,53

10,07

9,74

5,67

5. pH CA DUNG DCH MUI

Tr cc mui to bi acid mnh v base mnh, v d NaCl, Na2SO4... khi tan trong nc cho
pH = 7, cc mui cn li c th cho nhng pH khc nhau tu thuc vo bn cht ca mui.
Ngi ta thng ni cc mui b thu phn. Vy thc cht ca s thu phn l g?
Dung dch cc mui ny thc cht l dung dch acid hay base theo Bronsted.
V d:
NH4Cl

NH4+

Cl

CH3COONa

CH3COO

Na+

Ion NH4+ l mt acid nn trong dung dch phn ly theo phn ng:
NH4+ + H2O

NH3

H3O+

Ion CH3COO l mt base nn trong dung dch phn ly theo phn ng:
CH3COO + H2O

CH3COOH +

OH

V vy pH ca cc dung dch ny c tnh theo cc cng thc:

V d:
Tnh pH ca dung dch (NH4)2SO4 0,05M. Bit

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138

V d:
Tnh pH ca dung dch HCOONa 0,01M. Bit pKHCOOH = 3,76.

i vi dung dch mui to bi mt acid yu v base yu th pH khng ph thuc vo nng

mui m ch ph thuc vo pKa v pKb ca acid v base to ra mui

V d:
Tnh pH ca dung dch NH4NO2 bit

V d:
Tnh pH ca dung dch NH4CN bit

= 4,76 v pKHCN = 9,31

i n cng thc tnh pH ca loi mui ny ta ly li v d mui NH4NO2.

Trong dung dch mui ny c mt ng thi ion NH4+ l mt acid v NO2 l mt base v
cn bng sau y:
NH4+ + NO2 = NH3 + HNO2
v tn ti 2 cp acid - base lin hp: NH4+/NH3 v HNO2/NO2 c cc hng s acid tng
ng l K1 v K2

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139

Nhn K1 vi K2 ta c:
Theo phn ng trn khi cn bng ta c: [NH4+] = [NO2] v [NH3] = [HNO2]
T :
[H+]2 = K1.K2
V
Nu thay pK1 = 14

pH =

l pK ca base to ra mui NH4NO2) ta c:

(14 pKb + pKa)

i vi dung dch mui ca cc acid nhiu nc

V d:
Tnh pH ca dung dch NaHCO3 0,1M
Ion HCO3 l mt acid theo Bronsted

Ion HCO3 cng l mt base

V pKa > pKb cho thy HCO3 th hin tnh base mnh hn tnh acid v do pH ca dung
dch mui ny c pH >7.
tnh pH ca dung dch mui ny ta lu rng trong dung dch tn ti hai cp axitbaz
lin hp: H2CO3/ HCO3 c pK1 v HCO3/ CO32 c pK2
T :

6. DUNG DCH M
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6.1. nh ngha:
Dung dch m l dung dch c pH thay i khng ng k khi thm vo mt t acid, base
hay khi pha long chng.
6.2. Thnh phn ca dung dch m v c ch tc dng m
Mt h m c th gm nhng cht sau:
CH3COOH

CH3COONa

NaHCO3

Na2CO3

NH4Cl

NH3

acid

base lin hp

Mt cch tng qut trong h m c mt ng thi vi mt tng quan ng k ca hai dng

acid v base ca mt cp acid base lin hp. Ngha l trong dung dch m lun lun tn ti
cn bng:
HA

H+

V vy khi thm vo dung dch m H+ cn bng trn s chuyn dch theo chiu nghch to
ra acid in ly yu HA. Ngc li khi thm base (OH) hay pha long, nng H+ b gim
xung th ng thi cn bng s chuyn theo chiu thun to thm H+ v do pH khng b
thay i.
6.3. pH ca dung dch m
Gi s dung dch m gm acid HA vi nng Ca v dng base lin hp A (v d NaA)
vi nng Cb. Hng s in ly ca acid l Ka. T cn bng in ly:
HA

H+

acid

base lin hp

V HA l mt acid yu, s mol phn ly khng ng k nn c th coi nng lc cn bng

[HA] Ca v [A] Cb

Mt cch tng qut pH ca dung dch m:

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Phng trnh trn c gi l phng trnh Henderson Hassellbalch (Hensn

Haxenban)

Lu : T s nng
trong dung dch m.

cng l t s mol ca base lin hp v acid lin hp

Da vo phng trnh Henderson Hassellbalch ta c th:

Tnh pH ca mt dung dch m nu bit pKa, [A], [HA]

V d:
Tnh pH ca dung dch m gm: 100ml dung dch CH3COOH 0,1M v 50ml dung dch
CH3COONa 0,4M.

iu ch c nhng dung dch m c pH khc nhau bng cch thay i t s nng

dng acid v base lin hp.

V d:
T cc dung dch NaH2PO4 v Na2HPO4 c nng mol bng nhau phi ly chng theo t l
nh th no c dung dch m pH = 7,5.

Nh vy phi ly hai th tch Na2HPO4 v mt th tch NaH2PO4.

Kinh nghim cho thy m bo mt dung dch m c kh nng m tt th nng ca
mt dng ny (acid hay base lin hp) khng nn gp qu 10 ln nng ca dng kia. iu
cng c ngha l mt dung dch m c kh nng m tt trong khong pH = pKa 1.

Tnh c Ka hay pKa ca acid to ra dung dch m nu ch ng bit t s nng

base lin hp/ acid lin hp v pH ca dung dch m.

V d:

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Xc nh pKa ca acid lactic (CH3CH(OH)COOH) bit dung dch cha 0,01 mol acid lactic
v 0,087 mol natri lactat (CH3C(HO)HCOONa) c pH = 4,8.

6.4. Dung dch m c pH v lc ion xc nh

Trong nhiu thc nghim, c bit l trong phng php in di hay trong nghin cu ng
hc cc phn ng enzym ngi ta cn nhng dung dch m c pH xc nh nhng ng thi c
lc ion xc nh.
V d:
Cn pha dung dch m phosphat c pH = 7 v lc ion I = 0,1.
Gi:

Nng ca KH2PO4 trong dung dch m l x.

Nng ca K2HPO4 trong dung dch m l y.

ta c lc ion:

x + 3y = 0,1 hay x = 0,1 3y.

Thay gi tr ca x vo phng trnh Henderson Hassellbalch vi pKa = 7,2 (Ka l hng s

in ly ca acid H2PO4)

T rt ra

y = 0,021

x = 0,037.

Nh vy mun c dung dch ny th t s nng KH2PO4 v K2HPO4 trong dung dch phi
l
6.5. H m trong c th
Trong c th c hai h m quan trng:

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H m phosphat
H m bicarbonat

H2PO4
H2CO3

H+
H+

+ HPO4 trong t bo cht

+ HCO3 trong mu

7. DUNG DCH CC CHT IN LY MNH T TAN. TCH S TAN

Mt s cht l nhng hp cht ion nhng rt t tan trong nc. V d: AgCl, BaSO4, BaCO3,
PbI2, Mg(OH)2, Fe(OH)3,... Tuy nhin nhng phn t tan th chng li phn ly hon ton
thnh cc ion. Nhng cht c gi l cc cht in ly mnh t tan.
Trong dung dch bo ho ca cc cht ny lun lun tn ti mt cn bng gia trng thi rn
v cc ion ho tan.
V d:
i vi AgCl:
AgClr

Ag+ + Cl

Hng s cn bng ca qu trnh ny c gi l tch s tan ca AgCl v c k hiu l

TAgCl:
TAgCl = [Ag+]. [Cl]
Mt cch tng qut, i vi mt cht in ly mnh t tan AmBn:
AmBn

mAn+ + nBm

Ta c:
Vy: tch s tan ca mt cht in ly mnh t tan l tch s nng cc ion ca n vi s m
bng h s t lng trong phn t trong dung dch bo ho cht .
V l hng s cn bng nn tch s tan ch ph thuc vo bn cht ca cht v nhit . Tch
s tan ca mt s hp cht trong nc cho bng 6.4.
BNG 6.4. TCH S TAN CA MT S CHT IN LY 25OC
Cht in li

Tch s tan (T)

Cht in li

Tch s tan (T)

AgCl

1,78.1010

CaSO4

9,1.106

AgBr

5,3.1013

Hg2SO4

6,2.107

AgI

8,3.1017

Ag2SO4

7,7.105

AgCN

1,4.1016

Al(OH)3

1,9.1033

AgSCN

1,1.1012

Cu(OH)2

5,6.1020

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Ag2CrO4

9.1012

Fe(OH)3

3,8.1038

Ag3PO4

1,8.1018

HgCl2

3,5.1018

Fe(OH)2

7,9.1016

PbI2

9,8.109

Mg(OH)2

7,1.1012

PbCl2

1,7.105

Zn(OH)2

3.1016

BaCO3

5,1.109

CuS

6,3.1036

CaCO3

4,8.109

FeS

8.1019

MgCO3

1.105

PbS

3.1028

BaSO4

1,1.1010

ZnS

1,2.1023

Nh vy tch s tan cho bit kh nng tan ca mt cht in ly t tan. Cht c T cng ln
cng d tan.
Khi bit tch s tan ca mt cht nhit no c th tnh c tan S ca cht (S
c tnh bng s mol cht tan trong 1 lt dung dch bo ho cht ).
V d:
Tnh tan ca BaSO4 trong nc bit T nhit 250C l 1.1.1010.
Gi S l tan ca BaSO4. Ta c:
BaSO4
S mol/l

Ba2+

Smol ion/l

SO42
Smol ion/l

S mol BaSO4 ho tan phn ly hon ton thnh S mol ion Ba2+ v SO42.

Mt cch tng qut vi cht in ly mnh t tan AmBn th tan S c tnh theo cng thc:

Bit tch s tan c th xc nh c iu kin ho tan hay kt ta mt cht:

Mt cht s kt ta khi tch s nng cc ion ca n trong dung dch ln hn tch s tan v
ngc li n s cn tan khi tch s nng ion ca n cha t n tch s tan.
V d:

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Kt ta PbI2 c to thnh khng khi trn 2 th tch bng nhau dung dch Pb(NO3)2 0,01M v
KI 0,01M. Nu pha long dung dch KI 100 ln ri trn nh trn c kt ta khng? Bit T =
9,8.109
Pb2+ + 2I-

PbI2

Nng cc ion sau khi trn:

[Pb2+]

[I]

5.103 mol/l

[Pb2+]. [I]2 = 1,25.107 T

V vy c kt ta c to ra.

Nng KI sau khi pha long l 104 mol/l.

Nng cc ion sau khi trn:
[Pb2+] = 5.103 mol/l

[I] = 5.105 mol/l

[Pb2+]. [I]2 = 1,25.1011 T

V vy khng c kt ta c to ra.

8. S IN LY CA PHC CHT TRONG DUNG DCH HNG S KHNG BN

8.1. Khi nim v phc cht
Trong dung dch, mt s ion kim loi c th kt hp vi cc anion hay phn t trung ho to
ra nhng t hp mi gi l phc cht.
V d:
Fe2+ + 6CN

[Fe(CN)6]4

Cu2+ + 4NH3

[Cu(NH3)4]2+

Co3+ + 2NH2C2H4NH2

[Co(en)2]3+

ethylen diamin (en)

Cu2+ + 2NH2CH2COOH

[Cu(gly)2]

[Ni(C2O4)2(H2O)2]2

glycin (gly)
Ni2+ + 2H2O + 2C2O42

Nhiu phc cht ph bin trong t nhin v ng vai tr quan trng trong cc qu trnh sinh
hc.
V d:
Hemoglobin ca mu l phc ca Fe2+, clorophil ca cy xanh l phc ca Mg2+.

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Phn ng to phc c ng dng rng ri trong phn tch ho hc v trong iu tr (phng

php phn tch complexon, iu tr nhim c ch...).
8.2. Cu to ca phc cht
Phc cht thng gm hai phn: cu ni v cu ngoi.
V d:
K4[Fe(CN)6] kali hexacyano ferat (II)
[Cu(NH3)4] SO4 tetraamin ng(II) sulfat
Cu ni c vit trong ngoc vung v thng l cation hoc anion [Cu(NH3)4]2+
[Fe(CN)6]4. Phc c cu ni trung ho th khng c cu ngoi, v d [Cu(gly)2].
Ion kim loi nm trong cu ni c gi l ht to phc (ion to phc) hay ion trung tm v
thng l ion ca cc kim loi chuyn tip nh: Fe2+; Fe3+; Co3+; Ni2+; Cu2+...
Cc phn t hay anion lin kt vi ion trung tm gi l cc phi t hay ligan. Cc phi t c
th c mt hoc nhiu cp electron cha chia s, v d: NH3; H2O; OH; Cl; H2NC2H4NH2...
Ion trung tm v phi t lin kt vi nhau bng cc lin kt phi tr.
S orbital trng ca ht to phc (nguyn t hay ion kim loi) lai ho, c gi l s phi
tr ca kim loi.
S cp electron cha chia s ca phi t c gi l dung lng phi tr ca phi t.
Phi t c dung lng phi tr 1 (c 1 cp electron cha chia s) v d: NH3; H2O; CN;
RNH2... cn gi l phi t monodentat (mt rng).
Phi t c dung lng phi tr 2 (c 2 cp electron cha chia s) v d: C2O42 ; H2N
CH2COO... cn gi l phi t bidentat.
Tng t, ta c cc phi t a phi tr hay polydentat v d: anion EDTA; polypeptid,...
Phc cht vi phi t polydentat (nhiu rng) c gi l phc cng cua (hay chelat).
8.3. Cch gi tn ca phc cht
Tn phc cht c c theo mt s quy tc chnh sau y:
Tn cation c trc, sau n anion. Phc trung ho c c nh cu ni
V d:
K4[Fe(CN)6]

kaki hexacyano ferat(II)

[Cu(NH3)4]SO4

tetraammin ng(II) sulfat

[Cu(gly)2]

diglycin ng(0)
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 c tn cc phi t:
+ Cc phi t l anion c thm ui -o: Cl- cloro, CH3COO acetato, CN cyano,
OH hydrox

+ Cc phi t l cation c thm ui ium.

+ Cc phi t trung ho gi theo tn phn t. Glycin, ethylendiamin tr mt s trng
hp: phi t l nc c l aqu; NH3 ammin; CO carbonyl.
+ Phc c nhiu loi phi t th c ln lt anion, phn t, cation.
+ Dng cc tip u di, tri, tetra, hexa, ch s lng phi t.
Tn phc c cu ni l anion c kt thc bng ui at.
S oxy ho ca ion to phc c ghi bng s La m trong ngoc n
Kim loi trong anion phc c gi theo tn Latinh. V d: St fer; Bc argen; Thu
ngn mercur; ng cupr,
BNG 6.5. C IM CA MT S PHC CHT

Ion phc

Tn gi

Cu trc

oxy
ho

phi
tr

Lai ho

Kkb

[Ag(NH3)2]+

tetra amin bc

thng

+1

sp

6,8.108

[Ag(CN)2]

di cyano argentat

thng

+1

sp

1,0.1021

[Cu(NH3)4]2+

tetra amin ng

vung

+2

sp3d2

2.1.1013

[Cu(CN)4]2

tetra cyano cuprat

vung

+2

[Fe(CN)6]4

hexa cyano ferat(II)

bt din

+2

sp3d2

4,0.1036

[Fe(CN)6]3

Hexa cyano ferat(III)

bt din

+3

sp3d2

1,0.1044

[Zn(NH3)4]2+

tetraamin km

vung

+2

[Zn(NH3)2]2+

diamin km

thng

+2

[Co(NH3)6]3+

hexa amin coban

bt din

+3

[HgI4]2

tetra iodo mercurat

+2

5,0.1031

[Hg(SCN)4]2

Tetra thiocyano
mercurat

+2

1,0.1022

[Fe(CO)5]

penta carbonyl st

5.0.1028

3,5.1010

sp3d2

6,0.1036

d2sp3

8.3. Hng s khng bn ca phc cht

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Trong dung dch phc cht phn ly hon ton thnh ion phc (cu ni) v ion n (cu
ngoi). V d:
K4[Fe(CN)6] 4K+ + [Fe(CN)6]4
Ch : Mui kp, v d phn nhm K.Al(SO4)2 khng ging nh phc cht, trong dung dch
n phn ly hon ton thnh cc ion n:
K.Al(SO4)2 K+ + Al3+ + 2SO42
Sau cc ion phc ch in ly mt phn thnh ion trung tm v phi t:
[Fe(CN)6]4

Fe2+ + 6CN

Hng s cn bng ca qu trnh in ly mt ion phc gi l hng s khng bn ca phc, k

hiu l KKb:

Tng t nh cc hng s Ka; Kb c trng cho kh nng in ly ca acid v base yu, hng
s KKb ca phc cng ln th phc cng khng bn.
Hng s khng bn ca mt s ion phc cho bng 6.5.
S to phc c nh hng ln n tan ca nhng cht in ly t tan.
V d:
Tch s tan ca AgCl bng 1,8.1010. Tnh tan ca AgCl trong nc. Nu ho tan AgCl
trong dung dch NH3 1M th tan s l bao nhiu? Bit KKb ca phc l 108.
AgCl Ag+ + Cl
Gi S l tan ca AgCl trong nc. Ta c:

AgCl tan trong NH3 do phn ng to phc:

AgCl (r) + 2NH3

[Ag(NH3)2]+ + Cl

Hng s cn bng ca qu trnh ny:

K = 108.1,8.1010 = 1,8.102.

