Lecture Note - Compressor

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Reciprocating Air-Compressor
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Introduction
The function of a compressor is to take a definite
quantity of fluid and deliver it at a required
pressure.
Usually a gas, and most often air.
To do this, mechanical work must be supplied to
the air compressor, by an electric motor.
The air compressor does work on the air, called
indicated work.
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Types of Air-Compressor
Can be classified into:
a) Positive displacement
b) Dynamic impulse
Positive displacement air compressors:
a) Reciprocating
b) Rotary or Screw type
Dynamic impulse:
a) Centrifugal
b) Mixed-flow
c) Axial flow
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Types of Air-Compressor
http://www.pneumofore.co
m/img/technology/operatio
n.swf
Positive displacement type air
compressor
Dynamic impulse
type air compressor
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Reciprocating
Low mass flow-rate due to pulsating operation

High pressure ratio
High efficiency
Bigger size and heavy
Complex mechanical design
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Rotary or Screw type

High mass flow-rate due to
continuous operation
Low pressure ratios
Low efficiency
Smaller in size and light
Simpler mechanical design
(Out of the scope of SKMM2423)
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Screw type
compressor
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The Analysis Objectives

To calculate air pressure and temperature before
and after compression process
To calculate indicated work/power
To obtain compressor efficiency
To calculate free air delivery rate ( m kg s or V m s )
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Reciprocating Compressors
Basic Components
A reciprocating air-compressor typically comprises of:
a) A cylinder
b) A piston moving inside the cylinder
c) A connecting rod arrangement
d) Intake and exhaust valves
Reciprocating air-compressors can be classified into single-acting or
double- acting type.
Receiver
pressure
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Atmospheric
pressure
8
Single-acting reciprocating air-compressor
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In a double-acting aircompressor, the induction
and delivery of
compressed air occurs
during every strokes of the
piston.
The intake and exhaust
valves are of spring-loaded
type. They operate
automatically.
Double-acting reciprocating
air-compressor
Animated Double Acting Compressor Cylinder.mp4

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Assumptions
The working fluid is assumed as a perfect gas and P-v-T can
be calculated by using simple equation of state:
a) PV = mRT or PV = K1
T
b) PV n = K 2
Usually, these assumptions are used to calculate estimate
pressure, P, volume, V, and temperature, T, of the working
fluid.
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Lecture Structure
1. Compressor without clearance volume
2. Compressor with clearance volume
3. Multistage compressors
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Air-Compressors without Clearance

The Cycle of Operation
The cycle of operation of a reciprocating
air-compressor is best shown on a
pressure-volume (p-V) diagram.
It is known as an indicator diagram for
the compressor.
The cycle comprises of three processes:
d - a: An induction stroke
a - b: A compression stroke
b - c: A delivery stroke
A pressure-volume (p-V) diagram
for a reciprocating compressor.
Clearance volume is neglected.
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Description of the Processes
d a: The induction stroke
Intake valve opens, while exhaust valve
closed. Atmospheric air is drawn into the
cylinder at constant pressure p1 and
temperature T1. Ideally, there is no heat loss
to the surrounding from the air.
a b: The compression stroke
Both intake and exhaust valves closed. The
air is compressed according to a polytropic
law pVn = constant. Its pressure is increased
from p1 to p2. The temperature is also
increased to T2.
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A pressure-volume (p-V) diagram for a

reciprocating compressor.
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b c: The delivery stroke
The intake valve closed while
the exhaust valve opens. The
compressed air is pushed out
of the cylinder at constant
pressure p2 and temperature
T2. There is no heat loss from
the air to the surroundings.
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Analysis of the Cycle

The indicated work per cycle:
The area under the p-V diagram
represents the net or indicated work
done on the air per cycle.
n = index of polytropic process
Indicated work / cycle = area a b c d

= area abef + area bcOe area adOf
p V p Va
= 2 b 1 + p V p Va
2 b 1
n 1
=
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n
p V pV
n 1 2 b 1 a
(1)

