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4.

Exploration and reservoir


description
Reserve replacement

Sedimentary basins and


petroleum systems

Finding hydrocarbons

Plays, leads, prospects,


traps

Cost of exploration

Reservoir description,
characterization of
reservoir rocks
Geology and formation of Prospect evaluation
hydrocarbons

Peak oil Hubbard curve


Peak oil is the point in time
when the maximum rate of
petroleum production is
reached, after which the rate
of production is expected to
enter terminal decline.
The total production rate from
an oil region over time usually
grows exponentially until the
rate peaks and then declines
sometimes rapidlyuntil the
field is depleted.
This behavior is described by
the Hubbard curve, and has
been shown to be applicable to
the sum of a nations domestic
production rate, and is
similarly applied to the global
rate of petroleum production
Reserve replacement

Example 1: Oil production has peaked in


non-OPEC and non-FSU countries

Example 2: Oil production from NCS


fields and groups of fields

Different scenarios for world peak oil production

Predictions of the timing of peak oil


include the possibilities that it has
recently occurred, that it will occur
shortly, or that a plateau of oil
production will sustain supply for up to
100 years.
None of these predictions dispute the
peaking of oil production, but disagree
only on when it will occur.

Operational indicators for a project portfolio


Operational and financial indicators for measuring critical success factors are
prepared in connection with the planning process in oil companies and constitute an
important element of their corporate plan.
Concrete ambitions for the next year and, if possible, for the planning period, are
established for each individual indicator.

Portfolio production

Production

Time

RoCE Return on Capital Employed


Production
Production costs
Finding & Development costs
Reserve Replacement Rate (RRR)
Reserve to Production ratio (RP
ratio)

Reserves, production, supply


f

R
p
R = reserves
p = production rate
f = supply rate
maximum (technical) production rate: p = k R
RRR = f/p = reserve replacement rate
R/p = reserves to production ratio

Giant oil and gas fields

The world's about 950 giant oil and gas fields are considered those with 500 million
barrels of recoverable oil or gas equivalent. Geoscientists believe these giants account for
40 percent of the world's petroleum resources.
They are clustered in 27 regions of the world, with the largest clusters in the Persian Gulf
and Western Siberian Basin..

Large discoveries are not made very often


Examples NCS
1453
Troll/Oseberg

Ekofisk/
Valhall

Statfjord

Gullfaks

Ormen Lange
Smrbukk/Draugen
Heidrun

Norne

The largest oil discoveries made


in the period 2000 2011
16/2-6 Johan Sverdrup (2010), 1761 million barrels of oil equivalents
7220/8-1 Skrugard (2011), 241 million barrels of oil equivalents
7122/7-1 Goliat (2000), 175 million barrels of oil equivalents
16/1-8 on the Edvard Grieg field (2007), 161 million barrels of oil equivalents
6406/3-8 Maria (2010), 132 million barrels of oil equivalents
34/4-11 (2010), 125 million barrels of oil equivalents
25/8-14 S, on the Ringehorne st field (2003), 87 million barrels of oil
equivalents
16/1-9 Draupne (2008), 84 million barrels of oil equivalents
6608/10-14 S Skuld (2010), 67 million barrels of oil equivalents
25/4-9 S Vilje (2003), 64 million barrels of oil equivalents

Growth in resources on the NCS


North Sea

Barents Sea

Norwegian Sea

4. Exploration and reservoir


description
Reserve replacement

Sedimentary basins and


petroleum systems

Finding hydrocarbons

Plays, leads, prospects,


traps

Cost of exploration

Reservoir description,
characterization of
reservoir rocks
Geology and formation of Prospect evaluation
hydrocarbons

Finding hydrocarbons
Studies of the geological and geophysical information, involving
sophisticated computer modelling of geological processes, seismic
interpretation, and analysis of analogue information from petroleum
provinces around the world, allow the probabilities of finding reserves
of a certain magnitude to be assessed.
In a well-defined mature area with fully appraised discoveries, for
instance, there may be a high degree of certainty about the current
reserves, but little chance of finding major additions.
In a speculative venture in a little known area, on the other hand, the
chances of finding any hydrocarbons at all may be low, but there is also
the possibility of making a very large discovery.
However, as even the most sophisticated analysis can only yield a very
broad indication of the chances of finding commercial quantities of oil
and gas, hydrocarbon exploration remains a classic example of decisionmaking under uncertainty.