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Gi nng phc [Ag(NH3)2]+ c to ra l x th nng Cl cng bng x cn nng

NH3 l (1 2x). T ta c:

x cng chnh l tan ca AgCl trong dung dch NH3. Gi tr ny ln hn rt nhiu so vi

tan ca n trong nc nguyn cht. Nh vy s to phc lm tng tan ca mt cht in
ly kh tan.
9. PHN NG TRONG DUNG DCH V PHNG PHP PHN TCH TH TCH
9.1. i cng v phng php phn tch th tch
9.1.1. Bn cht ca phng php
xc nh nng ca mt dung dch cht A (gi l dung dch cn chun ), ngi ta
thm dn mt dung dch cht B (gi l dung dch chun ) bit nng , vo mt th tch
chnh xc dung dch A cho n khi hai cht phn ng va vi nhau. T th tch dung dch
cht B s dng tnh c nng dung dch cht A.
9.1.2. S chun , im tng ng, cht ch th
Qu trnh thm dn dung dch cht B vo dung dch cht A gi l s chun .
Thi im dung dch cht A phn ng va vi dung dch B gi l im tng ng.
pht hin im tng ng (hay gi chnh xc hn l im dng chun ) trong
phng php phn tch th tch ngi ta thng dng nhng cht ch th khc nhau. l nhng
cht c mu sc thay i khi t n im tng ng (hay rt gn im tng ng).
9.1.3. Tnh ton nng
Trong phng php phn tch th tch, ngi ta s dng nng ng lng gam v tnh
ton theo biu thc ca nh lut ng lng:
VA. NA = VB. NB
VA. NA v VB. NB l s ng lng gam ca cht A v cht B tng ng.
9.1.4. S phn loi cc phng php phn tch th tch
Tu theo bn cht ca phn ng gia A v B ngi ta phn thnh:
+ Phng php phn tch trung ho.
+ Phng php phn tch to phc.
+ Phng php phn tch oxy ho kh.
+ Phng php phn tch kt ta.
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9.2. Phng php phn tch trung ho

9.2.1. C s ca phng php
Phng php da vo phn ng trung ho:
H+ + OH

H2 O

xc nh nng ca cc dung dch acid hoc base.

thc hin php chun , v d mt dung dch acid, ngi ta thm dn mt dung dch
base bit nng (NB) vo mt th tch xc nh ca dung dch acid(VA) c nng NA cha
bit cho n khi cc acid v base trong hai dung dch phn ng va vi nhau. Bit th tch VB
thm vo c th tnh c NA:

pht hin im tng ng ngi ta phi dng nhng cht ch th acidbase hay ch th
pH.
9.2.2. ng cong chun acid base v nguyn tc la chn cht ch th
ng cong chun l ng biu din s bin i pH trong qu trnh chun , tc l
trong qu trnh thm dn dung dch chun vo dung dch cn chun.
Vic nghin cu ng cong chun l c s la chn cht ch th trong cc php chun
khc nhau.
ng cong chun ni chung c dng ch S. Trn hnh 6.1a, b, c l mt s dng ng
cong chun trong nhng trng hp chun khc nhau. Trn cc ng cong ny ta nhn thy
giai on u ca s chun pH ca dung dch trong bnh phn ng bin i mt cch t t.
Nhng n mt thi im nht nh (gn v qu im tng ng mt cht) th pH b bin i
t ngt thng c gi l bc nhy pH.

Hnh 6.1. Cc dng ng cong chun acid - base

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Nguyn tc ca vic la chn cht ch th l: cht ch th phi c khong chuyn mu nm

trong bc nhy pH.
Trng hp chun mt acid mnh bng mt base mnh hoc ngc li (hnh 6.1a) bc
nhy pH t 4 10. V vy c th chn methyl (4,4 6,2) hay phenolphtalein (8 10).
Trng hp chun mt acid yu bng mt base mnh (hnh 6.1b) bc nhy pH t 810.
V vy ch c th dng phenolphtalein.
Trng hp chun mt base yu bng acid mnh hoc ngc li (hnh 6.1c) bc nhy pH
t 6 4. V vy ch c th dng c methyl .
9.3. Phng php complexon
9.3.1. C s ca phng php
Phng php da trn phn ng to phc gia ion kim loi vi nhng cht complexon
(thng l nhng amin acid polycarboxylic) xc nh nng ca ion kim loi khi bit nng
ca complexon. V d: complexon III. l mui dinatri ca acid ethylen diamin tetra acetic
(EDTA)

Complexon III c th phn ng vi cc ion kim loi to ra nhng phc d tan. V d vi ion
kim loi ho tr 2 Me2+ c phn ng:
Na2H2Y+ Me2+ Na2MeY + 2H+
Phn ng ny l c s ca phng php complexon.
9.3.2. Cht ch th v c ch chuyn mu
Trong phng php to phc ngi ta s dng mt s cht mu hu c c th to phc vi
cc ion kim loi. Cc cht ny c c im l dng phc v dng t do c mu khc nhau. Mt
trong s nhng cht hay dng l Eriocrom T en.
ErioC + Men+ ErioCMe + 2H+
xanh bin

hng tm

Phc ErioCMe khng bn bng phc gia complexon vi kim loi.

Trc khi chun ton b Eriocrom kt hp vi mt lng nh ion kim loi to phc
ErioCMe do dung dch trong bnh nn c mu hng tm.
Trong qu trnh chun xy ra phn ng gia complexon vi ion kim loi t do trong
dung dch to phc Na2MeY.
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 Gn im tng ng, khi ton b Men+ phn ng ht, ch cn d mt git complexon

s xy ra phn ng:
Na2H2Y + ErioCMe Na2MeY + ErioC
hng tm

xanh bin

Nh vy khi trong bnh nn thy mu hng tm chuyn thnh mu xanh bin l im kt thc
chun .
9.3.3. Mt s c im ca phng php complexon
Complexon lun lun phn ng vi ion kim loi bt k theo t l s mol l 1:1. V vy
ng lng gam ca n bng

Cht ch th ErioC c mt mu xc nh mt pH xc nh. V d pH = 711 n mi c

mu xanh bin, cn phc vi ion kim loi mi c mu hng tm. Trong khi phn ng gia
complexon vi ion kim loi li lm thay i pH (to ra H+). V vy ngi ta phi thm vo dung
dch chun mt dung dch m, thng l m amoni c pH 10.
9.4. PHNG PHP PERMANGANAT
9.4.1. C s ca phng php
Phng php da vo tnh oxy ho mnh ca ion MnO4 trong mi trng acid
MnO4 + 5e + 8H+ Mn2+ + 4H2O
chun nhiu cht kh khc nhau nh: H2C2O4; Fe2+; H2O2...
9.4.2. im tng ng
Trong phng php ngi ta khng phi dng cht ch th v bn thn ion MnO4 c mu
hng tm. Trong qu trnh chun mu hng tm bin mt nhng gn im tng ng ch
cn d mt git cng lm cho dung dch trong bnh nn c mu hng tm. l im kt thc
chun .

CU HI T LNG GI
6.1. Tch s ion ca nc l g? pH l g? N cho bit iu g?
Tnh pH ca cc dung dch c nng ion [H+] bng 10 2; 10 7; 109;
3,1.102; 9.108 mol/l.
6.2. Tnh pH ca cc dung dch sau:
H2SO4 0,05 M; HCl 0,001 M; NaOH 0,01 M; Ca(OH)2 0,02 M.

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6.3. nh ngha acidbase theo Bronsted. Trong nhng cht sau y cht no l
acid, base? Vit cc dng acid hay base lin hp ca chng: NH4Cl; NH3;
NaHCO3; C2H5NH2 ; CH3COONa; H2O; Na2SO4; C6H5NH3Cl; NaNO2; H2N
CH2COOH.
Da vo i lng no c th so snh c mnh ca mt acid hay base?
6.4. Tnh in ly ca cc dung dch sau v rt ra nhng nhn xt:
CH3COOH 0,02M v CH3COOH 0,02M + CH3COONa 0,02M
CH3COOH 0,2M v CH3COOH 0,02M + CH3COONa 0,2M
6.5. S in ly ca mt acid yu, cng thc tnh pH ca dung dch acid yu bit
nng Ca v pKa. Tnh pH ca cc dung dch:
CH3COOH; HCOOH; HNO2; NaH2PO4; HCN c nng 0,01 M.
6.6. S in ly ca mt base yu, cng thc tnh pH ca dung dch base yu bit
nng Cb v pKb. Tnh pH ca cc dung dch:
NH3; C2H5NH2; C6H5NH2; NH2OH c nng 0,01 M.
6.7. nh ngha dung dch m, thnh phn ca mt dung dch m (tng qut).
Hy gii thch c ch tc dng m ca cc dung dch m sau:
a) Phosphat NaH2PO4/Na2HPO4.
b) Carbonat NaHCO3/Na2CO3.
c) Amoni NH4Cl/NH3.
6.8. Cng thc tng qut tnh pH ca mt dung dch m.Tnh pH ca dung dch
gm:
a) 100 ml NaHCO3 0,1M v 25 ml Na2CO3 0,2 M.
b) Hai th tch bng nhau ca cc dung dch NaH2PO4 0,1M v Na2HPO4
0,1M.
c) 50 ml NaOH 0,16 M v 220 ml CH3COOH 0,4 M.
6.9. S thu phn ca mui l g? pH ca dung dch mui ph thuc vo nhng
yu t no? Vit phng trnh thu phn rt gn ca cc mui sau y:
C2H5NH3Cl; C6H5COONa; KNO2; C5H5NHCl; Na2C2O4; Na2SO4;
(NH4)2SO4; NH4HCOO; C2H5NH3NO2; NH4CN.
Tnh pH ca cc dung dch mui ny c nng 0,1M.
6.10. Trong mt cc cha 100ml dung dch C6H5NH2 0,01M:
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a) Tnh pH ca dung dch.

b) Tnh pH ca dung dch khi cho thm vo cc 50 ml HCl 0,01M.
c) Tnh pH ca dung dch khi cho thm vo cc 100 ml HCl 0,01M.
6.11. Cho v d v acid nhiu nc v s phn ly ca chng. Vit biu thc hng s
phn ly ca cc nc.
6.12. Cho cc amin acid sau: alanin, acid aspartic, thyrosin, lysin (xem ph lc)
a) Hy vit cc cn bng phn ly ca chng trong dung dch. Tnh pHi.
b) nhng pH no cc cht trn tn ti trong dung dch dng trung ho
in (dng ng in) dng cation, anion.
6.13. Tch s tan l g? Hy cho bit mi lin quan gia tch s tan v tan
(mol/lt) ca cht t tan.
6.14. Tnh tan ca BaCO3 bit T ca n 25oC l 5,1.109.
6.15. tan ca Ag3PO4 180C l 1,6.105 M. Tnh T ca Ag3PO4.
6.16. T ca SrSO4 bng 3,6.107. Khi trn hai th tch bng nhau ca hai dung
dch SrCl2 v K2SO4 c cng nng 0,002M th kt ta c xut hin khng?
6.17. Kt ta PbI2 c to thnh khng khi trn hai th tch bng nhau ca hai dung
dch Pb(NO3)2 v KI
a) u c nng 0,01M.
b) u c nng 2.103M.
6.18. Tnh xem c bao nhiu mol Ag2CrO4 s tan trong mt lt dung dch AgNO3
0,1M, bit T ca Ag2CrO4 bng 9.1012 200C.
6.19. Tnh tan ca BaSO4 trong nc nguyn cht v trong dung dch H2SO4
0,1M, bit T ca BaSO4 bng 1.1010. Cho nhn xt v kt lun.
6.20. Cho cc phc:
[Co(NH3)6]3+; [Fe(CN)6]3; [Fe(C2O4)3]3; [Fe(gly)2]+; Fe(gly)2.
a) Vit phng trnh phn ly v biu thc tnh Kkb ca cc phc trn.
b) Hy cho bit s oxy ho, s phi tr ca cc ion trung tm trong cc phc
trn.
6.21. Th no l im tng ng? c im chung v vai tr ca cht ch th
trong phng php phn tch th tch.
6.22.
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a) C s ca phng php phn tch trung ho.

b) c im ca ng cong chun v nguyn tc la chn cht ch th
trong cc php chun : acid mnh bng base mnh; acid yu bng base
mnh; base yu bng acid mnh.
6.23. C s v c im ca phng php permanganat? Ngi ta c th dng
phng php ny chun dung dch Ca2+, hy nu nguyn tc ca s chun
ny.
6.24. C s ca phng php complexon. Trong phng php ny ngi ta
thng dng cht ch th g? Hy nu c ch chuyn mu ca cht ch th .
6.25. Khi ly 50 ml nc t nhin em xc nh cng ngi ta chun ht
3,60 ml complexon III 0,02 M. Tnh cng ca mu nc .

Bi 7

DUNG DCH KEO

MC TIU
1. Nu c hai phng php chnh iu ch dung dch keo, phng php tinh ch
dung dch keo.
2. Din gii qu trnh hnh thnh cn bng Donnal v nu ngha ca cn bng ny i
vi hot ng ca t bo sng.
3. M t c th nghim ca Tyndall v hin tng tn x nh sng ca mt dung dch
keo. Gii thch v nu c ng dng ca hin tng ny.
4. Trnh by c cc yu t quyt nh in tch ca ht keo s dch v thn dch. Vit
c cng thc cu to ca chng.
5. K ra c cc yu t lm bn vng dung dch keo v phng php lm ng t keo.
M U
Cc dung dch keo rt ph bin trong i sng v trong nhiu ngnh sn xut nh dc
phm, thc phm, thuc nhum, cht do, t nhn to,...
Cc dch sinh vt nh: mu, dch no tu, huyt tng... l nhng dung dch keo trong
protein, cholesterin, glycogen,... nm trng thi keo. V vy cc h keo c mt v tr quan trng
trong hot ng ca c th sng.
1. I CNG V DUNG DCH KEO
1.1. nh ngha v phn loi keo

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Dung dch keo l mt h phn tn trong cc tiu phn phn tn c kch thc t 1 100
nm
Theo mc lin kt gia ht keo vi mi trng phn tn, ngi ta phn thnh:
1.1.1. Keo thn dch (liophil) l keo trong ht keo v phn t ca mi trng phn tn lin
kt cht ch vi nhau. Khi mi trng phn tn l nc, ta c keo thn nc (hydrophil). Cc
keo thn dch thng kh bn, lu khng b ng t, v cc phn t ca mi trng phn tn
to thnh mt lp v bao quanh gi l lp v solvat hay v hydrat (nu mi trng phn tn l
nc).
1.1.2. Keo s dch (liophob) hay s nc (hydrophob) khng c lp v solvat hay hydrat nn
km bn hn.
1.2. Phng php iu ch dung dch keo
Ht keo c kch thc nm trung gian gia kch thc ca phn t ion v h th. V vy c
hai phng php c bn iu ch dung dch keo.
1.2.1. Phng php tp hp
Kt hp cc phn t nh thnh nhng tiu phn c kch thc ht keo. V d, iu ch
keo Fe(OH)3 ngi ta nh dn tng git dung dch FeCl3 vo nc ang si. Khi cc phn t
Fe(OH)3 to ra do phn ng thu phn s t hp thnh tiu phn keo Fe(OH)3.
1.2.2. Phng php phn tn
Nghin nh (bng ci xay keo) hoc ph v cc tiu phn c kch thc ln (bng cht in
ly) t c kch thc ht keo. V d, khi ph kt ta xanh ph Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3 bng dung
dch H2C2O4 ta thu c keo xanh ph.
1.3. Phng php lm sch dung dch keo
Trong qu trnh iu ch, dung dch keo c th c ln nhng phn t, ion hay tiu phn ca
h th. V vy ngi ta thng s dng hai phng php sau y loi cc tiu phn khng
phi l keo:
1.3.1. Phng php thm tch
S dng nhng mng thm tch (v d mng colodion) cho php loi nhng phn t nh
hoc ion ra khi dung dch keo. V d khi mun tinh ch mt mu huyt thanh ngi ta cho n
vo mt ti thm tch hoc mt ng c y c bt bng mng thm tch. Sau ti c ngm
vo bnh cha mi trng phn tn (v d nc). Cc phn t nh hoc ion s khuych tn dn ra
khi dung dch keo. Lin tc thay nc trong bnh ta s c dung dch keo tinh khit.

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Hnh 7.1. Phng php thm tch lm sch dung dch keo

1.3.2. Phng php lc

Khc vi mng thm tch, giy lc cho cc tiu phn keo i qua c. V vy bng cch lc
c th loi cc tiu phn ln hn keo ra khi dung dch ca n.
2. TNH CHT NG HC PHN T CA DUNG DCH KEO
2.1. p sut thm thu
Nh bit p sut thm thu ca dung dch cht khng in ly t l thun vi nng mol
ca cht theo nh lut Vant Hoff:
= RCT
Nh vy p sut thm thu cng t l vi nng ht trong dung dch.
Trong dung dch phn t mi phn t l mt ht (tiu phn).
Tri li trong dung dc keo mi ht l tp hp ca nhiu phn t. V vy vi mt khi lng
cht phn tn bng nhau th s ht trong dung dch keo s t hn nhiu so vi dung dch phn t.
Do dung dch keo lun lun c p sut thm thu nh hn. Tuy nhin cc dung dch keo, c
bit l cc keo protein li ng mt vai tr rt quan trng trong s phn b cc cht in ly cc
t bo, m.
2.2. Cn bng Donnal
Donnal chng minh rng s trao i cc ion cht in ly qua mng sinh vt ph thuc vo
loi ion khng th thm tch qua mng. l cc ion R keo protein.
Gi thit mng mao mch (mng sinh vt) nh mt mng thm tch (mng ch cho cc tiu
phn dung dch thc i qua) ngn i mt ci bnh. Mt bn mng c dung dch mui ca
protein RNa, bn kia l mt dung dch cht in ly, v d NaCl.
Nc, cc ion Na+, Cl qua mng mt cch d dng cn ion keo protein R khng qua c
mng.
Thnh phn lc u hai bn mng

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a v b l nng lc u.
Sau mt thi gian trao i, khi t ti cn bng: gi l cn bng Donnal. Nu x l lng cc
ion chy t phi sang tri. Ta c:

Theo Donnal cn bng t c khi tch s nng cc ion khuych tn 2 pha ca mng
bng nhau ngha l:
[ Na+]. [Cl] = [Na+]. [Cl]
I
Hay

II

II

(a + x)x = (b x)(b x)

Nh vy l phn cht in ly c chuyn t phi sang tri.