15

Assuming the air as a perfect gas,
p1Va = mRT1 and p2Vb = mRT2

where m is the mass of air induced and delivered per cycle, R is the
universal gas constant, where R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.
Substituting,
Indicated work / cycle =
n
mR(T2 T1 )
n 1
(2)
n
mRT1 2 1
n 1
T1
(3)
or
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So, indicated work/cycle can also be expressed as:
n 1
p2 n
n

m R T1 1
p1
n 1
(4)
or
n
p1 Va
n 1
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n 1
p
2 n 1
p1
(5)
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Indicated Power:
The indicated power is the work done on the air per unit time.
The mass flow per unit time, m is often used to compute the work
done/time or indicated power. Thus, all equations (2) to (4) must
be replaced with m to obtain indicated power. As an example,
Indicated power =
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n
m R (T2 T1 )
n 1
(5)
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Mechanical Efficiency, mech :
The mechanical efficiency mech is defined as,
mech =
Indicated power
Shaft power
(6)
where,
Shaft power = Indicated Power + Friction Power
(7)
Note: Shaft power is the power supplied by the electric motor to the
compressor. Friction power is the power loss to overcome friction in
moving mechanical parts.
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Motor Efficiency:
The motor efficiency is defined as,
motor =
Shaft power
Input power
(8)
where input power is the electric power supplied to

the electric motor.
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Another perfect gas equation:
and
For polytropic process:
p1Va p 2Vb
=
T1
T2
p1Van = p 2Vbn
Therefore,
1

Va p2 n
=
Vb p1
n = index of polytropic process
n 1
T2
T1
p
= 2
p1
T2
T1
V
= a
Vb
(1 n )
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The Relationship between States

Before
Compression
Free Air
p oVo
To
After
Compression
p1Va
T1
p 2Vb
T2
p1Va
RT1
p 2Vb
RT2
or
p oV o
RTo
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The Relationship between States
m0
Vo
Vo at po To
m1
m2
Va
Vb
V1 at p1 T1
V2 at p2 T2
p1Van = p 2Vbn
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Example 1
A single reciprocating compressor takes 1 m3 air per
minute at 1.013 bar and 15o C and delivers it at 7 bar.
Assuming that the law of compression is pV1.35 =
constant, and that clearance is negligible, calculate
the indicated power.
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Example 2
If the compressor of Example 1 is to be driven at 300
rev/min and is a single-acting, single cylinder
machine, calculate the cylinder bore required,
assuming a stroke to bore ratio of 1.5/1. Calculate
the power of the motor required to drive the
compressor if the mechanical efficiency of the
compressor is 85% and that of the motor
transmission is 90%.
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Condition for Minimum Work

It is desirable to have work done on the air (indicated power) to be as
minimum as possible.
Recall that the indicated work equals the area under the indicator (p-V)
diagram. The indicated work is minimum if the area under the diagram is
smallest.
The height of the p-V diagram is fixed by
the required pressure ratio. The length
d a is fixed by the stroke of the piston.
Thus, the area under the diagram will be
smallest only if the compression process
is carried out in reversible isothermal
process according to a law,
pV = constant
where n = 1.
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Possible compression process

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The area under the diagram will be biggest only if the
compression process is carried out in an isentropic
process where n = = 1.4. It also can be called reversible
adiabatic or entropy constant.
The area under the diagram will be moderate when the
compression process is carried out in a polytropic
process. Where n = n.
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The indicated work when the air is compressed isothermally,
is given by:
Area ab1cda = area ab1efa + area b1c0eb1 area ad0fa
= p 2V b1 ln
p2
+ p 2V b1 p 1V a
p1
Also, pV = constant or p1Va = p2Vb1

Therefore,
Indicated work per cycle = p 2V b1 ln
or
p 1V a ln
or
mRT ln
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p2
p1
p2
p1
(9)
p2
(10)
p1
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Note: When m and Va are the mass and volume of
air induced per unit time, Eqs. (9) and (10) give
the isothermal power.
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Isothermal Efficiency:
By definition, based on the indicator diagram,
Isothermal efficiency =
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Isothermal power
Indicated power
(11)
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Example 3
Calculate the isothermal efficiency of the
compressor given in Example 2.
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Air-Compressors with Clearance