Exploration process

Abandonment
and removal

Operation
and
maintenance

Project
execution

Appraisal
and
planning

Exploration

Exploration

End
production

Start
production

Project
sanction

Discovery

Licence
award

Concession
round

Pre concession
work

Exploration and Production


work processes, phases and milestones

Operation

Project development

General geological information, seismic interpretation, analogues and drilling

Seismic surveys

Seismic surveys
2D seismic: A vertical section of seismic data consisting of numerous adjacent traces
acquired sequentially. A group of 2D seismic lines acquired individually, as opposed to the
multiple closely spaced lines acquired together that constitute 3D seismic data.
3D seismic: A set of numerous closely-spaced seismic lines that provide a high spatially
sampled measure of subsurface reflectivity. In a properly migrated 3D seismic data set,
events are placed in their proper vertical and horizontal positions, providing more accurate
subsurface maps than can be constructed on the basis of more widely spaced 2D seismic
lines, between which significant interpolation might be necessary.
In particular, 3D seismic data provide detailed information about fault distribution and
subsurface structures. Computer-based interpretation and display of 3D seismic data allow
for more thorough analysis than 2D seismic data.
4D seismic: Three-dimensional (3D) seismic data acquired at different times over the same
area to assess changes in a producing hydrocarbon reservoir with time. Changes may be
observed in fluid location and saturation, pressure and temperature.
4C seismic: Four-component (4C) borehole or marine seismic data are typically acquired
using three orthogonally-oriented geophones and a hydrophone within an ocean-bottom
sensor (deployed in node-type systems as well as cables). Provided the system is in contact
with the seabed or the borehole wall, the addition of geophones allows measurement of
shear (S) waves, whereas the hydrophone measures compressional (P) waves.

Illustration of 2D seismic

Illustration of 3D seismic

4D SEISMIC
Illustration
of 4D seismic

1985

1999

Ocean bottom
seismic
Illustration
of (4C)
ocean
bottom
(4C) seismic
Hydrophone

Illustration of other geophysical methods


Resistivity-based seafloor logging

Example: Mapping of Aldous Major/Avaldsnes

In August 2011 a large oil discovery was made on the Aldous Major South prospect in the
Norwegian sector of the North Sea. A minimum 65-metre oil column was confirmed. The
exploration well also established a common oil/water contact between the Aldous and
Avaldsnes structures.
An additional well will be drilled in Aldous Major North to clarify the further potential and
any communication with Aldous/Avaldsnes. Aldous/Avaldsnes has been described as the
largest offshore discovery in the world in 2011.

Exploration drilling

Exploration drilling may be undertaken


to determine whether subsea geological
structures, identified by seismic
surveying, contain oil or gas.
Dependent on the results of the
technical work carried out in the initial
period, exploration drilling will be
considered.
Exploration drilling is undertaken to
determine whether subsea geological
structures, identified by seismic
surveying, contain oil or gas.
A well is drilled using on board
equipment for hoisting pipes, pumps for
circulating fluids, motors to rotate the
pipe and generators to provide electrical
power.
After completion of exploration drilling
operations, wells are sealed off with
downhole cement plugs. No metal is left
on the sea floor.

Drilling and logging


The only way to confirm whether a structure does contain oil or gas is to
drill a well. This confirms the presence of hydrocarbons, but also provides
additional information on which to base further exploration and a future
field development plan.

Rock cuttings, core samples and geophysical data from well surveys are
used to gain information from wells. Rock cuttings brought to the surface
by drilling mud and specially taken core samples enable geologists to
understand the geological history and, if hydrocarbons are discovered, the
nature of the reservoir.
Key physical properties of the rocks drilled are obtained from wireline
logs. Drilling is halted and a recording device known as a sonde is passed
down the bore hole on an electric cable. Alternatively, formation data can
be measured during drilling with special downhole tools in the drill-string.
By measuring the electrical, acoustic and radioactive properties of the
rocks, the presence of hydrocarbons can be detected and information
collected on the different formations.

Well testing

If a well finds oil or gas, additional insight into reservoir properties and well
performance under operating conditions can be obtained from a flow test.
Depending on such issues as the value of information gained and environmental
constraints, this could be a short drill-stem test or a longer test using
temporary production facilities (Extended Well Test -EWT).