Khi b << a (nng cht in ly t hn nng cht keo rt nhiu) th = 0, ngha l hu

nh khng c cht in ly i qua mng.

Khi b >> a th
c

; c

ngha l cht in ly c phn b u hai bn mng. Khi b = a ta

lng cht in ly i t phi sang tri.

Nh vy, lng cht in ly chuyn qua mng ph thuc vo lng cht keo v cht in ly.
Trong cc trng hp, trng thi cn bng, nng cc ion in ly trong dung dch keo
u ln hn trong dung dch tip xc vi n.
Tng t, i vi cc t bo, s c mt ca cc mui ca protein RNa s nh hng rt ln
n s phn b cht in ly trong v ngoi t bo v do quyt nh p sut thm thu ca t
bo.
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Khi t bo tip xc vi dung dch cht in ly c ion chung vi protein th thng thng s
c mt lng nht nh cht in ly di chuyn qua mng vo trong t bo. Do p sut thm
thu trong t bo s ln hn so vi dung dch bao quanh n. Chnh v vy cc t bo gi c s
cng phng ngay c trong nhng dung dch ng trng. Trong nhng dung dch nhc trng
vn c mt lng nht nh cht in ly (mui) t ngoi i vo t bo. iu lm cho t bo c
th hot ng mt cch bnh thng.
3. S SA LNG
Tiu phn keo ln hn cc phn t ca dung dch thc rt nhiu nn c khi lng ng k
so vi khi lng ca phn t.
Trong dung dch keo cc tiu phn keo chu tc dng ca hai lc ngc chiu nhau: trng
lc v khuych tn.
Khi hai lc ny bng nhau th dung dch keo trng thi gi l cn bng sa lng. Khi
dung dch keo bn vng.
Khi trng lc ln hn lc khuych tn th cc tiu phn keo b ko xung y vi mt tc
xc nh. Qu trnh ny gi l s sa lng.
Ngi ta thit lp rng, tc sa lng ca cc tiu phn t l thun vi bnh phng bn
knh ca n, hiu t khi ca cht lng v mi trng v t l nghch vi nht ca mi trng
theo biu thc:
(7.1)
v: Tc sa lng
r: Bn knh tiu phn (nu coi tiu phn c hnh cu).
d1; d2: T khi tng ng ca cht sa lng v ca mi trng.
: nht ca mi trng.
Nu khi lng tiu phn keo l m th lc tc dng lm n lng xung l:
f = mg
g: gia tc trng trng.
V m = Vd1
V: th tch tiu phn keo, d1: t khi ca cht keo. T :
f = Vd1 g
Nu t khi ca dung mi d2 l ng k so vi d1 th tiu phn keo cn chu mt lc y t
di ln bng Vd2g. Khi lc f l:
f = Vd1g Vd2g = V (d1 d2) g
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Mt khc khi chuyn ng vi tc v tiu phn keo bn knh r (nu coi nh c hnh cu) s
chu mt lc cn do ma st:
fms = 6 r v

: nht ca mi trng.
Khi f = fms hay V (d1 d2) g = 6 r v th tiu phn keo chuyn ng u vi tc v:

Thay gi tr ca V =

r3ta c:
(7.2)

Nu ly gia tc trng trng g = 980cm/s2 ta c (7.1)

Kch thc ca tiu phn keo ln hn kch thc ca phn t rt nhiu nn d b sa lng hn
dung dch thc. Tuy nhin, ni chung tc sa lng ca cc phn t keo cng rt nh. Nhiu khi
ta cn lm sa lng dung dch keo tch cc tiu phn keo ra khi mi trng phn tn. Trong
nhng trng hp ny ta phi dng n cc my ly tm hay siu ly tm. My siu ly tm ln u
tin c Svedberg s dng. Cc my siu ly tm cho php to ra mt lc ly tm khong t
1.000.000 ln vt qu trng lc, vi s vng quay t n 140.000 vng/pht. Nh cc my
ny dung dch keo b sa lng nhanh hn.
Tc sa lng ca tiu phn trong my ly tm c tnh theo biu thc:

(7.3)
Trong gia tc trng trng g c thay bng gia tc ly tm 2x
Bng cch o tc sa lng v t cc biu thc (7.2) hay (7.3) ta c th xc nh c kch
thc ca nhng tiu phn khc nhau, v d c th xc nh bn knh r ca tiu phn theo:

r=
v t c th tnh c khi lng v nng ca tiu phn.
Phng php phn tch sa lng bng my siu ly tm rt cn thit xc nh kch thc cc
tiu phn keo sinh vt m thng thng cc knh siu vi cng kh nhn thy.
Tc sa lng ca hng cu thng b thay i mt cch ng k trong nhng trng thi
bnh l. V vy vic xc nh i lng ny cng ng gp cho chn on.
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4. TNH CHT QUANG HC CA DUNG DCH KEO

4.1. Hin tng Tyndall (Tindan)
Nm 1859 khi chiu mt chm tia sng qua knh
hi t vo dung dch keo Tyndall thy mt hnh nn
ct sng c. Phn nn ct c gi l hnh nn
Tyndall (hnh 7.2).
S hnh thnh hnh nn Tyndall l do cc tiu
phn keo l lng tn x nhng tia sng p vo n
bin thnh nhng im sng. Nh c nhng im
sng m ta c th trng thy c ng i ca tia
sng bn trong dung dch keo.
Rayleigh (Rayly) gii thch hin tng
Tyndall nh sau: nh sng l nhng sng in t
c c trng bng di sng . Tu thuc vo
tng quan gia ca nh sng v kch thc tiu
phn ca cht phn tn m cc tia sng gp trn
ng i ca n, ta c cc hin tng khc nhau.

Hnh 7.2. M t hin tng Tyndall

Khi kch thc tiu phn ln hn ca nh sng th cc tia sng b phn x trn b mt tiu
phn di nhng gc xc nh. Trng hp ny xy ra trong cc h th (hnh 7.3 a).
Khi cc tiu phn c kch thc b hn ca nh sng th xy ra hin tng tn x. Cc tia
sng b tn x t cc tiu phn ra mi hng (hnh 7.3.b).
Bc sng ngn nht ca chm tia sng nhn thy l 400 nm. Cn kch thc ln nht ca
ca cc tia sng vng nhn thy v vy cc ht
cc tiu phn keo l 100 nm ngha l b hn
keo lun gy ra hin tng tn x nh sng (hnh 7.3 c).
Nhng tiu phn l phn t hoc ion khng gy ra hin tng phn x hay tn x v kch
thc ca n qu nh so vi .

Hnh 7.3. Tng quan gia bc sng nh sng ti v kch thc tiu phn

Rayleigh a ra cng thc tnh cng nh sng tn x Itx khi chiu qua dung dch keo
cha cc ht keo hnh cu.

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K: h s
Io: cng nh sng ti
: nng ht (s ht trong mt n v th tch)
: Bc sng ca nh sng ti
V: th tch ht
Qua cng thc trn ta thy cng nh sng tn x ph thuc vo th tch ht ngha l ph
thuc vo kch thc tiu phn. i vi cc dung dch thc, phn t rt b nn khng c s tn
x v vy ta khng th nhn thy ng i ca tia sng.
4.2. ng dng ca hin tng Tyndall v biu thc Rayleigh
Nu ta dng ngun nh sng nht nh (Io v khng i) chiu vo dung dch keo c kch
thc tiu phn bng nhau (V khng i) th theo biu thc Rayleigh Itx ch cn ph thuc vo
nng ht . Da trn nguyn tc ngi ta ch to ra my o c (nephelometer) cho
php o cng nh sng tn x, t tnh c nng dung dch keo.
Nh hin tng Tyndall ngi ta c th nhn thy v m c cc ht keo qua mt dng c
quang hc khc l knh siu vi (ultramicroscope). Trong knh siu vi nh sng khng chiu thng
vo mt ngi quan st nh knh hin vi thng m c chiu t pha bn vt quan st. Cc
ng dung dch keo c y v thnh mu en cha hai ca nh sng i vo. Do cc tiu phn
keo tn x nh sng m ta c th nhn thy v m c cc ht keo chuyn ng lp lnh trn
mt nn en. Bit nng khi lng ca dung dch keo ta tm c khi lng m ca tiu phn
keo v th tch ca ht keo. Nu tiu phn l hnh cu ta tnh c bn knh r.
5. TNH CHT IN HC CA DUNG DCH KEO
Mt trong nhng nguyn nhn to cho dung dch keo bn vng l cc tiu phn keo tch in
cng du do chng lun y nhau.
in tch trn cc ht keo c hnh thnh theo nhng cch khc nhau tu thuc vo bn
cht ca cht phn tn, cch thc to ra dung dch keo, mi trng phn tn.
Chng ta ly 2 v d v s hnh thnh in tch trn ht keo s dch v keo thn dch.
5.1. Cu to v s hnh thnh in tch ca ht keo s dch. V d keo AgI
Keo AgI c iu ch bng cch nh t t tng git dung dch KI vo cc ng dung dch
AgNO3, khi xy ra phn ng:
AgNO3 + KI AgI + KNO3
Mt s nht nh phn t AgI kt hp vi nhau to ra nhn keo khng mang in tch. mAgI
= (AgI)m
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Do nhn c b mt t do ln nn n c kh nng hp ph mt trong cc loi ion n cn d

tha trong dung dch, n s u tin hp ph ion no c trong thnh phn cu to ca nhn, trong
trng hp ny l ion Ag+
(AgI)m + nAg+ = (AgI)m. nAg+
Cc ion ny phn b quanh nhn to thnh mt lp gi l lp hp ph. Lp hp ph mang
in tch nn c kh nng thu ht mt s ion ngc du vi n to thnh lp ion i (nx)NO3.
(AgI)m. nAg+ + (nx) NO3 = [(AgI)m. nAg+. (nx) NO3] x+
Ton b nhn, lp ion hp ph v lp ion i to thnh ht keo mang in tch.
Mt s ion i cn li b ht keo ht mt cch yu t nn chuyn ng tng i t do v
c gi l lp khuch tn. Ht v lp khuch tn c gi l mixen.

Ht keo mang in tch dng khi ion hp ph tch in dng v ngc li ht keo s mang
in m khi ion hp ph tch in m. Trong cng thc cu to ny ch m cho bit s phn t
cu to nn nhn, ch n cho bit s ion hp ph, thng thng n b hn m rt nhiu. S ion i
cng l n nhng ch c (n x) ion i nm trong ht (to thnh lp ion i) cn x ion i nm
trong lp khuch tn. Ch x ng ngoi v pha trn du mc ng vi du + ch s lng v du
ca in tch ht keo.

Hnh 7.4. Cu to ht keo s dch AgI

Cng c th to ra keo AgI mang in tch m theo cch tin hnh ngc li, ngha l nh
tng git dung dch AgNO3 vo dung dch KI. Trong iu kin ny lun c d KI, khi y ht keo
c cu to:
[(AgI)m. nI. (nx) K+] x
5.2. Cu to v in tch ca ht keo thn dch keo protein
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Phn t protein c to ra t nhiu acid amin. in tch ca ht keo protein c quyt

nh bi s in ly ca cc nhm chc ca acid amin mch nhnh ca chui polypeptid.
Ta hy biu din mt phn t protein (mt tiu phn keo nh hnh 7.5. Cc acid amin
mch nhnh c th c tn cng l cc nhm ion ho NH3+ hoc COO tu thuc vo pH ca
mi trng

Hnh 7.5. M hnh cu to keo thn dch protein v cc dng tn ti nhng pH khc nhau

Nu s lng cc nhm cation v anion bng nhau th in tch ca phn t protein bng 0
hay ngi ta ni n dng ng in.
Trong cc dung dch m c pH khc nhau phn t protein c th tn ti di dng cation
hoc anion.
Nh vy, tu theo pH ca mi trng, bn cht ca protein, tiu phn keo s mang in tch
c du khc nhau v tr s in tch khc nhau.
pH ti phn t protein khng mang in c gi l pH ng in ca protein k hiu
l pHi. Di y l pH ng in ca mt s ht keo thn dch.
Casein

4,6

Gelatin

4,7

Albumin trng

4,8

Hemoglobin

6,7

Trong nhng dung dch m c pH pHi ht keo protein s mang in tch dng v ngc
li, nhng pH > pHi ht keo mang in tch m.
Trong ho sinh ngi ta ng dng hin tng di chuyn cc phn t protein nh albumin,
globulin ca huyt thanh di tc dng ca in trng phn tch thnh phn ca chng trong
huyt thanh ngi bnh thng v ngi bnh chn on v theo di bnh.
Phng php phn tch trn gi l phng php in di.
6. BN VNG V S NG T KEO
Trong dung dch keo cc ht keo mang in cng du do vy chng y nhau. Ngoi ra i
vi ht keo thn dch cn c mt lp v solvat hay v hydrat bao bc. chnh l nguyn nhn
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lm cho cc dung dch keo kh bn vng. Khi loi tr cc nguyn nhn th xy ra s kt t

cc ht keo thnh nhng ht ln hn. Qu trnh gi l s ng t keo.
Cc keo s dch thng b ng t di dng kt ta. Cc keo thn dch khi ng t cn ko
theo cc phn t ca mi trng phn tn v c dng nhy.
lm ng t mt dung dch keo c th c nhng cch sau y:
ng t di tc dng ca cc cht in ly. Cc ht keo hp ph cc in tch tri du lm
gim hoc mt i in tch v b ng t. V d, khi cho vo keo hydroxyt st (III) mang in
dng mt lng Na2SO4 va s nhn thy kt ta Fe(OH)3.
ng t di tc dng ca keo tri du.
i vi keo thn dch ngoi vic dng cht in ly ngi ta cn c th loi lp v hydrat
bng cc tc nhn ht nc nh cn. c bit i vi keo protein c th lm ng t bng cch
iu chnh pH n pHi ca keo. Khi ht keo s khng mang in tch.
ng t di tc dng ca nhit. Vi nhng keo khng bn vi nhit v d cc keo protein
c th lm ng t bng un nng.
7. S PEPTI HO
Qu trnh mt kt ta keo li chuyn thnh dng keo di tc dng ca mt cht in ly
c gi l s pepti ho. Trong trng hp ny, do cc ht kt ta keo hp ph cng mt loi ion
no ca cht in ly lm cho n mang in cng du, y nhau v li phn tn vo dung dch.
V d khi nh dn dung dch H2C2O4 vo kt ta keo xanh Ph, ta thu c dung dch keo ny.
S pepti ho c s dng iu ch keo.

CU HI T LNG GI
7.1. Hy nu nhng phng php c bn iu ch dung dch keo. Cho v d.
7.2. Mng thm tch khc mng thm thu ch no? Hy nu cc phng php
lm sch dung dch keo.
7.3. Hy cho bit:
Trong iu kin nh th no th c cn bng Donnal.
Nhng kt lun rt ra t cn bng Donnal.
ngha ca cn bng Donnal i vi hot ng ca t bo.
7.4. Th no l s sa lng? Ti sao phi dng cc my siu ly tm lm sa lng
dung dch keo?
ng dng ca s sa lng trong nghin cu keo.
7.5. M t v gii thch hin tng Tyndall.
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Biu thc Rayleigh v tn x nh sng v ng dng ca hin tng tn x.

7.6. Gii thch ti sao khi nhn mt tri vo bui rng ng v hong hn li thy
mt tri rt ?
7.7. V nguyn tc knh siu vi khc vi knh hin vi thng im no?
7.8. in tch trn ht keo s dch c hnh thnh nh th no? Du in tch ht
keo s dch do thnh phn no ca ht keo quyt nh.
7.9. Vit cng thc cu to ca Mixen, cho bit du in tch ca ht keo c
iu ch theo cch sau y:
Keo xanh ph Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3
+ Nh mt vi git dung dch FeCl3 vo cc ng dung dch K4Fe(CN)6.
+ Nh mt vi git K4Fe(CN)6 vo cc ng FeCl3.
Keo st III hydroxyt Fe(OH)3
+ Thu phn FeCl3 trong nc un si (c d ion Fe3+).
7.10. Yu t no quyt nh s hnh thnh in tch trn ht keo protein, yu t
no quyt nh du ca ht keo protein? pH ng in ca keo protein l g?
7.11. Ht keo gelatin c pHi = 4,7. Hi a n vo dung dch m c pH = 7 th
n s di chuyn v in cc no trong 1 in trng.
7.12. Nu nguyn tc v ng dng ca phng php in di.
7.13. Nhng nguyn nhn no lm cho mt dung dch keo ni chung tng i
bn vng?
7.14. Th no l hin tng ng t keo? Mun lm ng t keo c th dng
nhng cch no?
7.15. Gii thch hin tng bi p ph sa cc ca sng.
7.16. Th no l s pepti ho? ng dng ca s pepti ho.