What is clearance volume?
It is a spacing between the top of
the piston and the valves heads
when the piston is at the end of
the delivery stroke.
Good quality machines has a
clearance volume of about 6%.
But compressors with clearance
of 30 35% are also common.
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End of delivery stroke
Clearance volume
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Why is it required?
Clearance volume is required for the following
reasons:
Give a mechanical freedom to the moving parts
Reduce noise and vibration during operation
Prevent damage to moving components
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Processes
c d: Expansion process
The piston begins the induction stroke.
The compressed air occupying the
clearance volume Vc expands according
to the polytropic law of pVn = const., until
the pressure and temperature fall to p1
and T1, respectively. Ideally, there is no
heat transfer from the air to the
surroundings.
Ideal indicator diagram
d a: Induction process
The inlet valve opens. Fresh atmospheric air is induced into the cylinder
at constant pressure p1 and temperature T1. The volume of air induced is
(Va Vd). Ideally, there is no heat transfer from the air to the surroundings.
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a b: Compression process
Both valves closed. The induced air is
compressed according to the polytropic
law of pVn = const., until the pressure
and temperature increases to p2 and T2,
respectively. Ideally, there is no heat
transfer from the air to the surroundings.
b c: Delivery process
The exhaust valve opens. The compressed air is delivered out of the
cylinder at constant pressure p2 and temperature T2. Ideally, there is
no heat transfer from the air to the surroundings.
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Note: At the end of the delivery stroke, the clearance
volume Vc is filled with compressed air at pressure p2 and
temperature T2.
The cycle is repeated.

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The relationship between states
Before this, the relationship between states for air-compressors
without clearance is given as follows,
Before
Compression
Free Air
p oV o
To
After
Compression
p1V a
T1
p 2Vb
T2
p1Va
RT1
p 2Vb
RT2
or
p oV o
RTo
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However, when clearance volume is considered, it becomes,
p oVo p1 (Va Vd ) p 2 (Vb Vc )
=
=
RTo
RT1
RT2
or
p oVo p1 (Va Vd ) p 2 (Vb Vc )
=
=
To
T1
T2
mo
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m1
m2
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Compressor capacity is the rate of volume of air delivered, measured at
ambient conditions and is often expressed as Free Air Delivery (F.A.D),
Vo
m3/min.
If the F.A.D, is measured at ambient conditions, i.e., p = po and T = To, with

compressor speed, N (rpm), compressor type, b and number of cylinders,
e, the actual volume delivered per cycle is,
Vo
Vo =
N xb xe
Note:
If single-acting compressor, b = 1
If double- acting compressor, b = 2
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Therefore, the relationship between states for aircompressor with clearance becomes:
Vo
po
N x b x e
p1 (Va Vd ) p2 (Vb Vc ) poVo
=
=
=
T1
T2
To
To
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Indicated Power:
The indicated work/cycle is given by the area enclosed by
the p-V diagram.
Indicated work = area abcd
= area abef area cefd
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Comparison between cycles with & without

clearance
With clearance
volume
Without clearance
volume
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Using the definition given in Eq. (2), the indicated power/cycle,
Indicated power =
n
n
ma R (T2 T1 )
m d R (T2 T1 )
n 1
n 1
Indicated power =
m
a
d R (T2 T1 )
n 1
Indicated power =
n
m R (T2 T1 )
n 1
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(12)
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or
n 1
n
p
2
Indicated power / cycle =
m R T1 1
p1
n 1
(13)
Where m is the mass induced per unit time = m a m d
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Example 4
A single stage, double-acting air
compressor is required to deliver 14 m3
of air per minute measured at 1.013 bar
and 15oC. The delivery pressure is 7 bar
and the speed 300 rev/min. Take the
clearance volume as 5% of the swept
volume with compression and reexpansion index of n = 1.3. Calculate the
swept volume of the cylinder, the
delivery temperature, and the indicated
power.
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Vc = 0.05 Vs
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Volumetric Efficiency, v:
Volumetric efficiency, v is defined as,
v = the volume of air delivered, measured

at the free air pressure and temperature,
divided by the swept volume of the
cylinder
(14)
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We consider two different cases as follows:
Case 1: When p1 = po, and T1 = To, from Eq. (14),
v =
Volume induced (Va Vd )

=
Swept volume
Vs
Where, swept volume = Vs.