Exploration drilling some definitions


The definitions used for wildcat well , segment, segment well and appraisal
well are as follows:
Wildcat well
The first well to test a new, clearly defined geological unit (prospect). "Find
new oil"
Segment
A segment is that part of a prospect, defined by geological and engineering
data, whose petroleum volumes may confidently be explored for by the drilling
of a single exploration well. The petroleum volume distributions of un-drilled
segments carry a risk, even though discovered resources may already have
been booked in other drilled segments.
Segment well
The first well to test an un-drilled segment. "Find new oil"
Appraisal well
A well drilled to establish the extent and the size of a discovery. "Delineate
old oil"

Exploration wells spudded on the NCS


19662010
(Source: Norwegian Petroleum Directorate)

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

mill. boe per well

Resource growth per wildcat well on


the NCS five year rolling average
50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

Growth in resources and

the number of wildcat wells on the NCS

4. Exploration and reservoir


description
Reserve replacement

Sedimentary basins and


petroleum systems

Finding hydrocarbons

Plays, leads, prospects,


traps

Cost of exploration

Reservoir description,
characterization of
reservoir rocks
Geology and formation of Prospect evaluation
hydrocarbons

Average exploration cost per well


NCS 1985-2010

700

500
400
300
200
100

Drilling costs

General investigations

Field evaluation

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

0
1985

mill.NOK'2010

600

Administration

Cost of exploration

Average exploration cost per well


NCS 1985-2010

1,00
0,90

0,70
0,60
0,50
0,40
0,30
0,20
0,10

Drilling costs

General investigations

Field evaluation

Administration

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

0,00
1985

Relative costs

0,80

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

15

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

Exploration/Investments, percent

Exploration costs as a percentage


of investment costs
NCS 1990-2010

30

25

20

Average 14,1 percent

10

Number of wildcat wells on the Norwegian


continental shelf per year and the trend in the
nominal price of oil in 1966-2011.

The amount of money that oil companies are willing to spend on


exploration is closely related to the oil price!

Typical costs for seismic data


Onshore:
2D: 8000 12000 USD/km
3D: 20000 - 40000 USD/km2
Offshore:
2D: 500 USD/km
3D: 10000 USD/km2

Seismic data from Lofoten (Nordland VI and VII and Troms II) have been
obtained by NPD over three years at a total cost of 420 mill.NOK.
The data will be sold (made available) to oil companies at a cost of 15% of the
420 mill.NOK (about 60 mill.NOK)

Acquisition of seismic data in


Nordland VII and Troms II

Accumulated costs during exploration


and appraisal
Year 1

Year 2

Year 3

Year 4

Licence award
Administration
Seismic surveys
Exploration wells
Appraisal wells
Technical sudies

Drill?

Continue or stop?

Develop?

Accumulated costs (mill.USD)

350
300
250

Start development

200
150
100

Discovery
50
0

4. Exploration and reservoir


description
Reserve replacement

Sedimentary basins and


petroleum systems

Finding hydrocarbons

Plays, leads, prospects,


traps

Cost of exploration

Reservoir description,
characterization of
reservoir rocks
Geology and formation of Prospect evaluation
hydrocarbons

Geology
Geology is the science comprising the study of solid Earth
and the processes by which it evolves.
Geology provides primary evidence for plate tectonics, the
history of life and evolution, and past climates.
Petroleum geology refers to the specific set of geological
disciplines that are applied to the search for hydrocarbons

Geology

Subsurface disciplines
Seismic
acquisition &
processing
Seismic data
acquisition
Seismic
processing
Seismic
interpretation
analysis
Seismic
interpretation
Seismic LFP

Geo
operations
Operations
geology and data
acquisition

Play &
prospectevaluation
Prospect
analysis

Structural
geology
Structural
geology &
tectonics

Basin analysis
& geochemistry
Basin modelling
and geochemistry
Petrology

Reservoir
modelling
Geological reservoir
modelling &
uncertainty analysis
Production geology

Seismic & well


sequence stratigraphy
& sedimentology
Sedimentology
&Sequence
stratigraphy
Biostratigraphy