Bi 8

IN HO HC
MC TIU
1. S dng c bng th oxy ho kh tiu chun ch ra chiu ca mt phn ng oxy

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167

ho kh.
2. Gii thch c s xut hin th in cc v vit c cng thc sut in ng ca
nguyn t ganvanic.
3. M t v vit c cng thc th in cc ca mt s loi in cc thng s dng
trong in ho hc.
4. Nu c nhng nguyn tc chung s dng nguyn t ganvanic trong vic xc nh pH
bng phng php in ho.
5. Vit c s in phn nng chy v in phn dung dch mt s cht in hnh.
M U
Nng lng ho hc c th chuyn thnh in nng trong cc pin.
Ngc li, di tc dng ca dng in (s in phn) mt phn ng ho hc li c th c
thc hin. l hai mt tng quan gia ho nng v in nng.
1. PHN NG OXY HO KH
1.1. nh ngha:
Phn ng oxy ho kh l phn ng trong c s thu v nhng electron v do lm
thay i s oxy ho ca cc nguyn t.
V d:

Trong phn ng oxy ho kh t nht c hai cp oxyho kh. hai v d trn ta c cc

cp:
Zn2+/Zn; Cu2+/Cu v CH3CHO/C2H5OH; Cu2+/Cu
Dng oxy ho l dng c s oxy ho dng hn v c vit trc. Dng kh c s oxy ho
nh hn v c vit sau.
1.2. S oxy ho
S oxy ho c quy c l in tch ca nguyn t trong phn t khi gi nh rng cp
electron dng chung lin kt vi nguyn t khc trong phn t chuyn hn v nguyn t c
m in ln hn.
tnh s oxy ho ca mt nguyn t cn lu :
S oxy ho c th l s dng, m, bng 0 hay l s l.
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168

 S oxy ho ca nguyn t trong n cht bng 0.

Mt s nguyn t c s oxy ho khng i v bng in tch ion ca n.
H, cc kim loi kim c s oxy ho +1 (trong NaH, H c s oxy ho 1)
Mg v cc kim loi kim th c s oxy ho +2.
Al c s oxy ho +3; Fe c hai s oxy ho +2 v +3.
O c s oxy ho 2 (trong H2O2, O c s oxy ho 1)
Tng i s s oxy ho ca cc nguyn t trong phn t bng 0.
V d:

1.3. Cn bng phn ng oxy ho kh

cn bng phn ng oxy ho kh ngi ta thc hin mt s bc sau y:
Xt s thay i s oxy ho ca cc nguyn t.
Vit phng trnh thu nhng electron, t xc nh h s ca phng trnh ion rt gn.
Cn bng phng trnh phn t.
V d:
Cn bng phng trnh phn ng:

1.4. ng lng gam ca cht trong phn ng oxy ho kh

Trong phn ng oxy ho kh ng lng gam ca mt cht c tnh bng khi lng
mol ca cht chia cho s electron m mt phn t cht cho hoc nhn. V d trong phn
ng trn:

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169

1.5. Th oxy ho kh v chiu hng ca phn ng oxy ho kh

Th oxy ho kh l i lng c trng cho kh nng tham gia vo phn ng oxy ho
kh (kh nng cho nhn electron) ca mt cp oxy ho kh no . Th oxy ho kh k hiu
0 gi l th chun o c bng cch so snh vi th ca in cc hydro chun (bng 8.1).
Cp c th oxy ho kh cng ln (cng dng) th dng oxy ho ca n cng mnh v
dng kh cng yu.
Cc cp oxy ho kh phn ng vi nhau theo quy tc sau:
Dng oxy ho mnh ca cp ny phn ng vi dng kh mnh ca cp kia hay dng oxy
ho ca cp c 0 cao phn ng vi dng kh ca cp c th thp.
V d:

kim loi mnh y kim loi yu ra khi dung dch mui

kim loi hot ng y hydro ra khi acid.

Phn ng Cu +2H+ khng xy ra v
BNG 8.1. TH OXY HO KH TIU CHUN (2980K, PH = 0)
Cp oxyho kh

0 (V)

Phn ng

Li+/Li

Li+ + e

Li

3,01

K+/K

K+ + e

2,92

Ba2+/ Ba

Ba2+ + 2e

Ba

2,90

Ca2+/Ca

Ca2+ + 2e

Na+/Na

Na+ + e

Na

2,71

Mg2+/Mg

Mg2+ +2e

Mg

2,36

Al3+/Al

Al3+ + 3e

Al

1,85

ZnO22/Zn

ZnO2 + 2H2O+2e

Zn + 4OH

1,66

SO42/SO32

SO42 + H2O +2e

SO32 +2OH

0,93

2 H2O/H2

2 H2O + 2e

H2 + 2OH

0,83

Ca

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170

Zn2+/Zn

Zn2+ + 2e

Zn

0,76

Cr3+/Cr

Cr3+ + 3e

Cr

0,74

2SO32/S2O32

2SO32 + 3 H2O + 4e

S2O32 + 6OH

0,58

S/S

S + 2e

0,51

Fe2+/Fe

Fe2+ + 2e

Fe

0,44

Cr3+/Cr2+

Cr3+ + e

Co2+/Co

Co2+ + e

2+

2+

Cr2+

0,41

Co

0,28

Ni /Ni

Ni

+ 2e

Ni

0,25

Sn2+/Sn

Sn2+ + 2e

Sn

0,14

Pb2+/Pb

Pb2+ + 2e

Pb

0,13

Fe3+/Fe

Fe3+ + 3e

Fe

0,04

2H+ + 2e

2H /H2

NO3 /NO2

NO3 + H2O + 2e

Cu2+/Cu+

Cu2+ + e

Sn4+/Sn2+

Sn4+ + 2e
2+

2+

Cu

Cu /Cu

Fe(CN)63 / Fe(CN)64

+ 2e

Fe(CN)63 + e
O2 + 2H2O + 4e

Cu+/Cu

Cu+ + e
I2 + 2e

MnO4 /MnO4

MnO4 + e

MnO4 + 2H2O +3e

O2/2O

O2 + 2H+ + 2e

Fe3+/Fe2+

Fe3+ + e

+0,01

Cu+

+0,15

NO2 +2OH

Sn2+

+0,15

Cu

+0,34

Fe(CN)64

+0,36

4OH

+0,40

Cu

+0,52

2I

+0,54

MnO4

MnO2 + 4OH
H2O2

0,00

MnO4 /MnO2

O2/OH

I2/2I

H2

Fe2+

+0,54
+0,59
+0,68
+0,77
+0,78

NO3 /NO2

NO3 + 2H+ + e

Ag+/Ag

Ag+ + e

Ag

+0,80

2Hg2+/Hg22+

2Hg2+ +2e

Hg22+

+0,92

NO2 + H2O

NO3 /NO

NO3 + 4H + 3e

NO +2 H2O

+0,96

HNO2/NO

HNO2 + H+ + e

NO + H2O

+1,00

Br2/2Br

Br2 +2e

2NO3 /N2O

2NO3 + 4H+ + 8e

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2Br
N2O + 2H2O

+1,07
+1,12

171

IO3/I2

IO3 + 6H+ + 5e

O2/2O2

O2 + 4H+ + 4e

2H2O

+1,23

MnO2/Mn2+

MnO2 +4H+ + 2e

Mn2+ + 2H2O

+1,23

O3/O2

O3 +H2O + 2e

O2 + 2OH

+1,24

2NO3/N2

2NO3 + 6H+ + 10e

N2 + 3H2O

+1,24

2Cr3+ +7H2O

+1,33

Cr2O7 /Cr3+

Cr2O7 +14H+ + 6e

Cl2/2Cl

Cl2 + 2e

Au3+/Au

Au

PbO2/Pb2+

PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e

3+

1/2I2 + 3H2O

2Cl

+ 3e

Au

+1,19

+1,36
+1,42

Pb2+ + 2H2O

+1,46

MnO4 /Mn2+

MnO4 +8H+ + 5e

MnO4 /MnO2

MnO4 +4H+ + 3e

Au+/Au

Au+ + e

H2O2/2 H2O

H2O2 + 2H +2e

2H2O

+1,78

Co3+/Co2+

Co3+ + e

Co2+

+1,81

F2/2F

F2 + 2e

F2/2F

F2 + 2H+ + 2e

Mn2+ + 4H2O

Au

MnO2 + 2H2O

+1,51
+1,70
+1,70

2F
2HF

+2,86
+3,06

2. PIN HAY CC NGUYN T GANVANIC

Pin hay cn gi l cc nguyn t ganvanic l thit b cho dng in mt chiu nh phn ng
ho hc xy ra trong n, thit b chuyn nng lng ho hc (ho nng) thnh in nng.
2.1. Pin Danien Iacobi (Daniells Iacob)
Pin Daniells Iacobi (hnh 8.1) gm hai in cc: in
cc m l thanh km nhng trong dung dch ZnSO4 v in
cc dng l thanh ng nhng trong dung dch CuSO4.
Hai dung dch c ni vi nhau bng mt cu mui KCl
trong thch dn in mch trong. Khi hai in cc c
ni vi nhau bng mt dy dn kim loi s xut hin mt
dng in t cc ng sang cc km, ngha l c mt dng
electron t cc km chuyn sang cc ng.
Pin ny c k hiu nh sau:
Zn / Zn2+ // Cu2+ / Cu+
Khi pin hot ng, trn cc in cc xy ra cc phn
ng:
cc m:

Hnh 8.1. S cu to
nguyn t Daniells Iacobi

Zn 2e Zn2+
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172

 cc dng:
Phn ng ny cng xy ra khi nhng mt thanh Zn vo dung dch CuSO4 tuy nhin y
khng thu c dng in.
V vy mun thu c dng in phi thc hin s oxy ho v s kh hai ni tch bit nh
xy ra trong pin.
Trong pin, electron chuyn t cc m sang cc dng, gia hai cc phi c mt hiu in
th. Vy in th trn in cc c to ra nh th no?
2.2. S xut hin th in cc
Khi thanh kim loi c nhng vo dung dch cha ion ca n th rt nhanh chng c cn
bng:
Me ne

Men+

Tu thuc vo bn cht ca kim loi v nng ion c th xy ra hai trng hp.

Nguyn t kim loi (thng l kim loi hot ng, v d Zn) tch khi mng li kim loi
i vo dung dch di dng ion hydrat ho (Men+.xH2O) v li trn kim loi cc electron. Cc
ion dng ch yu tp trung lp dung dch nm st b mt kim loi.
Cc ion kim loi (thng l kim loi km
hot ng, v d Cu) t dung dch bm ln thanh
kim loi, v do lp dung dch st b mt kim
loi d tha ion m.
Trong c hai trng hp lp dung dch st
b mt v b mt kim loi to nn mt lp in
kp, ging nh hai bn ca mt t in. Gia
hai bn c mt hiu in th v c gi l
th in cc, k hiu l .

Hnh 8.2. S hnh thnh lp in kp trn in

cc

2.3. Cng thc Nec (Nernst)

C th biu din phn ng tng qut trn mt in cc bt k nh sau:
Ox + ne

Kh

Nec rt ra cng thc th in cc (k hiu l ):

: Th in cc.
0: Th in cc tiu chun hay th oxy ho ca cp Ox/Kh
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R: Hng s kh = 8,31jun/mol.K
T: Nhit tuyt i
F: S Faraday 96500oC
n: S electron thu hay nhng trn phn ng in cc.
[Ox], [Kh] tng ng l nng dng oxy ho v dng kh.
Nu thay gi tr bit ca F v R vo phng trnh trn ta c s ph thuc ca th in
cc vo nhit :

nhit T = 25 + 273 = 2980K v khi chuyn ln thnh lg th phng trnh Nec c dng:

V d:
i vi in cc ng:
Cu2+ + 2e Cu

[Cu] coi nh = 1

Khi
Tng t nh vy i vi in cc km:
Zn 2e Zn2+

2.4. Sc in ng ca pin
Sc in ng ca pin l hiu in th cc dng v hiu in th cc m. in cc dng
l in cc c th ln hn.
V d:
i vi pin Daniells Iacobi ta c:

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174

hay
gi l sc in ng tiu chun ca pin.
l sc in ng khi nng ca ion in cc bng 1.
2.5. Nguyn t nng (pin nng )
Cng c th to ra mt pin t hai in cc kim loi
ging nhau, v d 2 in cc ng, nhng trong cc dung
dch ng sulphat c nng khc nhau (hnh 8.3). Khi
ta c pin nng :
Cu/ Cu2+ C1 // Cu2+ C2 / Cu +
Trong C2 C1. Khi trn in cc bn tri c phn
ng:
Cu 2e Cu2+ v c th in cc:
Hnh 8.3. S pin nng

in cc bn phi c phn ng: Cu2+ + 2e Cu v c th in cc:

T sc in ng ca pin 250C

3. MT S LOI IN CC
3.1. in cc kim loi: Me / Men+

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Gm thanh kim loi nhng trong dung dch cha ion ca n (hnh
8.4).
Trn in cc xy ra phn ng:
Men+ + ne

Me

Th in cc c tnh theo cng thc Nernst

Hnh 8.4. Cu to ca
in cc kim loi

3.2. in cc kh
3.2.1. in cc kh hydro: (Pt) H2/ 2H+
Gm bn Pt c ph mui Pt nhng trong dung dch c cha
ion H+. Kh H2 c thi vo to nn p sut 1 atm v c hp
ph trn tm Pt c ph lp mui Pt (hnh 8.5).
Trn in cc xy ra phn ng:
2H+ + 2e

H2

Hnh 8.5. Cu to ca
in cc kh hydro

Ngi ta tha nhn: 0 = 0 do :

3.2.2. in cc hydro chun

Khi [H+] = 1M th c in cc hydro chun c
in cc hydro chun c dng xc nh th oxy ho kh chun ca cc cp oxy ho
kh.
3.2.3. in cc kh Clo (Pt) Cl2 / 2Cl

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Gm mt bn Pt nhng trong dung dch c cha ion

Cl . Kh clo c thi vo in cc to p sut 1atm (hnh
8.6).

Trn in cc xy ra phn ng:

2Cl

Cl2 + 2e

Hnh 8.6. S cu to in cc kh
clo

3.3. in cc oxy ho kh
Gm thanh kim loi tr nh Pt, Au nhng trong dung dch cha ng thi hai dng oxy ho
v dng kh ca cng mt kim loi.
V d:
(Pt)/ Fe3+, Fe2+; (Pt)/ MnO4, Mn2+, H+
Kim loi tr ng vai tr tip nhn v chuyn electron gia hai dng oxy ho v dng kh.

3.3.1. in cc oxy ho kh ca st: (hnh 8.7)

Fe3+ + e

Fe2+

Lu : trng hp phn ng in cc c s tham gia ca H+

v d:
MnO4 + 5e + 8H+

Mn2+ + 4H2O
Hnh 8.7. Cu to ca in
cc
oxy ho kh ca st

3.3.2. in cc quinhydron (Pt) / C6H4O2, C6H4(OH)2

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Quinhydron C6H4O2. C6H4(OH)2 l hp cht ng phn t,

trong dung dch phn ly thnh quinon C6H4O2 v hydroquinol
C6H4(OH)2.
C6H4O2. C6H4(OH)2 C6H4O2 + C6H4(OH)2
Trn in cc xy ra phn ng:
C6H4O2 + 2e + 2H+

C6H4(OH)2

Th in cc:
Hnh 8.8. Cu to ca in
cc
quinhydron

[C6H4O2] = [C6H4(OH)2]

Ta c:
3.4. in cc kim loi cn bng vi anion mui kh tan ca n
3.4.1. in cc calomel: Hg/ Hg2Cl2, Cl
in cc calomel c th c hnh dng khc nhau nhng lun
lun gm thu ngn nm cn bng vi ion Cl gin tip qua mui
kh tan Hg2Cl2 (calomel) (hnh 8.9)
Trn in cc xy ra phn ng:
Hg22+ + 2e

2Hg

Th ca in cc Hg c tnh theo cng thc:

Hnh 8.9. Cu to ca in
cc
calomel

Nhng trong lp Hg2Cl2 c cn bng:

Hg2Cl2

Hg22+ + 2Cl

Ta li c [Hg2 2+] =
. Thay nng ny vo cng thc trn. Sau khi rt gn ta c
cng thc th in cc ca in cc calomel:
cal = 0cal 0,059 lg [Cl]
V vy nu gi cho nng Cl trong in cc c nh th cal khng i.