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From the relationship established before, if p1 = po and
T1 =To, the volume induced becomes,
(Va Vd ) = Vo = Vo
N xb xe
Therefore, volumetric efficiency, v becomes,
v =
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Vo
Vs
(15)
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Or,
v = (Va Vd )/ Vs
(16)
Alternatively, we have
Volume induced = Va Vd = Vs + Vc Vd
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The pressure-volume relationship for the polytropic process,
Vd p 2
=
Vc p1
1

n
p n
i.e. Vd = Vc 2
p1

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Therefore,
p n
Volume induced = Vs + Vc Vc 2
p

1
2
= V V
1
s
c
Substituting the above expression into Eq. (16),

we have:
1
p 2 n
Vs Vc 1
p1
V Vd
v = a
=
Vs
Vs
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V
v = 1 c
Vs
p 2 n
1
p1
(17)
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Case 2: When p1 < po, and T1 > To, from Eq. (14),
v =
Volume induced (Va Vd )

=
Swept volume
Vs
Where, swept volume = Vs
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For this case, if p1 < po and T1 >To, the volume induced

becomes,
(Va Vd ) =
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po Vo T1
p1 To
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Therefore
v =
Vo po T1
Vs p1 To
(18)
Where
Vo
Vo =
N xbxe
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Example 5 (Final Exam, April 2001)

As a mechanical engineer, you are requested to do analysis on
designing an air reciprocating compressor. The required parameters
are as follows: the pressure and temperature of free air conditions are
1.013 bar and 32oC respectively. The pressure ratio is 20:1, the
compression and expansion index, n = 1.32, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK. By
assuming the initial conditions are the same with the free air
conditions, for each kg of air calculate,
i. the indicated work if the compression process is done at single
stage, in kJ/kg.
If the indicated power of the compressor is fixed to 10 kW and run at
1200 rpm and the clearance volume is 5% of the swept volume,
calculate,
ii. the swept volume of the cylinder, in m3,
iii. the volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
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Example 6
A single-stage, double acting air compressor
has a FAD of 14 m3/min measured at 1.013
bar and 15oC.
The pressure and
temperature in the cylinder during
induction are 0.95 bar and 32oC. The
delivery pressure is 7 bar and the index of
compression and expansion, n, is equal to
1.3. Calculate the indicated power required
and the volumetric efficiency. The clearance
volume is 5% of the swept volume.
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Example 7
A four-cylinder single acting compressor with
cylinder bore 100 mm and stroke 150 mm
runs at 400 rev/min. If the volumetric
efficiency is 70%, find the mass of air
delivered per hour. The ambient pressure and
temperature are 1 bar and 25oC respectively.
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Multistage Compression
What is Multistage Compression?
The air is compressed in more than one
cylinder (or stage) to the desired delivery
pressure p2, before being delivered for usage.
Need for Multistage Compression
When the delivery pressure is increased to p3,
the volume of the fresh air induced is reduced
from (Va Vd) to (Va Vd), and so on.
Since the volumetric efficiency is given by
v = (Va Vd )/ Vs
the volumetric efficiency decreases with
increasing delivery pressure.
The effect of increasing the delivery
pressure on the volume of fresh air
induced
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This situation can be improved by performing
multistage compression process.
Observation
After the first stage compression, the air is passed
into a smaller cylinder, in which it is further
compressed to desired final pressure.
The cycle assumes that the delivery process of the
first stage and the induction process of the second
stage take place at the same pressure pi.
Advantage
Each cylinder works with lower pressure ratio.
Thus the operational safety of the compressor is
improved.
Indicator diagram for

2-stage compression
The overall volumetric efficiency, v increases.