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Khi [KCl] bo ho cal = 0,24V

in cc calomel thng c dng lm in cc so snh trong cc phng php chun
o th hay xc nh pH. N cng c dng thay cho in cc hydro chun xc nh th oxy
ho kh tiu chun ca cc cp oxy ho kh.
3.4.2. in cc bc bc clorid. Ag / AgCl, HCl.
Tng t nh vi trng hp in cc calomel ta c th rt ra cng thc th in cc:
AgCl = 0AgCl 0,059 lg [Cl]
Lu : khng nhm in cc ny vi in cc Ag/Ag+.
3.5. in cc thu tinh
in cc thu tinh l mt ng thu tinh u c thi thnh
mt bu hnh cu rt mng bn trong cha dung dch c nng
H+ xc nh v mt in cc bc ph AgCl. Khi nhng in cc
vo mt dung dch th mt phn cch thu tinh dung dch
pht sinh mt in th m tr s ca n ph thuc vo nng
ion H+ dung dch bn ngoi theo phng trnh:
tt = 0tt + 0,059 lg[H+] = 0tt 0,059 pH
Trong 0tt l mt hng s i vi mi in cc. V vy
trc khi dng mt in cc thu tinh ngi ta phi chun nh
li n bng nhng dung dch m bit pH m thc cht l xc Hnh 8.10. Cu to ca in cc
thu tinh
nh 0 ca in cc .
4. NG DNG CA CC NGUYN T GANVANIC
4.1. Xc nh th oxy ho kh tiu chun ca cc cp oxy ho kh
xc nh ngi ta thit lp mt pin gm mt in cc hydro chun v mt in cc c
cp oxy ho kh cn xc nh ri o sc in ng ca n.
V d:

2+

Hnh 8.11. Xc nh th oxy ho kh tiu chun ca cp Zn /Zn

Zn/ [Zn2+] =1M // [H+] =1M / H2 (Pt) +

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Sc in ng ca pin o c:

T
Mt cch tng t, khi thit lp pin:
(Pt) H2 / [H+] =1M // [Cu2+]= 1M / Cu+
ta xc nh c

= + 0,34V

4.2. Xc nh pH bng phng php in ho hc

V nguyn tc o pH ca mt dung dch bng phng php ny ngi ta cn s dng hai
in cc thch hp, trong mt in cc c th ph thuc vo nng ion H+ (cng tc l ph
thuc vo pH) nh in cc hydro, in cc quinhydron, in cc thu tinh, cn in cc kia c
th xc nh v khng i, thng l in cc calomel. Hai in cc ny ghp thnh nguyn t
ganvanic. o sc in ng ca n v rt ra pH. Di y l mt s v d.
4.2.1. o pH bng cp in cc hydrocalomel
Nhng vo dung dch cn o pH mt in cc calomel v mt in cc platin v thi vo
in cc ny kh hydro vi p sut 1 atm. Khi ta c nguyn t ganvanic:
(Pt) H2/ H+ // KCl, Hg2Cl2 / Hg +
Sc in ng o c ca nguyn t ny:

E = Cal + 0,059 pH

T
4.2.2. o pH bng cp in cc thu tinh calomel

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Lp nguyn t ganvanic gm in cc thu tinh (bu thu

tinh nhng trong dung dch cn o pH) v in cc calomel
(hnh 8.12).
Trong nguyn t ny in cc calomel l in cc dng.
Sc in ng ca nguyn t:
E = Cal tt
= Cal 0tt + 0,059 pH

Hnh 8.12. o pH bng in cc

thu tinh calomel

4.3. Xc nh bin thin nng lng t do tiu chun G0 ca mt phn ng

Cng in do mt nguyn t ganvanic iu kin tiu chun to ra cng chnh bng bin
thin nng lng t do chun ca phn ng ho hc xy ra trong nguyn t :
A = nFE0 = G0
Do nu bit th oxy ho kh tiu chun ca cc cp oxy ho kh trong mt phn ng
ta c th tnh c bin thin nng lng t do tiu chun ca phn ng .
V d:
Tnh bin thin nng lng t do ca phn ng:
MnO4 + Fe2+ + 8H+ Mn2+ + Fe3+ + 4H2O
Bit:
Sut in ng tiu chun ca pin trong xy ra phn ng trn l:
E0 = 1,51 0,77 = 0,74V.
T :

G0 = 5.23062. 0,74 = 85039 calo.

4.4. Phng php chun o th

Trong phng php chun o th, im tng ng c pht hin qua s bin i t
ngt v th, to ra mt bc nhy th trn ng cong chun .
V nguyn tc, tin hnh vic chun ngi ta phi thit lp mt nguyn t ganvanic
gm mt in cc c th ph thuc vo nng ion mun chun (gi l in cc ch th) v mt
in cc c th khng i (thng gi l in cc so snh). o sc in ng ca n trong sut
qu trnh chun . V ng cong chun , t tm im tng ng.
V d:
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Xc nh nng dung dch NaCl bng phng php chun o th. Dung dch chun
y l dung dch AgNO3.
Thit lp nguyn t ganvanic gm in cc Ag nhng trong mt th tch xc nh dung dch
AgNO3 v mt in cc calomel chun (hnh 8.13). T buret cha dung dch NaCl cha bit
nng , thm dn vo cc cha hai in cc. Sau mi ln thm li o sc in ng.

Hnh 8.13. Nguyn tc ca phng php chun o th

Trong qu trnh chun , nng [Ag+] gim dn. Do E o c gim dn. Ti im

tng ng nng [Ag+] v cng b lm cho E gim mt cch t ngt. V ng cong
chun v tm im tng ng trn ng cong .
4.5. Ngun in mt chiu
Cc nguyn t ganvanic c s dng trong i sng v trong k thut nh ngun in mt
chiu di dng cc loi pin v cc acquy khc nhau.
V d:
4.5.1. Pin kh Lclans
Pin ny c cc m (anod) bng km cun thnh ng hnh tr cha cht in ly l hn hp
NH4Cl v ZnCl2 trong h tinh bt. Cc dng (catod) l mt thi than ch c bao bi mt mt
lp MnO2 (hnh 8.14).

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Hnh 8.14. Cu to ca pin le Clanse

Zn / NH4Cl, ZnCl2 / MnO2, C +

Khi pin lm vic xy ra cc phn ng sau y:
Anod: Zn - 2e Zn2+
Catod: 2MnO2 + H2O +2e Mn2O3 + 2OH
Phn ng tng cng trong pin:
Zn + 2MnO2 + H20 Zn2+ + Mn2O3 + 2OH
ion OH v Zn2+ tip tc tham gia cc phn ng:
2NH4+ + 2OH 2NH3 + 2H2O.
Zn2+ + 2NH3 + 2Cl [Zn(NH3)2]Cl2
Sc in ng ca pin khong 1,5 V v ch dng c mt ln.
4.5.2. Acquy ch

Hnh 8.15. S cu to ca acquy ch

Acquy ch gm cc tm in cc m l ch v cc dng l PbO2 nhng trong dung dch

H2SO4 38% (hnh 8.15).
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Pb/ H2SO4 / PbO2

Phn ng tng cng trong qu trnh phng in:
Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
Khi mi np, acquy c sut in ng khong 2V. Nu ni tip 3 cp in cc th c
acquy c in p l 6V. Trong qu trnh s dng in p gim dn. n 1,85 V cn tin hnh np
li acquy.
Nh vy acquy khc pin ch c th s dng n nhiu ln.
Trong thc t, khi mi sn xut th cc tm in cc ca acquy l cc tm hp kim ch c
nhng khoang trng cha PbO. Khi c nhng trong dung dch H2SO4 chng u tr thnh
PbSO4:
PbO + H2SO4 PbSO4 + H2O
Khi np in cho acquy:
cc dng xy ra phn ng:
PbSO4 2e + 2H2O PbO2 + SO42 + 4H+
cc m xy ra phn ng:
PbSO4 + 2e Pb + SO42
Phn ng tng cng trong qu trnh np:
2PbSO4 + 2H2O Pb + PbO2 + H2SO4
Lc ny hai in cc ca acquy l Pb cc m v PbO2 cc dng.
Khi s dng:
cc m ca acquy c phn ng:
Pb 2e + SO42 PbSO4
Cn cc dng:
PbO2 + 2e + 4H+ + SO42 PbSO4 + 2H2O
Phn ng tng cng trong qu trnh phng in:
Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
Ta nhn thy phn ng ny ngc vi phn ng ca qu trnh np in.
5. S IN PHN
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184

5.1. nh ngha
Qu trnh oxy ho kh xy ra trn cc in cc khi c dng in mt chiu i qua cht in
ly nng chy hay dung dch gi l s in phn.
Trong qu trnh in phn cc cation chy v cc m (catod) cn cc anion chy v in cc
dng (anod), ti xy ra phn ng trn cc in cc (s phng in).
Ngi ta phn bit: in phn nng chy, in phn dung dch, in phn dng in cc
dng tan.
5.2. in phn nng chy
V d:
in phn NaCl nng chy:

Nh vy khi in phn nng chy trn mi in cc ch xy ra mt phn ng duy nht v do

d dng xc nh sn phm ca qu trnh in phn.
5.3. in phn dung dch
Trong s in phn dung dch, ngoi cc ion do cht in ly phn ly ra cn c cc ion H+ v
OH ca nc. Do vic xc nh sn phm ca s in phn phc tp hn. Tu thuc vo tnh
kh v tnh oxy ho ca cc ion c trong bnh in phn m ta thu c nhng sn phm khc
nhau.

V d:
Khi in phn dung dch NaCl, cc ion Na+, H+ chy v catod cn cc ion Cl, OH chy v
anod. Ion no trong s chng s phng in cc in cc?
C s gii p vn ny l da vo cc gi tr th oxy ho kh ca cc cp. Trong qu
trnh in phn, trn catod s din ra s kh. V vy khi c nhiu dng oxy ho th trc ht dng
oxy ho ca cc cp c th ln s b kh. Ngc li trn anod s din ra s oxy ho dng kh
ca cp c th oxy ho kh nh nht.
5.3.1. Kh nng phng in ca cc cation catod.
catod c th xy ra cc qu trnh kh sau y:
Mn+ + ne M
2H+ (acid) + 2e H2 hoc ion hydro ca nc b kh:
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185

2H2O + 2e H2 + 2OH
Dng oxy ho ca nhng cp c th cng ln cng d b kh.
Theo dy th oxy ho kh th kh nng b kh ca cc ion kim loi nh sau:
Cc cation t Zn2+ n cui dy Hg2+, Cu2+, Ag+... d b kh nht v theo th t tng dn.
T Al3+ n cc ion u dy Na+, Ca2+, K+... khng b kh trong dung dch.
Ring cc ion H+ ca acid hay ca nc kh b kh hn cc ion kim loi.
5.3.2. Kh nng phng in ca cc anion anod
anot xy ra qu trnh oxy ho cc anion gc acid v d Cl, S2... hoc ion OH ca base
kim hay nc:
2Cl 2e Cl2

2OH 2e

H2O 2e

O2 + H2O hoc cc ion OH ca nc b oxy ho:

O2 + 2H+

Dng kh ca nhng cp c th oxy ho kh cng nh cng d b oxy ho.

Theo dy th oxy ho kh th kh nng b oxy ho ca cc anion nh sau:
Cc anion gc acid khng cha oxy d b oxy ho nht theo th t tng dn v d t Cl,
Br , I, S2...

Cc anion gc acid nh NO3, SO42, PO43... khng b oxy ho.

Ring cc ion OH ca kim hoc ca nc kh b oxy ho hn cc ion S2, I, Br, Cl....
Nu khi in phn khng dng cc anod tr nh graphit, Pt m dng cc kim loi nh Ni,
Cu, Ag... th cc kim loi ny d b oxy ho hn cc anion v th oxy ho kh ca chng thp
hn, v do chng tan vo dung dch (anod tan).
Di y l mt s v d v in phn:
V d 1:
in phn dung dch CuCl2 vi anod tr:

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186

V d 2:
in phn dung dch K2SO4 vi anod tr:

Trong trng hp ny nc b in phn.

V d 3:
in phn dung dch NaCl vi in cc tr c mng ngn:

V d 4:
in phn dung dch NiSO4 vi anod tr:

V d 5:
in phn dung dch NiSO4 vi anod Cu:

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187

5.4. nh lut v in phn

Khi lng cht gii phng trn mi in cc t l vi in lng i qua dung dch v
ng lng ca cht.

A: khi lng mol nguyn t hay phn t ca cht (g)

n: s electron thu hay nhng
I: cng dng in (Ampe)
t: thi gian in phn (giy)
96500: s Faraday (Culong) in lng cn thit mt mol ion bin thnh nguyn t
hay phn t trung ho.
6. TH PHN CC, TH PHN GII V QU TH
Thc t cho thy mun tin hnh mt qu trnh in phn no ngi ta phi dng dng
in c mt th hiu xc nh. V d mun bt u qu trnh in phn dung dch ZnCl2 1M vi
cc in cc grapht phi dng mt th hiu ti thiu l 2,12V. Tuy nhin trong thc t duy tr
s in phn n cng ngi ta phi dng mt th hiu l 2,38V. in th ny c gi l th
phn gii, k hiu l Epg. Nh vy:
Th phn gii l th cn t vo cc in cc duy tr qu trnh in phn
Nu dng th hiu nh hn th phn gii th thc t qu trnh in phn s b ngng li ngay.
iu ny c gii thch nh sau: trong v d trn, nu dng th hiu nh hn 2,12V th thot
u qu trnh in phn vn xy ra, Zn c gii phng catod bm ln in cc graphit bin n
thnh mt in cc km cn clo c gii phng anod hp ph trn in cc bin in cc ny
thnh mt in cc clo. Bnh in phn lc ny tr thnh nguyn t ganvanic:
() (C) Zn / ZnCl2 / Cl2 (C) (+)
Nguyn t ny c sut in ng:

(cn c gi l th phn cc, k hiu Epc) cho dng in ngc chiu vi dng in bn
ngoi dng in phn. Kt qu dng in ca ngun in ngoi tr thnh bng 0 v qu trnh
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188

in phn dng li. Nh vy th phn cc c th coi l bng sut in ng ca nguyn t

ganvanic hnh thnh trong qu trnh in phn.
Hiu s th phn gii v th phn cc c gi l qu th in phn (k hiu l E)
E = Epg Epc

CU HI T LNG GI
8.1. nh ngha: s oxy ho, phn ng oxy ho kh, cht oxy ho, cht kh, qu
trnh oxy ho, qu trnh kh.
8.2. Mt cp oxy ho kh c vit nh th no? i lng no c trng cho
kh nng tham gia phn ng ca mt cp oxy ho kh? i lng c sp
xp nh th no? Theo s sp xp kh nng phn ng ca cc dng kh v
dng oxy ho bin i nh th no?
8.3. Hy cho bit chiu ca mt phn ng oxy ho kh. Cc phn ng sau y
xy ra theo chiu no iu kin tiu chun?
a) SnCl4 + FeCl2

SnCl2 + FeCl3

b) Br2 + KI

KBr + I2

c) FeSO4 + CuSO4

Cu + Fe2(SO4)3

d) I2 + KOH

KI + H2O2

e) KMnO4 + KNO2 + H2SO4

MnSO4 + KNO3 +...

f) KNO2 + KI + H2SO4

NO + I2

8.4. Vit phng trnh v cn bng cc phn ng oxy ho kh sau y v cho

bit cch tnh ng lng gam ca cc cht oxy ho v cht kh tham gia vo
cc phn ng .
a) KMnO4 + H2C2O4 + H2SO4
b) MnO2 + KI +...

MnSO4 + I2 +...

c) K2Cr2O7 + C3H7OH +...

Cr2(SO4)3 + C2H5COOH +...

d) H2S + HNO3

S + NO2 +...

e) KMnO4 + H2O2 +...

...

f) FeSO4 + H2O2 + H2SO4

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189

8.5. Vit phng trnh v cn bng phn ng sau y bng phng php thng
bng electron.
a) MxOy + HNO3

NO +....

b) M2Oy + H2SO4 ()

SO2 +....

8.6. Hy gii thch s hnh thnh th in cc trn cc in cc kim loi.

8.7. Cng thc Nec v th in cc? Cu to v cng thc th in cc ca cc
in cc: hydro, clo, calomel, thu tinh, in cc oxy ho kh st, quinhydron.
8.8. Th no l nguyn t ganvanic? Cho v d. Sc in ng ca nguyn t
ganvanic c tnh nh th no? Tnh sc in ng ca cc nguyn t sau y
250C.
a) Pb/ Pb2+ 0,01M // Cu2+ 0,01M / Cu
b) Cr/ Cr3+ 0,05M // Ni2+ 0,01M / Ni
c) Cu/ Cu2+ 0,005M // Cu2+ 0,05M / Cu
d) (Pt)/ Cr3+, Cr2+ // Fe3+, Fe2+ / (Pt)

nng cc ion bng 1M

e) (Pt) Fe3+, Fe2+ // Cl / Cl2 (Pt)

pCl2=1atm

nng cc ion bng 1M,

f) (Pt)/ Fe3+, Fe2+ // Cr2O72, Cr3+ /(Pt)

nng cc ion bng 1M

8.9. Cu to v cng thc tnh sc in ng ca pin nng ? Cho v d.

8.10. Th oxy ho kh tiu chun ca cc cp oxy ho kh c xc nh nh
th no? Cho v d.
8.11. Vit s cu to cc nguyn t ganvanic trong xy ra cc phn ng:
a) Ag+ + Cu

Ag + Cu2+

b) Fe2+ + Cl2

Fe3+ + 2Cl

c) Cl2 + H2

2H+ + 2Cl

d) Fe3+ + Zn

Fe2+ + Zn2+

e) Ag+ + Cr2+

Ag + Cr3+

f) Pb + PbO2 + H2SO4

PbSO4 + H2O

8.12. Nu nguyn tc ca vic xc nh pH bng phng php in ho. Trnh

by cch xc nh pH ca dung dch bng cc cp in cc hydro calomel, thu
tinh calomel, quinhydron calomel.
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190

8.13. Nu nguyn tc ca vic xc nh nng ion bng phng php in ho.

Trnh by cch xc nh nng cc dung dch H2SO4, FeSO4, AgNO3, NaCl.
8.14. xc nh pKa ca HNO2 v pKb ca C6H5NH2 ngi ta thit lp cc
nguyn t sau:
a) (Pt) H2/ HNO2 0,1M // Cl(KCl bo ho), Hg2Cl2 / Hg
b) (Pt) H2/ C6H5NH2 0,001M // Cl (KCl bo ho), Hg2Cl2 / Hg
v o sc in ng ca chng tng ng vi nguyn t (a), (b) l 0,37V v
0,7V.
Tnh pKa v pKb.
8.15. xc nh tch s tan ca Ag2CrO4 ngi ta thit lp cc nguyn t sau:
Ag/ dd bo ho Ag2CrO4 // AgNO3 0,1M /Ag
Sc in ng ca pin o c l 0,153 V. Hy tnh tch s tan ca
Ag2CrO4
8.16. S in phn l g? Vit phng trnh in phn cc dung dch CuBr2,
KNO3, AgNO3, CaCl2 vi hai in cc platin; dung dch hn hp hai mui
AgNO3 v CuSO4 vi hai in cc platin; dung dch NiSO4 vi hai in cc Ni.
8.17. Hy nu ln bn cht ca qu trnh m in? Ly v d m bc ln mt vt
kim loi minh ho.
8.18. nh ngha th phn gii? Qu th? Nguyn nhn no dn n qu th trong
in phn? Th phn gii ca dung dch NiCl2 = 1,85V, ZnSO4 = 2,35V v H2SO4
= 1,67V. Tnh qu th.