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Indicated Power:
The indicated power for stage 1
n
W ip =
m R Ta
n 1
n 1
n
pi 1
p1
The indicated power for stage 2
n
W ip =
m R Ta ''
n 1
n 1
n
p2 1
pi
Indicator diagram for 2-stage

compression
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Intercooling Process Between Stages
With multistage compression, the air can be cooled as it is
being transferred from one cylinder to the next, by
passing it through an intercooler.
The process of cooling the air is called the intercooling
process.
With intercooling process, a saving in the indicated work
can be achieved. Thus the power supplied to the
compressor can be reduced.
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Intercooling Process Between Stages
Two-stage compression with complete intercooling
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Complete Intercooling
When the intercooling process is complete, the inlet air temperature
for first- and second-stage compressors is equivalent i.e.,
Ta = Ta
The indicator diagram shows that the two compressor stages share
a common intermediate pressure pi. In real machine, there will be a
small pressure drop between the two stages.
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The indicated work/cycle saved with

intercooling
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The T-s diagram for a complete

intercooling
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The shaded area represents
the amount of indicated work
per cycle that can be saved if
the intercooling is complete.
The indicated work/cycle

saved with intercooling
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Delivery Temperature for Complete Intercooling
The delivery temperature after each stage are
After 1st stage
After 2nd stage
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p
Ti = T1 i
p1
( n 1)
p
T2 = T1 2
pi
Ti
(19)
(n 1)
n
(20)
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Ideal Intermediate Pressure
The value of intermediate pressure pi affects the amount of indicated
work/cycle for multistage air compressor.
The ideal value of intermediate pressure pi is one that gives equal
pressure ratio for each stage of the compressor. For two-stage
compression, this means
pi p2
=
p1 pi
or
Hence,
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(21)
pi = p1 p2
pi =
p1 p2
(22)
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Ideal Intermediate Pressure
In general, for z stages of compressions, with complete
intercooling, the pressure ratio for each stage can be
expressed as below,
1
p z +1 z
p1
Where, p z +1 is the final delivery pressure.
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Conditions for Minimum Work
The indicated work/cycle in a multistage
compression will be minimum when the following
conditions are met:
a) The intercooling is complete, i.e. when Ta = Ta
b)The intermediate pressure is the ideal one.
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Total Minimum Indicated Power
In general, if there are z stages of compression, the total minimum
indicated power can be determined using the relation:
1 n1
pz +1 z n
n

W
z
m
R
T
=
1
1
ip
n 1
z
p1
(23)
And the pressure ratio of each stage is given by

1
p p z
p 2 p3
=
= = z +1 = z +1
p1 p2
p z p1
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(24)
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Total Minimum Indicated Power
T, p and V relationships
1 n 1
T2 p z +1 z
=
T
p
1 1
Vd
Vc
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(25)
1 1

p z +1 z n
=
p
1
(26)
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Example 8
In a single-acting, two-stage reciprocating air
compressor 4.5 of kg/min are compressed
from 1.013 bar and 15oC through a pressure
ratio of 9 to 1. Both stages have the same
pressure ratio, and the law of compression and
expansion in both stages is pV1.3 = constant. If
inter-cooling is complete, calculate the
indicated power and the cylinder swept
volumes required. Assume that the clearance
volumes of both stages are 5% of the swept
volumes and that the compressor runs at 300
rev/min.
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Example 9
A three-stage, single-acting air compressor running in an
atmosphere at 1.013 bar and 15oC has a free air delivery of
2.83 m3/min. The suction pressure and temperature are 0.98
bar and 32oC respectively. Calculate the indicated power
required, assuming complete inter-cooling, n = 1.3, and that
the machine is designed for minimum. The delivery pressure
is to be 70 bar.
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Example 10 (Final Exam, April, 2001)

As a mechanical engineer, you are requested to do analysis on designing
an air reciprocating compressor. The required parameters are as follows:
the pressure and temperature of free air conditions are 1.013 bar and
32oC, respectively. The pressure ratio is 20:1, the compression and
expansion index, n = 1.32, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK. By assuming the initial
conditions are the same with the free air conditions, for each kg of air
calculate,
i.
the indicated work if the compression process is done in two stage

(kJ/kg) with complete inter-cooling and optimum pressure ratio.
If the indicated power of the compressor is fixed to 10 kW and run at 1200

rpm and the clearance volume is 5% of the swept volume, calculate,
ii. the swept volume of the cylinder (m3),
iii. the volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
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Energy Balance for a 2-stage Compressor With Intercooling
A steady-flow energy equation (SFEE) can be used to perform an energy
balance analysis on a 2-stage compressor with intercooling.
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a) For the LP stage, the heat loss rate:
Q L = W L + m c p (Ti T1 )
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(27)
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b) For the intercooler, the cooling rate:
Q i = m c p (Ti T1 )
(28)
Note: Eq. (28) only valid for complete intercooling