HNG DN GII BI TP V TR LI CU HI
BI 1. CU TO NGUYN T
1.2. i vi qu bng bn:

Nhn xt: bt nh hay sai s v tc v cng nh so vi tc ca qu bng bn

(khong 3.103 cm/s)
i vi electron:

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191

Nhn xt: bt nh hay sai s v v tr rt ln so vi kch thc ca nguyn t (khong

108 cm).
1.3. i vi chuyn ng ca t:

Nhn xt: qu nh, do c th b qua tnh cht sng.

i vi chuyn ng ca electron:

Nhn xt: c th so snh vi ca tia gama v tia X. Nh vy electron cn th hin bn

cht sng.
1.4. Phng trnh Schrodinger l phng trnh m t trng thi chuyn ng ca cc ht vi m
trong khng gian. Khi gii phng trnh ny thu c cc hm sng v cc thuc tnh vt l
ca ht nh nng lng ton phn E, momen ng lng M... Nh vy t phng trnh ny ta
thu c y nhng thng tin v trng thi ca mt ht vi m xc nh. Mi hm (nghim
ca phng trnh Schrodinger) m t mt trng thi chuyn ng ca ht vi m trong khng
gian.
2 biu th mt xc sut tm thy ht ti mt im trong khng gian.
2 dV (dV= dx.dy.dz) biu th xc xut tm thy ht ti mt th tch nguyn t.
1.5. Nhng nghim tho mn phng trnh Schrodinger vit cho nguyn t: (r, , ) gi l cc
orbital nguyn t (AO)
1.6. My electron l vng khng gian xung quanh ht nhn trong
tp trung phn ln xc sut c mt electron (khong 90 95%
xc sut)
Nh vy my electron c th coi l hnh nh khng gian ca
orbital nguyn t.
1.8.

E1 = 13,6 eV
E2 = 3,4 eV
Vy khi electron chuyn t mc th nht ln mc th hai n hp thu mt nng lng: E =
3,4 (13,6) = + 10,2 eV

1.9. n,l,m (r,,): Hm ph thuc vo cc bin s r, , .

Rn,l (r): Hm ph thuc vo cc bin s r v c gi l phn bn knh (hay phn xuyn tm
ca hm sng, phn ny quyt nh kch thc ca orbital.
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192

Yl,m (,): Hm ph thuc vo cc bin s , v c gi l phn gc ca hm sng, phn

ny xc nh hnh dng ca orbital.
n,l,m(r,,) = Rn,l(r). Yl,m (,)
1.10.

S lng t n nhn cc gi tr n = 1 n n.
S lng t l nhn cc gi tr l = 0 n n 1.
S lng t m nhn cc gi tr m = l 0 +l.

S lng t mS nhn cc gi tr

ng vi mt gi tr ca n (lp) c n gi tr ca l (phn lp)

ng vi mt gi tr ca l (phn lp) c 2l + 1 gi tr ca m (orbital) v c (2l + 1)2 electron
vi m S +

T : Tng s electron trong mt lp l

1.11.

1s: Hnh cu
2px: Hnh s tm ni nh hng theo trc x.
3dxz: Hnh hoa th nh hng theo cc ng phn gic ca gc xoz.
3

: Hnh hoa th nh hng theo hai trc x v y

So snh 1s v 2s: Cng c dng hnh cu nhng 2s c kch thc ln hn.

2px, 2py, 2pz: Cng c dng s tm ni nhng hng theo 3 trc x,y,z.
1.12.

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193

1s
1,0,0

2s

2px

2,0,0

2,1,1

2pZ
2,1,0

2py
2,1,+1

1.13.

1.14.
Nng lng ca cc AO tng dn theo tr s n+l.
Nu 2 AO c tr s n +l bng nhau th AO no c n ln hn s c nng lng cao hn.
V d:

1s (1+0) < 2s (2+0) < 2p (2+1)... 4s (4+0) < 3d (3+2)...

3d (3+2) < 4p (4+1) < 5s (5+0)...

1.15.
Trong nguyn t cc electron chim ln lt cc orbital c nng lng t thp n cao.
Da vo bc thang nng lng cc AO, khi bit s th t z c th vit c cu hnh
electron ca mt nguyn t.
V d:

Nguyn t z = 17 c cu hnh 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

1.16.
Trong nguyn t khng th c hai electron ging nhau c bn s lng t.
iu ny cng c ngha l trong mi AO (c n, l, m ging nhau) ch c th c 2 electron c
spin +1/2 v 1/2. T c th tnh c s electron ti a trong mi phn lp, mi lp.
1.17.
a) Khi n = 3 th l ch c th c cc gi tr 0, 1, 2 khng c l = +3.
b) Khng c l = 1.
c) Khi l = 1 th m ch c th c cc gi tr 1, 0, +1 khng c m = +2
d) Tng t (c) khi l = 3 khng th c m = 4.
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194

1.18.
Nguyn t nit c 7 electron c cc s lng t nh sau:
electron

+1

mS

+1/2

1/2

+1/2

1/2

+1/2

+1/2

+1/2

Ch : Cc electron 5,6,7 c th cng c spin 1/2

1.19. Trong mt phn mc cc electron c xu hng phn b u vo cc lng t sao cho s
electron c thn l ln nht.
V d:

Quy tc Hund cho php vit cu hnh electron ca nguyn t trng thi c bn di dng
lng t.
1.20.
z

Cu hnh e (ch vit 2 lp ngoi cng)

ck

VIIIB

Tnh kh
Kim loi chuyn tip

nhm

Tnh cht

28

3s 3p 3d 4s

36

3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2 4p6

VIIIA

Tr v ho hc
Kh him

37

4s2 4p6 4d0 5s1

IA

Tnh kh
Kim loi kim

42

4s2 4p6 4d5 5s1

VIB

Tnh kh
Kim loi chuyn tip

47

4s 4p 4d

IB

Tnh kh
Kim loi chuyn tip

53

4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2 5p5

VIIA

Tnh oxy ho
Halogen

56

4d10 5s2 5p6 6s2

IIA

Tnh kh
Kim loi kim th

80

4f14 5s2 5p6 5d106s2

IIB

Tnh kh
Kim loi chuyn tip

10

5s

1.21.
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195

Ng t

Cu hnh electron

Ho tr

2e c thn, ho tr 2

16

2e c thn, ho tr 2

S*

4e c thn, ho tr 4

S**

6e c thn, ho tr 6

3e c thn, ho tr 3

15

3e c thn, ho tr 3
5e c thn, ho tr 5

1e c thn, ho tr 1

Cl

17

1e c thn, ho tr 1
3e c thn, ho tr 3
5e c thn, ho tr 5
7e c thn, ho tr 7

1.22.
Cu+

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 (4s0)

Cu2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 (4s0)

Fe2+

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 (4s0)

Fe3+

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 (4s0)

Mn2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 (4s0)

Mn7+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 (3d0) (4s0)
1.23.
Ar(z =18) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Cation

K+ (191); Ca2+ (202);Sc3+ (213); Ti4+ (224).

Anion

Cl (17+1); S2 (16+2);P3+ (15+3)

1.24.

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196

4 loi (khi)
+ Nguyn t khi s: Phn lp s ang xy dng v hon thnh.
Cu hnh electron lp ngoi cng ns1 hoc ns2.
+ Nguyn t khi p: Phn lp p ang xy dng v hon thnh.
Cu hnh electron lp ngoi cng ns2 np1 n ns2 np6
+ Nguyn t khi d: C 2 electron lp ngoi cng, phn lp d ang xy dng v hon
thnh.
Cu hnh electron (n 1) d1 10 ns2 (tr mt s ngoi l)
+ Nguyn t khi f: C 2 electron lp ngoi cng ns2 (6s2 hoc 7s2)
Cu hnh electron (n 2)f114(n 1)d0 1 ns2 (tr mt s ngoi l)
1.26. Cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t nhm IA ns1. Rt d mt electron duy nht, th hin
tnh kh rt mnh.
1.27. Cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t nhm VIIA ns2 np5. Rt d nhn thm mt electron,
th hin tnh oxy ho rt mnh.
1.28.
IA v IB
+ Ging nhau: C 1 electron phn mc s ngoi cng IA ns1; IB (n 1)d10 ns1.
+ Khc nhau: nhm IB phn mc st ngoi cng (n 1)d bo ho.
IIA v IIB
+ Ging nhau: C 2 electron phn mc s ngoi cng IIA ns2; IIB (n 1)d10 ns2.
+ Khc nhau: nhm IIB phn mc st ngoi cng (n 1)d bo ho (n 1)d10.
IB v IIB
+ Ging nhau: Phn mc st ngoi cng (phn mc d) bo ho (n1)d10.
+ Khc nhau: C 1 electron phn mc s ngoi cng IB v 2 electron IIB.
1.29.
Li

Be

Ne

2s1

2s2

2s22p1

2s22p2

2s22p3

2s22p4

2s22p5

2s22p6

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197

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Ar

3s1

3s2

3s23p1

3s23p2

3s23p3

3s23p4

3s23p5

3s23p6

Tnh cht ho hc ca cc nguyn t c quyt nh ch yu bi s electron lp ngoi

cng. S lp li tun hon cu hnh electron nh thy chu k 2 v 3 chnh l nguyn
nhn to ra s bin thin tun hon tnh cht ca cc n cht v hp cht cc nguyn t
chu k 2 v chu k 3.
1.30. Tnh cht ca cc nguyn t chu k nh bin i nhanh, trong khi cc chu k ln
chm hn nhiu. V d chu k 3 ch vi 4 nguyn t u l Na, Ca, Al, Si chuyn t mt
kim loi mnh (Na) sang mt phi kim (Si). Nhng chu k 4 t K n Ga (qua 11 nguyn t)
vn l mt kim loi.
1.31. Trong mt phn nhm chnh, theo chiu t trn xung di, tnh kh tng v tnh oxy ho
gim. l v, i t trn xung, bn knh nguyn t tng dn (tng s lp electron), in tch ht
nhn cng tng, nhng bn knh tng nhiu, nh hng ln n lc ht gia ht nhn v electron
ngoi cng.
i vi cc nguyn t trong mt phn nhm ph tnh kh gim dn l v theo chiu t
trn xung, in tch ht nhn tng nhiu nhng bn knh nguyn t tng khng ng k,
dn n tng lc ht ca ht nhn i vi electron lp ngoi cng v do tnh kim loi
gim.
1.32. Nguyn t c Z = 120.
1.33. Nguyn t Z = 112 cu hnh electron 6d10 7s2, nguyn t chuyn tip nhm IIB
Nguyn t Z = 118 cu hnh electron 7s2 7p6, nguyn t kh him, nhm VIIIA, bn v mt
ho hc.
BI 2. LIN KT HO HC V CU TO PHN T
2.2.
2 Lin kt ion
< 2 Lin kt cng ho tr. Trong khi = 0 lin kt cng ho tr khng phn cc
0 < < 2 lin kt ho tr cng phn cc.
2.3.

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198

2.7. Lin kt ho hc to ra do s xen ph cc AO theo trc ni hai nhn ca nguyn t c gi

l lin kt xch ma. Lin kt c th hnh thnh do s xen ph cc m my s s, s p hay p p
(hnh 2.2).

Lin kt t c s xen ph ln nht v vy lin kt xch ma l lin kt bn.

Lin kt ho hc to ra do s xen ph cc AO hai bn ca trc ni hai nhn nguyn t
c gi l lin kt pi. Lin kt c th hnh thnh do s xen ph cc m my p p, p d
hay d d.
So vi lin kt th lin kt bn hn v mc xen ph ln hn v vng xen ph nm
trn trc ni hai nhn nguyn t.
2.8. Lai ho l s t hp cc AO khc loi to ra cc AO hon ton ging nhau v hnh dng,
kch thch v nng lng nhng c hng khc nhau.
Lai ho sp
2 AO lai ho (my lai ho) hng theo 2 hng trong khng gian, trc ca 2AO ny to ra
gc 1800. V d, s lai ho cc AO trong nguyn t Be.
Lai ho sp2
3 AO lai ho hng theo 3 nh ca mt tam gic u, trc ca 3AO ny to ra gc 1200. V
d, s lai ho cc AO trong nguyn t B.
Lai ho sp3
4 AO lai ho hng theo 4 nh ca mt t din u, trc ca cc AO ny to ra gc
109028. V d, s lai ho cc AO trong nguyn t C.
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2.9.
+ Phn t CO
Nguyn t C khng lai ho. Gia C v O c 1 kin kt (xen ph px px), 1 lin kt (xen
ph py py) v 1 lin kt cho (pz ca nguyn t O c mt cp electron cho mt electron
vo pz ca C cn trng).
+ Phn t CO2
Nguyn t C lai ho sp. Gia C v O c 2 lin kt (xen ph L px) v mt lin kt
khng nh c (xen ph pz pz pz).
+ Phn t SO2
Nguyn t S lai ho sp2. Gia S v O th nht c 1 lin kt (xen ph L px) v 1 lin kt
(xen ph pz pz). Gia S v O th hai ( nguyn t ny cc electron c dn vo 2 AO
px v pz, trng AO py) lin kt cho (xen ph L py).
+ Phn t SO3
Nguyn t S lai ho sp2. Gia S v O th nht c 1 lin kt (xen ph L px) v 1 lin kt
(xen ph pz pz). Gia S v O th hai, ba ( cc nguyn t ny electron c dn vo 2
AO px v pz, trng AO py) to 2 lin kt cho (xen ph L py).
2.10. Trong cc phn t ny, cc AO p thun xen ph vi nhau to ra cc lin kt . Cc
electron c gii to trn tt c cc nguyn t C (lin kt khng nh c). biu din lin
kt ny ngi ta dng cc du chm

2.11.
Phn t c coi nh mt ht thng nht, trong mi electron lin kt chuyn ng
trong mt in trng gy ra bi cc ht nhn v cc electron cn li.
Khi hai nguyn t i vo lin kt, tt c cc AO ca chng t hp (xen ph) vi nhau
to ra cc orbital phn t (MO). Nh vy trong phn t trng thi ca electron c m
t bng cc MO.
Cc electron trong phn t c phn b dn vo cc MO tng t nh s phn b
electron vo cc AO.
tm cc MO ngi ta t hp tuyn tnh cc AO (phng php LCAO).
Khi t hp hai AO thu c hai MO (k hiu MOlk v MO*).
Vi MOlk xc sut c mt electron tp trung vng gia hai ht nhn nguyn t, to ra
lc ht gia 2 nhn, lin kt c hnh thnh. Do c gi l MO lin kt.
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200

Ngc li, vi MO* xc sut c mt electron gia hai ht nhn bng 0 dn n lc y,

lin kt khng to thnh. V vy MO ny c gi l MO phn lin kt.
2.12.
H2 +

(1e)

H2

(2e)

He2+

(3e)

*1

He2

(4e)

*2

Phn t He2 c bi =

(2 2) = 0 v vy khng tn ti.

2.13.
A2

Cu hnh electron

T tnh

O2

Thun t

F2

Nghch t

O22

Nghch t

2.14.
A2

Cu hnh electron

T tnh

Li2

Be2

Thun t

N2

Nghch t

T tnh

CN

Nghch t

CO

Nghch t

NO

Nghch t

HF

Nghch t

2.15.
AB

Cu hnh electron

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2.16.

O2+ c di lin kt nh nht v nng lng lin kt ln nht.

O22 c di lin kt ln nht v nng lng lin kt nh nht.
2.17. Khi hai nguyn t c s khc nhau v in m lin kt vi nhau s to ra lin kt phn
cc. V d: Lin kt H Cl trong HCl, lin kt C O trong CO2.
+

H Cl

O=C=O

Mt phn t s phn cc khi trong phn t c lin kt phn cc v khng trit tiu nhau,
phn t c cu trc bt i xng. V d: H2O, SO2, CHCl3.
CO2, SO3 l cc phn t c cu trc i xng v vy khng phn cc.
SO2, H2O, CHCl3 l cc phn t bt i xng v vy phn t l phn cc.
2.18. CCl4 l phn t khng phn cc. Do khng tan trong nc l dung mi phn cc.
C2H5OH to ra lin kt hydro vi cc phn t nc v vy c th tan v hn trong nc.
2.19. Theo thuyt ny s hnh thnh phc c thc hin nh tng tc cho nhn cc cp
electron cha chia s ca cc phi t v cc orbital trng ca ion to phc.
(Cc v d xem trong sch gio khoa)
BI 3. NHIT NG HC
3.1. Ni nng l mt hm trng thi, n ph thuc vo cc thng s trng thi nh: khi lng,
nhit , p sut (nu l cht kh).
3.3. T biu thc ca nguyn l th nht, nu trong iu kin ng tch hay ng p ta c:
QV = U v QP = H
m U v H l nhng hm trng thi nn bin thin ca n ch ph thuc vo trng thi u
v cui.
3.5. i vi nhng phn t gm 2 nguyn t th nng lng lin kt gia 2 nguyn t bng nhit
nguyn t ho ca phn t.
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3.6.

3.7.

3.8.
HX

= E (tg) E (sp)

HX

= EC=C + 4ECH + EHH ECC 6ECH

= EC=C + EHH ECC 2ECH
= 147 + 104 83 2.98,8 = 29,6Kcal

3.9. Entropy l mt hm trng thi c trng cho mc mt trt t ca h. Xu th ca cc qu

trnh t nhin l din ra theo chiu tng mc hn n (t trng thi c xc sut nh n trng
thi c xc xut ln) hay theo chiu tng entropy ca h S >0
3.10. Nng lng t do l mt phn ca enthanpy (d tr nng lng ton phn ca h) m phn
trong qu trnh bin i ca h c th sinh ra cng c ch.
G = H TS
Khi h bin i G = H TS = A
Cc qu trnh t nhin din bin theo chiu sinh cng c ch (A<0). T tiu chun t
din bin ca mt qu trnh hay phn ng l G <0.
3.12.
a) S <0

H >0

G >0

Khng t xy ra.

b) S >0

H >0

G <0

T xy ra.

c) S >0

H >0

G <0

khi H < TS xy ra T cao.

d) S <0

H <0

G <0

khi H > TS xy ra T thp.

3.13.
Hp

= 57,8 + 4,8 = 53 Kcal.

Sp

= 7,6 + 45,1 49,1 24,5 = 20,09 cal/mol.K.

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203

Gp

= 53.103 298( 20,09) = 47013 cal/mol.

Gp < 0

phn ng xy ra theo chiu t tri sang phi

3.14.
= 94,1 2.11,0 + 154,4 = 38,3 Kcal
= 94,4 2.3,98 + 109,6 = 7,24 Kcal/mol
Vy 3000K phn ng xy ra theo chiu t phi sang tri.
=(

): T

= (38,3 7,24):300 = 0,104 Kcal/mol.K

Gi nhit ti phn ng xy ra theo chiu t tri sang phi l Tx. Khi :
=

Tx

<0 Nu coi:

3.15.

Vy phn ng xy ra theo chiu t tri sang phi, to nhit.

3.16.
Tnh theo bin thin enthanpy v entropy.
G0 = H0 TS0
H0 l hiu ng nhit ca phn ng iu kin tiu chun.
S0 l bin thin entropy ca phn ng.
S0 = Ssp0 Stg0
Tnh theo bin thin nng lng t do sinh ca cc cht G0S
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204

Tnh theo th oxy ho kh tiu chun.

G0 = n F E0
Tnh theo hng s cn bng ca phn ng.
G0 = 2,303RT lgK
Tnh ton da vo bin thin nng lng t do ca cc phn ng ni tip.
BI 4. NG HO HC
4.4.
Bc phn ng phn nh s ph thuc tng qut ca tc phn ng vo nng cht phn
ng. Bc phn ng c th c gi tr bng 0, s nguyn hay phn s.
Phn t s s dng khi nghin cu c ch ca phn ng, n cho bit s tiu phn (phn t,
nguyn t hay ion) ng thi tng tc vi nhau trong mt phn ng c s. V vy phn t
s ch c th l nhng s nguyn dng 1, 2, 3. Nhng phn ng c phn t s > 3 hu nh
khng gp.
4.6.

4.7.

ln[A] = k1t + ln [A0]

khi t = 3

ln[A] = 0,347 + ln 0,5 = 1,734

[A] = e1,734 = 0,177 mM
4.8.

T E = 29604 cal/mol
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4.9.
v = k [H2]m[I2]n
Khi [H2] tng 2 ln v tng 2 ln m = 1
[I2] tng 3 ln v tng 3 ln n = 1
Vy v = k2 [H2][I2] phn ng bc hai.
4.10.
v = k3[NO]2[O2] Gi nng u ca NO v O2 tng ng l a v b
ta c: v0 = k3 a2.b. Khi:
Tng nng O2 ln 4 ln v1 = k3 a2.4b = 4v0 tng 4 ln
Tng nng NO v O2 ln 3 ln v2 = k3.(3a)2.3b = 27v0 tng 27 ln.

Gim nng NO 2 ln v3 = k3. (

)2.b =

gim 4 ln.

4.12.

4.13

4.14. V tc t l nghch vi thi gian, ta c:

4.16.

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206

4.17.

4.18.

4.22.
a) Chiu thun; Khng chuyn dch.
b) Chiu nghch; Chiu thun.
c) Chiu nghch; Chiu thun.
d) Khng chuyn dch; Khng chuyn dch.
e) Chiu thun; Chiu thun
4.23.
Phn ng thun nghch.
Gm hai phn ng thnh phn: Phn ng thun v phn ng nghch.

A+B

C+D

Khi tc phn ng thun bng tc phn ng nghch v1 = vn ngi ta ni phn ng t

ti trng thi cn bng.

trng thi cn bng nng cc cht khng thay i hay

=0

Phn ng ni tip.
Phn ng din ra theo nhng giai on ni tip.
A

Khi tc to ra B bng tc phn hu n v1 = v2 ngi ta ni phn ng t ti trng thi

dng.

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207

 trng thi dng nng cht trung gian khng b thay i hay

=0

BI 5. I CNG V DUNG DCH

5.5. p sut hi bo ho l p sut to ra trn mt thong khi qu trnh bay hi t ti trng thi
cn bng.
cng mt nhit p sut hi hay p sut hi bo ho ca dung dch lun lun nh hn
p sut ca dung mi nguyn cht. iu ny dn n:
Dung dch c nhit si cao hn nhit si ca dung mi.
Dung dch c nhit ng c thp hn nhit ng c ca dung mi
5.7.

5.8.

5.9.

5.10.

5.11.

5.12.
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5.13.

5.14.
Gi s gam glucose cn phi ly l a

Vy dung dch s si nhit 100,226 0C

5.15.

5.16.

Vy: Dng t hp 2 phn t.

5.17.

Cng thc phn t ca hp cht C8H8O4.

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209

BI 6. DUNG DCH CC CHT IN LY

6.1.
[H+] = 102

pH = lg 102 = 2

[H+] = 107

pH = lg 107 = 7

[H+] = 109

pH = lg 109 = 9

[H+] = 3,1.102

pH = lg 3,1.102 = lg3,1lg102 =1,5

[H+] = 9.108

pH = lg 9.108 = lg9lg108 = 7,05

6.2.
H2SO4 0,05 M

pH = lg2.0,05 = 1

HCl 0,001 M

pH = lg 103 = 3

NaOH 0,01 M

pOH = lg 102 = 2

Ca(OH)2 0,02 M

pOH = lg 2.0,02 = lg4.102 = 1,4

pH =14 2 =12
pH = 12,6

6.3.
so snh mnh ca acid hay base ngi ta dng i lng KA, KB hoc pKA, pKB.
Gi tr K cng ln hoc pK cng nh th acid (hay base) cng mnh.
acid

base lin hp

base

NH4Cl

NH3

NH3

NaHCO3

CO32

NaHCO3

H2 O

OH

CH3COONa

CH3COOH

C6H5NH3Cl

C2H5NH2

H2O

H 3 O+

H2NCH2COOH

H2NCH2COO

H2NCH2COOH
NaNO2

acid lin hp
NH4+
H2CO3

NH3CH2COOH
HNO2

Na2SO4 Khng phi acid hay base.

NaHCO3, H2O, H2NCH2COOH lng tnh (va l acid va l base)
6.4.

Theo cng thc: =

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 CH3COOH 0,02M = 3,05.102

CH3COOH 0,2M = 9,6.103 102 nng tng th gim
CH3COOH 0,02M + CH3COONa 0,02M
CH3COOH

CH3COO- + H+

Nng u:

0,02

0,02

Nng cn bng:

0,02 x

0,02 + x x

Nhn xt: So vi dung dch CH3COOH 0,02M in ly gim 30 ln

CH3COOH 0,02M + CH3COONa 0,2M
CH3COOH

CH3COO- + H+

Nng u:

0,02

0,2

Nng cn bng:

0,02 x

0,2 + x x

Nhn xt: So vi dung dch CH3COOH 0,02M + NaCH3COO 0,02M in ly gim 10

ln.
6.5.
S in ly ca acid yu trong dung dch thc cht l phn ng ca n vi H2O to ra
H3O+ theo phng trnh:

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211

6.6.
S in ly ca base yu trong dung dch thc cht l phn ng ca n vi H2O to ra
OH theo phng trnh:
B + H2O

H+ BH+

pH = 14

(pKb lg Cb)

NH3

pH = 14

(4,76 lg102) = 10,62

C2H5NH2

pH = 14

(3,25 lg102) = 11,38

C6H5NH2

pH = 14

(9,42 lg102) = 8,29

NH2OH.

pH = 14

(7,97 lg102) = 9,02

6.7.
Trong dung dch m c mt ng thi hai dng acid v base ca mt cp acid base lin
hp.
a) Dung dch m phosphat NaH2PO4/Na2HPO4.
Trong dung dch m ny lun lun tn ti cn bng:
H2PO4

H+ + HPO42
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212

V vy khi thm vo dung dch m H+ cn bng trn s chuyn dch theo chiu nghch
to ra axit in ly yu H2PO4. Ngc li khi thm base (OH) hay pha long, nng H+
b gim xung th ng thi cn bng s chuyn theo chiu thun to thm H+ v do
pH khng b thay i.
b) Dung dch m carbonat NaHCO3/Na2CO3.
Trong dung dch m ny lun lun tn ti cn bng:
HCO3

H+ + CO32

c) dung dch m amoni NH4Cl/NH3

Trong dung dch m ny lun lun tn ti cn bng:
NH4+

H+ + NH3

Gii thch tng t nh i vi m phosphat.

6.8.
Cng thc tng qut tnh pH ca dung dch m:

pH = pKa + lg

= 9,9

a)

pH = 10,2 + lg

b)

pH = 7,21 + lg 1 = 7,21

c)

NaOH + CH3COOH CH3COONa + H2O

S mol ban u: 0,05.0,16 0,22.0,4

8.103 88.103
S mol sau phn ng: 80.103 8.103

pH = 4,76 + lg

= 3,76

6.9.
S thu phn ca mui l phn ng gia cc ion ca mui vi nc to ra acid yu, base
yu hoc c acid yu v base yu. V thc cht s thu phn l phn ng in ly trong
nc ca acid hay base theo Bronsted.
pH ca dung dch mui ph thuc vo bn cht ca mui v nng ca mui (tr
trng hp mui to bi acid yu v base yu).
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213

6.10.
a) y l dung dch base yu:
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214

pH = 14
b)

(9,42 lg102) = 8,29

C6H5NH2 + HCl

S mol ban u:

0,1.0,01
=103

C6H5NH3Cl

0,05.0,01
= 5.104

S mol sau phn ng: 5.104

5.104

y l mt dung dch m:

c) Nng C6H5NH3Cl trong cc lc ny l

= 5.103

y l dung dch acid yu:

pH =

(4,58 lg5.103) = 3,44

6.11.

V d:
6.12.

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215

b) Khi pH < pHi Tn ti dng cation

pH > pHi tn ti dng anion
pH = pHi tn ti dng ng in
6.14.

6.15.
Ag3PO4
S

3Ag+ + PO43
3S

T = (3S)3. S = 27S4 = 27 (1,6.105)4 = 1,77.1018

6.16.
Sr2++ SO42 SrSO4
[Sr2+] = 5.104
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216

[SO42] = 5.104 [Sr2+][SO42] = 2,5.107 > T Vy khng to kt ta.

6.17.
Pb2+ + 2I = PbI2
[Pb2+] = 5. 103

a)

[SO42] = 5. 103 [Pb2+][I]2 = 1,25107 > T Vy kt ta c to ra.

[Pb2+] = 103

b)

[SO42] = 103 [Pb2+][I]2 = 109 < T Vy khng to ra kt ta.

6.18.
Ag2CrO4
S

2Ag+

CrO42

0,1+2S

T = (0,1+2S)2.S Nu S << 0,1

6.19.
tan trong nc

BaSO4 Ba2++ SO42

S

S=

= 105 M

tan trong H2SO4

BaSO4 Ba2++ SO42

S

0,1 + S

T = (0,1 + 2S).S Nu S', << 0,1

Nhn xt: tan ca BaSO4 trong dung dch c ion chung gim i so vi tan trong
nc l (S/S) 104 ln.
6.20.

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217

6.21.
im tng ng l im m dung dch chun v dung dch cn chun phn ng va
vi nhau.
Cc cht ch th trong phng php phn tch th tch thng l nhng cht c mu sc
thay i ti im tng ng hoc gn im tng ng. V vy n cho bit thi im
kt thc chun .
6.22.
a) Phng php da trn phn ng trung ho: H+ + OH H2O xc nh nng
dung dch acid hay base.
b) ng cong chun trong phng php trung ho l ng biu din s bin i pH
trong qu trnh chun .
ng cong chun ni chung c dng ch S. Trn cc ng cong ny u c nhng
bc nhy pH. (xem phn l thuyt)
Ch th c la chn theo nguyn tc: Cht ch th phi c khong chuyn mu nm
trong bc nhy pH.
Khi chun mt acid mnh bng mt base mnh bc nhy pH t 4 10. V vy c th
chn methyl (4,4 6,2) hay phenolphtalein (8 10).
Khi chun mt acid yu bng mt base mnh, bc nhy pH t 8 10. V vy ch c th
dng phenolphtalein.
Khi chun mt base yu bng acid mnh, bc nhy pH t 6 4. V vy ch c th
dng c methyl .
6.23.

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218

Phng php da vo tnh oxy ho mnh ca ion MnO4 trong mi trng acid
MnO4 + 5e + 8H+ Mn2+ + 4H2O
chun nhiu cht kh khc nhau nh: H2C2O4; Fe2+; H2O2,...
chun dung dch cha ion Ca2+ ngi ta chuyn ton b ion ny thnh kt ta
CaC2O4, ho tan ta trong H2SO4 ri chun H2C2O4 to thnh bng KMnO4.
6.24.
Gi nng ng lng ca Ca2+ v Mg2+ trong mu nc l N ta c:
0,05.N = 0,0036. 0,02t N = 1,44.103 lg/l
Vy cng l 1,44 mili ng lng gam/lt
6.25.
Phng php da trn phn ng to phc gia ion kim loi vi nhng cht complexon (v
d complexon III Na2H2Y) xc nh nng ca ion kim loi.
Na2H2Y+ Me2+ Na2MeY + 2H+
Cht ch th thng dng l eriocrom T en cht ny cng to phc c vi cc ion kim
loi nhng c c im l dng phc v dng t do c mu khc nhau.
ErioC + Me2+ ErioCMe + 2H+
xanh bin

hng tm

Phc ErioCMe khng bn bng phc gia complexon vi ion kim loi.
BI 7. DUNG DCH KEO
7.2.
Mng thm tch l mng ch cho cc phn t v ion i qua cn cc tiu phn keo b gi
li.
Mng thm thu l mng ch cho cc phn t dung mi i qua cn phn t hoc ion ca
cht tan b gi li.
7.3.
Cn bng Donnal c thit lp khi c mt mng thm tch ngn cch mt dung dch
in ly keo (dung dch I) c nng a v mt dung dch in ly phn t nh (dung dch
II) c nng b v c ion chung.
Khi a>> b cht in ly dung dch I khng b chuyn qua mng vo dung dch II.

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219

 Khi a = b cht in ly dung dch II chuyn

qua mng vo dung dch I.

Khi a << b cht in ly dung dch II chuyn

qua mng vo dung dch I.

Mng ca cc t bo l nhng mng thm tch, dung dch trong t bo l dung dch in
ly keo. Nh cn bng Donnal trong t bo lun duy tr c mt nng ion in ly nht
nh m bo cho hot ng bnh thng.
7.6.
Cc tia tm ( 450 nm) trong nh sng mt tri b tn x (v d do cc ht bi trong
khng kh) mnh hn cc tia ( 750 nm). Do cng nh sng trc tip n
mt ta s ln hn cng nh sng tm, nhn mt tri thy hn.
7.7.
i vi knh hin vi, nh sng c chiu qua vt, h thng quang hc ri n mt ngi
quan st.
Trong knh siu vi, nh sng c chiu pha bn. Nu vt l mt dung dch keo th mt
s nhn c nh sng tn x t cc ht keo, trn nn en thy xut hin nhng chm
sng lp lnh.
7.8.
Du in tch ca ht keo s dch c quyt nh bi ion nm trong lp hp ph u tin.
7.9.
(Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3)m n [Fe(CN)6]4 (4nx)K+ x. xK+
(Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3)m n Fe3+. (3nx)Cl x+. xCl
(Fe(OH)3)m n Fe3+. (3nx)Cl x+. xCl
7.10.
in tch trn ht keo protein do cc nhm chc carboxyl COOH v amin NH2
mch nhnh ca chui polypeptid ca protein to nn.
Du in tch c quyt nh bi tng quan pH ca mi trng v pHi.
Khi pH mi trng < pHi ht keo mang in tch dng
Khi pH mi trng = pHi ht keo trung ho in.
Khi pH mi trng > pHi ht keo mang in tch m.
7.11.
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220

V pH mi trng > pHi ht keo gelatin mang in tch m nn trong in trng n di

chuyn v in cc dng.
7.12.
Vi cc amin acid hoc cc ht keo c pHi khc nhau th trong mt mi trng c pH xc
nh chng s mang nhng in tch khc nhau (c th khc v du hoc gi tr in tch).
Do trong in trng chng s di chuyn vi nhng tc khc nhau v cc in cc.
l c s ca phng php in di phn tch chng.
7.13.
Cc ht keo tch in cng du.
Chuyn ng Brown (chuyn ng ca cc tiu phn keo di tc ng khng b trit
tiu ca cc phn t dung mi).
i vi keo thn dch th chng cn c bao quanh bi lp v solvat (hoc hydrat).
7.15.
ca sng cc ht keo ph sa di tc dng ca mui trong nc bin b trung ho in
tch v ng t thnh cc bi ph sa.
BI 8. IN HO HC
8.2.
Dng oxy ho l dng c s oxy ho dng hn v c vit trc. Dng kh c s oxy
ho nh hn v c vit sau. V d:
Zn2+/Zn; Cu2+/Cu; CH3CHO/C2H5OH; MnO4/Mn2+
8.3.
a) Nghch;

b) Thun;

c) Nghch;

d) Nghch;

e) Thun;

f) Thun.