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c) For the HP stage, the heat loss rate:
Q H = W H + m c p (T2 T1 )
(29)
With complete intercooling and if the compressor is designed for

minimum work, the indicated power is given by,
W L =W H =
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n
m R (T2 T1 )
n 1
(30)
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Example 11
A two stage, single acting compressor handling 12 m3/min of
FAD measured at 1.013 bar and 30oC. The air is compressed
from the induction conditions of 1 bar and 28oC to the
delivery pressure of 15 bar through a polytropic process of
pV1.32 = constant. The clearance volume is equivalent to 10%
of the swept volume in each cylinder, and the compressor
speed is 600 rpm.
(a) If equal pressure ratios in each stage with complete
inter-cooling, calculate the total indicated power and
the volumetric efficiency for the first stage,
(b) If the intercooler cools the air to 50oC, calculate the
indicated power required, and the heat that has been
rejected.
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Example 12 (Final Exam, October 2004)

A two-stage single acting reciprocating air compressor
with inter-cooling is designed such that the total
compressor work is minimum in which, the intercooling process is complete and the pressure ratio for
both stages is the same. After some time, the intercooler
has performed poorly due to fouling. Consequently, the
inter-cooling process can only accomplish 75% of design
rate of cooling. The compressor is required to deliver air
at rate of 4.6 kg/min from 0.98 bar and 30oC through an
overall pressure ratio of 12. The compression and reexpansion index 1.25 and the clearance volume is 5% of
the swept volume. For air, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK. If the free
air conditions are 1.013 bar and 25oC and the
compressor runs at 750 rev/min, determine,
i) the indicated power, kW;
ii) the free air delivery (m3/min)
iii) the cylinder swept volumes for each cylinder, (cm3).
11 November 2013
81
41

Lecture Note - Compressor

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Lecture Note - Compressor

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11/11/2013

Low mass flow-rate due to pulsating operation

Rotary or Screw type

The Analysis Objectives

Animated Double Acting Compressor Cylinder.mp4

Air-Compressors without Clearance

Air-Compressors without Clearance

A pressure-volume (p-V) diagram for a

Air-Compressors without Clearance

Analysis of the Cycle

n = index of polytropic process

Indicated work / cycle = area a b c d

A pressure-volume (p-V) diagram for a

Analysis of the Cycle

p1Va = mRT1 and p2Vb = mRT2

Indicated work / cycle =

Analysis of the Cycle

Indicated work / cycle =

Analysis of the Cycle

be replaced with m to obtain indicated power. As an example,

Analysis of the Cycle

Analysis of the Cycle

where input power is the electric power supplied to

Analysis of the Cycle

For polytropic process:

n = index of polytropic process

The Relationship between States

The Relationship between States

Condition for Minimum Work

Possible compression process

Condition for Minimum Work

Condition for Minimum Work

Possible compression process

Condition for Minimum Work

Also, pV = constant or p1Va = p2Vb1

Possible compression process

Condition for Minimum Work

Condition for Minimum Work

Air-Compressors with Clearance

End of delivery stroke

Air-Compressors with Clearance

Air-Compressors with Clearance

Ideal indicator diagram

Air-Compressors with Clearance

Ideal indicator diagram

Air-Compressors with Clearance

Ideal indicator diagram

Air-Compressors with Clearance

Air-Compressors with Clearance

Air-Compressors with Clearance

If the F.A.D, is measured at ambient conditions, i.e., p = po and T = To, with

Air-Compressors with Clearance

Air-Compressors with Clearance

Comparison between cycles with & without

Air-Compressors with Clearance

Air-Compressors with Clearance

Where m is the mass induced per unit time = m a m d

Air-Compressors with Clearance

v = the volume of air delivered, measured

Air-Compressors with Clearance

Volume induced (Va Vd )

Where, swept volume = Vs.

Ideal indicator diagram

Air-Compressors with Clearance