8.4.
a) 2KMnO4 + 5H2C2O4 + 3H2SO4

b) MnO2 + 2KI + 2H2SO4

2MnSO4 + 5CO2 + K2SO4 +8H2O

MnSO4 + I2 + K2SO4 + 2H2O

c) 2K2Cr2O7 +3C3H7OH + 8H2SO4

2Cr2(SO4)3 + 3C2H5COOH + 2K2SO4 + 11H2O

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221

d) H2S + 2HNO3

S + 2NO2 + 2H2O

e) 2KMnO4 + 5H2O2 + 3H2SO4

f) 2FeSO4 + H2O2 + H2SO4

2MnSO4 +5O2 + K2SO4 + 8H2O.

Fe2(SO4)3 + 2H2O

8.5.

8.7.
Cng thc Nernst

Nu thay cc gi tr ca F, R, ly nhit T = 25 + 273 = 2980K v chuyn ln thnh lg th

phng trnh Nernst c dng:

in cc hydro: (Pt) H2/ 2H+

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Trn in cc xy ra phn ng:

2H+ + 2e

Ngi ta quy c:

H2

= 0 do :

= 0,059 lg[H+] = 0,059pH.

in cc kh Clo. (Pt) Cl2/ 2Cl
Trn in cc xy ra phn ng:
Cl2 + 2e

2Cl

in cc oxy ho kh ca st: (Pt)/ Fe3+,Fe

in cc quinhydron (Pt) / C6H4O2, C6H4(OH)2

Trn in cc xy ra phn ng:
C6H4O2 + 2e + 2H+ C6H4(OH)2
Th in cc:

V [C6H4O2] = [C6H4(OH)2]
0,059 lg [H+]

Ta c:

in cc calomen: Hg/ Hg2Cl2, Cl

Trn in cc xy ra phn ng:
Hg22+ +2e

2Hg
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Th ca in cc Hg c tnh theo cng thc:

Thay nng ny vo cng thc trn. Sau khi rt gn ta c cng thc th in cc ca in

cc calomel:
cal = 0cal 0,059 lg [Cl]
Nu nng Cl trong in cc c nh th cal khng i.
in cc thu tinh
tt = 0tt + 0,059 lg[H+] = 0tt 0,059 pH
Trong 0tt l mt hng s i vi mi in cc.
8.8.

8.11.
a) Cu / Cu2+ // Ag+ / Ag
b) (Pt) Cl2 / Cl // Fe3+, Fe2+ / (Pt)
c) (Pt) H2 / H+ // Cl / Cl2 (Pt)
d) Zn / Zn2+ // Fe3+, Fe2+ / (Pt)
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224

e) (Pt) / Cr3+, Cr2+ // Ag+ / Ag

f) Pb / H2SO4 / PbO2
8.12.
Nguyn tc: Thit lp mt nguyn t ganvanic gm mt in cc c th ph thuc vo pH v
mt in cc chun. o sc in ng ca nguyn t v rt ra pH.
o pH bng cp in cc hydrocalomel
Thit lp nguyn t ganvanic:
(Pt) H2/ H+ // KCl,Hg2Cl2 / Hg +
Sc in ng o c ca nguyn t ny:
E = Cal
Cal + 0,059 pH

T
o pH bng cp in cc thu tinh calomen
Lp nguyn t ganvanic: Sc in ng ca nguyn t:
E = Cal tt
= Cal 0tt + 0,059 pH

T
8.13.
Nguyn tc: Thit lp nguyn t ganvanic gm mt in cc chun (v d in cc calomel) v
mt in cc c th ph thuc vo nng ion cn chun. Sau o sc in ng ca nguyn
t v t tnh nng ion.
H2SO4

(Pt) H2 / H2SO4 // Cl, Hg2Cl2 / Hg

FeSO4

Fe /FeSO4 // Cl, Hg2Cl2 /Hg

AgNO3

Hg/ Hg2Cl2, Cl // AgNO3 / Ag

NaCl

Hg/ Hg2Cl2, Cl// NaCl / Cl2 (Pt)

8.14.
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225

8.15.
Gi tan ca Ag2CrO4 trong dung dch bo ha l S (mol/l) ta c:
Ag2CrO4 2Ag+ + CrO42
S

2S

T = 2S2.2S = 4S3

Nng Ag+ in cc m s l
y l mt pin nng :

Gii ra ta c T = 7,02.1012
8.16.
a) CuBr2 Cu + Br2
b) 2H2O 2H2 + O2

c) 2AgNO3 + H2O 2Ag +

O2 + 2HNO3

d) CaCl2 + H2O H2 + Cl2 + Ca(OH)2

e) 2AgNO3 + Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O 2Ag + Cu + 4HNO3 + O2
f) NiSO4 + Ni (anod) Ni (catod) + NiSO4
8.17.
M bc thc cht l tin hnh mt qu trnh in phn dung dch mui tan ca bc trong kim
loi cn m dng lm catod cn anod l bc kim loi.
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226

8.18.
a) Epc = E0 ca pin: (Pt) Ni / NiCl2 / Cl2 (Pt)
= 1,36 ( 0,25) = 1,61V E = Epg E pc = 1,85 1,61 = 0,24V
b) Epc = E0 ca pin: (Pt) Zn / Zn2+ // H2O, H+ / O2 (Pt)
= 1,33 ( 0,76) = 2,09V E = Epg E pc = 2,35 2,09 = 0,26V
c) Epc = E0 ca pin: (Pt) H2 / H+ // H2O, H+/ O2 (Pt)
= 1,33VE = Epg E pc = 1,67 1,33 = 0,34V.

PH LC
A. MT S KHI NIM C BN TRONG HO HC
1. Nguyn t ho hc
Khi nim ch mt loi nguyn t. Mt nguyn t ho hc c biu th bng k hiu
ho hc. V d: nguyn t oxy (O), canxi (Ca), lu hunh (S)...
2. Cht ho hc
Khi nim ch mt loi phn t. Mt cht ho hc c biu th bng cng thc ho
hc. V d: mui n NaCl, nc H2O, nit N2, st Fe,...
3. Nguyn t
Nguyn t l ht nh nht cu to nn cc cht khng th chia nh hn na bng phng
php ho hc.
4. Phn t
Phn t c to thnh t cc nguyn t, l ht nh nht ca mt cht nhng vn mang
y tnh cht ca cht .
V d: Phn t nc H2O gm 2 nguyn t hydro v 1 nguyn t oxy, phn t clo Cl2
gm 2 nguyn t clo, phn t methan CH4 gm 1 nguyn t carbon v 4 nguyn t
hydro...
5. Khi lng nguyn t
Khi lng mt nguyn t ca mt nguyn t. Khi lng nguyn t c tnh bng n
v carbon (vC). Mt vC bng
khi lng nguyn t carbon (12C). V d: khi
lng nguyn t oxy 16 vC, Na = 23 vC,...
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227

6. Khi lng phn t

Khi lng mt phn t ca mt cht. Khi lng phn t cng c tnh bng vC.V
d: khi lng phn t ca N2 = 28 vC, HCl = 36,5 vC,...
7. Mol
Lng cht cha N = 6,02.1023 phn t vi m (phn t nguyn t, ion, electron,...). N
c gi l s Avogadro v n bng s nguyn t C c trong 12 gam 12C.
8. Khi lng mol nguyn t, mol phn t, mol ion
Khi lng tnh bng gam ca 1 mol nguyn t (phn t hay ion...). V s tr n ng
bng tr s khi lng nguyn t (phn t hay ion). V d: khi lng mol nguyn t ca
hydro bng 1 g, ca phn t nit bng 28 g, ca H2SO4 bng 98 g...
9. Ho tr
Ho tr ca mt nguyn t l s lin kt ho hc m mt nguyn t ca nguyn t to
ra vi cc nguyn t khc trong phn t.
Mi lin kt c biu th bng mt gch ni hai nguyn t. Ho tr c biu th bng
ch s La M.
Nu quy c ho tr ca hydro trong cc hp cht bng (I) th ho tr ca oxy trong H2O
bng (II) ca nit trong NH3 bng (III)... Da vo ho tr (I) ca hydro v ho tr (II) ca
oxy c th bit c ho tr ca nhiu nguyn t khc.
Cn c vo ho tr, c th phn cc nguyn t thnh:
+ Nguyn t c ho tr khng i. V d:
Ag, H, cc kim loi kim (ho tr I) O, Zn, cc kim loi kim th (II),
Al (III), Cc kh him (ho tr 0).
+ Nguyn t nhiu ho tr. V d:
Fe (II, III), Cu (I, II), S (II, IV, VI).
Khi nim ho tr cn c m rng cho nhm nguyn t. V d:
NO3 (I), SO4 (II), PO4 (III)
10. S oxy ho
S oxy ho c quy c l in tch ca nguyn t trong phn t khi gi nh rng cp
electron dng lin kt vi nguyn t khc trong phn t chuyn hn v nguyn t c
in m ln hn.
tnh s oxy ho ca mt nguyn t cn lu :
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228

 S oxy ho c th l s dng, m, bng 0 hay l s l.

S oxy ho ca nguyn t trong n cht bng 0.
Mt s nguyn t c s oxy ho khng i v bng in tch ion ca n.
H, cc kim loi kim c s oxy ho +1 (trong NaH, H c s oxy ho 1)
Mg v cc kim loi kim th c s oxy ho +2.
Al c s oxy ho +3; Fe c hai s oxy ho +2 v +3.
O c s oxy ho 2 (trong H2O2 O c s oxy ho 1)
Tng i s s oxy ho ca cc nguyn t trong phn t bng 0.
V d:

11. Th oxy hokh tiu chun (2980K, pH= 7) ca mt s cp oxy ho kh hu c v

sinh hc
Cp oxy ho kh

Phn ng

0 (V)

acetat/pyruvat

CH3COOH + CO2 + 2H+ + 2e CH3COCOOH + H2O

0,70

acetic/acetaldehyd

CH3COOH + 2H+ + 2e CH3CHO + H2O

0,58

Fe3+/Fe2+Feredoxin

Fe3+ + e Fe2+

0,43

H+/H2

2H+ + 2e H2

0,42

CO2/Formiat

CO2 + H+ + 2e HCOO

0,42

NAD+/NADH

NAD +2H + 2e NADH + H

0,32

aceton/Propanol

CH3COCH3 + 2H+ + 2e CH3CHOHCH3

0,30

cystin/cystein

cystin + 2H+ + 2e 2cystein

0,22

acetaldehyt/Ethanol

CH3CHO + 2H+ + 2e C2H5OH

0,20

pyruvat/Lactat

CH3COCOO +2H++2e CH3CHOHCOO

0,19

CoQ/CoQ (k)

CoQ + 2H+ +2e CoQH2

0,00

Fe3+/Fe2+cytcromB

Fe3+ + e Fe2+

0,00

Fe3+/Fe2+myoglobin

Fe

2+

+0,05

Fe3+/Fe2+Hemoglobin

Fe3+ + e Fe2+

+0,17

Fe3+/Fe2+cytcromC

Fe3+ + e Fe2+

+0,25

3+

+ e Fe

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229

O2/2O2 (H2O2)

O2 + 2H+ + 2e H2O2

+0,30

Cu2+/Cu+Hemoxyanin

Cu2+ + e Cu+

+0,54

O2/H2

O2(k) + 4H+ + 4e 2 H2O

+0,82

12. ng lng gam

ng lng gam ca mt cht l lng cht tnh bng gam khi phn ng tng
ng (kt hp hay thay th) 1 mol nguyn t hydro (1,008g).
ng lng gam ca mt cht (thng k hiu E) ph thuc vo phn ng m n tham
gia vo.
B. MT S NH LUT C BN
1. nh lut bo ton khi lng. (Lomonosov Nga, Lavoisier Php)
Trong mt phn ng ho hc, tng khi lng cc cht to thnh bng tng khi lng
cc cht tham gia phn ng.
2. nh lut thnh phn khng i. (Proust Php)
i vi mt hp cht xc nh, t s khi lng ca cc nguyn t to thnh hp cht l
xc nh, khng thay i. iu ny cng c hiu l:
Mt hp cht d c iu ch bng cch no i na cng c thnh phn xc nh, khng
i. V d: Nc c th iu ch bng nhiu cch khc nhau nhng t s khi lng
hydro:oxy lun lun l 1:8.
3. nh lut t l bi. (Dalton Anh)
nh lut ny c ni dung nh sau:
Nu hai nguyn t kt hp vi nhau to ra mt s hp cht th ng vi cng mt khi
lng nguyn t ny, cc khi lng ca nguyn t kia t l vi nhau nh nhng s
nguyn n gin. V d:
Hydro to c 2 hp cht vi oxy l H2O v H2O2. Nu ng vi mt n v khi lng
ca hydro (v d 1g) th khi lng ca oxy trong H2O v H2O2 ln lt l 8 v 16 gam
tc l theo t l 1: 2.
4. nh lut ng lng. (Richter c)
nh lut ny c ni dung nh sau:
Trong cc phn ng ho hc cc cht phn ng va vi nhau theo cng mt s ng
lng (cng tc l theo cng mt s ng lng gam).
5. nh lut Avogadro. (Avogadro )
nh lut ny c ni dung nh sau:
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230

 cng iu kin nhit v p sut, nhng th tch bng nhau ca mi cht kh u

cha cng mt s phn t. H qu l: cng iu kin nhit , p sut mt mol kh bt
k chim mt th tch bng nhau. Thc nghim cho thy iu kin tiu chun (00C,
1atm) mt mol kh bt k c th tch V0 = 22,4 lt.
C. QUANG PH VCH CA NGUYN T HYDRO (DY BANME)

D. MI TNG QUAN GIA TO DECAC V TO CU

E. H N V SI
7 n v chnh thuc h SI
N0

Tn i lng

n v

K hiu

Chiu di

mt

Thi gian

giy

Khi lng

kilogam

kg

Lng cht

mol

mol

Nhit

kenvin

Cng dng in

ampe

Cng nh sng

candela

cd

Mt s n v SI dn xut hay dng

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N0

Tn i lng

n v

K hiu

Lc

newton

p sut

pascal

Pa

Nng lng

joule

Cng sut

watt

in tch

coulomb

in th

volt

Tn s

hertz

Hz

F. H N V CGS
Chiu di: cm
Nng lng: erg, k hiu ec, 1ec = 107 jun (j).
in tch: n v tnh in, k hiu vt, 1vt = 0,33. 1019 culon (C)
G. MT S N V KHC HAY DNG
N0

Tn i lng

n v

K hiu

H s chuyn i

Chiu di

nanomet

nm

109 m

Nhit

celsius

T(K) = t0C + 273

p sut

atmosphere

atm

105 Pa 760mmHg

bar

bar

105 Pa

ec

erg

107j

electronVon

eV

1,6.1019j

.v tnh in

ues

3,3.1020C

Nng lng

in tch

H. MT S HNG S VT L HAY DNG

Hng s kh

8,31 j. mol1.K1
1,98 cal. mol1.K1
0,082 l. atm. mol1.K1

S Avogadro
S Faraday
Hng s Planck

N 6,02.1023 mol1
F 96 500 C.mol1
k 6,62.1034 j.s = 6,62.1027 erg.s
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TI LIU THAM KHO

1. o nh Thc (1994). Nguyn t v lin kt ho hc Nh xut bn H Quc gia.
2. o nh Thc (2002). Ho hc i cng Nh xut bn Gio dc. Tp I v II.
3. Phan An, Nguyn S c, Phan L Hng, Nguyn Vn Hin, inh Vit Hng, Lu
Vn Tin (1993). Bi ging Ho hc Nh xut bn Y hc.
4. V ng (1994). C s l thuyt cc qu trnh ho hc Nh xut bn Gio dc.
5. Nguyn nh Chi (1991). C s l thuyt ho hc. Nh xut bn Gio dc. Phn I.
6. Nguyn Hnh (1992). C s l thuyt ho hc. Nh xut bn Gio dc. Phn II.
7. Nguyn Duy i, Nguyn Tinh Dung, Trn Thnh Hu, Trn Quc Sn, Nguyn Vn
Tng (Tp I 1999, Tp II1992). Mt s vn chn lc ca ho hc. Nh xut bn
Gio dc.
8. Nguyn c Chung (1996). Ho hc i cng Nh xut bn Tr.
9. Nguyn Vn Tu, Dng Vn m, Hong H, Nguyn Tin Qu (2002). Gio trnh
Ho hc i cng Nh xut bn Gio dc.
10. Pauling.L, Pauling.P (1975). Chemistry W.H Freeman and Company San Prancisco.
11. Akhmetov.N. S (1975). Neorganicheskaya Khimiya Maxcova.Viskaiya Skola.
12. Chang. P (1980). Phyzycheskaya Khimiya & prilogeniyami k biologhicheskimi
Maxcova Mir.
13. Nenitsexcu.K (1968). Obschaiya Khimiya Maxcova. Mir.
14. Alexeyev.V (1979). Quantitative Analysis Moscow. Mir.
15. Brady. E (1978). General chemistry Principles and structure John Wiley & Sons.
New York.
16. Williams.R, Williams.B (1973, 1977). Basic Physical Chemistry for the life sciences
Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
17. Steven. S Zumdahl (2002) Chemistry Houghton Mifflin
18. Chang R. (2002) Chemistry 7th Ed. McGrawHill
19. Gilbert TR; Kirss RV; Davies G(2004) Chemistry: The Science in Context. Norton

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233

Chu trch nhim xut bn:

Ch tch HQT kim Tng Gim c NG TRN I
Ph Tng Gim c kim Tng bin tp NGUYN QU THAO
Chu trch nhim ni dung:
Ch tch HQT kim Gim c CTCP Sch HDN
TRN NHT TN
Bin tp v sa bn in:
HONG KIU TRANG
Trnh by ba:
BI QUANG TUN
Ch bn:
INH XUN DNG

HO I CNG
M s: 7K720M7DAI
In bn, (Q:..................) kh 19 x 27cm ti
S KKH xut bn: 7702007/CXB/21676/GD
In xong v np lu chiu thng 12 nm 2007.

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234