Drainage strategy
Drainage
strategy
Reservoir
technology

Petrophysics
Petrophysics
and fluid-rock
analysis
Core analysis

Reservoir
simulation
Reservoir
simulation

4. Exploration and reservoir


description
Reserve replacement

Sedimentary basins and


petroleum systems

Finding hydrocarbons

Plays, leads, prospects,


traps

Cost of exploration

Reservoir description,
characterization of
reservoir rocks
Geology and formation of Prospect evaluation
hydrocarbons

Basin analysis

Basin

Basins are large scale areas of the Earths crust with a long history of subsidence and
within which a thick sequence of sediments has accumulated.
Basin analysis involves making an interpretation of the formation, evolution,
architecture and fill of a sedimentary basin by examining geological variables
associated with the basin.
Basin analysis provides a foundation for extrapolating known information into unknown
regions in order to predict the nature of the basin where evidence is not available.

Geo-seismic section through the


North Sea Basin Viking Graben

Basin

Sedimentary basins and petroleum systems

At Svalbard you will see rocks protruding through the ice that you normally just
find under the seabed, which is very special.

4. Exploration and reservoir


description
Reserve replacement

Sedimentary basins and


petroleum systems

Finding hydrocarbons

Plays, leads, prospects,


traps

Cost of exploration

Reservoir description,
characterization of
reservoir rocks
Geology and formation of Prospect evaluation
hydrocarbons

Basin, petroleum system, play, lead, prospect

A sedimentary basin is a depression filled with sedimentary rocks. The


presence of sedimentary rocks proves that a basin existed.

Presence of petroleum proves that a petroleum system exists within the


basin. Presence of a petroleum system implies that the basin comprise
mature source rock, migration pathway, reservoir rock, trap and seal.

Plays are developed in order to define areas where leads and prospects
may be identified. The critical elements are: source rock, reservoir rock
and top seal rock.

Lead is a structure which may contain hydrocarbons (rough indication of


a prospect).

Prospect is a lead which has been fully evaluated/mapped and may be


ready for drilling.

The relation between basin, play,


prospect and discovery
Basin
Play
Prospect
Discovery/field

Petroleum system
A petroleum system is defined by geologic components and
processes necessary to generate and store hydrocarbons, including a
mature source rock, migration pathway, reservoir rock, trap and seal.
Appropriate relative timing of formation of these elements and the
processes of generation, migration and accumulation are necessary
for hydrocarbons to accumulate and be preserved.
The components and critical timing relationships of a petroleum
system can be displayed in a chart that shows geologic time along
the horizontal axis and the petroleum system elements along the
vertical axis.
Exploration plays and prospects are typically developed in basins or
regions in which a complete petroleum system exists or has some
likelihood of existing.

Play definitions
A play (or a group of interrelated plays) generally occurs in a single
petroleum system (Norwegian: play = letemodell)
Play: A geographically and stratigraphically delimited area where a
specific set of geological factors is present so that petroleum should be
able to be proven in producible volumes. Such geological factors are a

reservoir rock, seal, mature source rock, migration routes, and that the
seal was formed before the migration of petroleum ceased.

Play: A family of prospects, leads, undeveloped and developed pools and


drilled unsuccessful features that are known or conceived to share the
same gross reservoir, hydrocarbon charge system and regional top seal
Play: A group of prospects within a given geographical area in which a
set of common geological factors, such as reservoir rock, trap and the
formation of hydrocarbons from a mature source rock, must be present
simultaneously in order that petroleum accumulations can occur
Play: A conceptual model for a style of hydrocarbon accumulation used
by explorationists to develop prospects in a basin, region or trend and
used by development personnel to continue exploiting a given trend

Confirmed and unconfirmed Plays


All Prospects and Discoveries within a Play share the same set of
necessary attributes (reservoir, source, seal) and are hence
distinguishable from Prospects and Discoveries belonging to other Plays
Plays are classified as confirmed when at least one accumulation of
producible quantities of hydrocarbons is discovered. All discoveries and
prospects in the same play are characterised by the play's specific set
of geological factors.
Unconfirmed plays are defined as those yet to yield a discovery. Plays
are subject to varying degrees of uncertainty, depending upon the
statistical probability that the geological factors which define them are
present.

Prospect
A possible petroleum
trap with a mappable,
delimited volume of rock.
or..an area of
exploration in which
hydrocarbons have been
predicted to exist in
economic quantity.
oran anomaly, such as
a geologic structure or a
seismic amplitude
anomaly, that is
recommended by
explorationists for
drilling a well.
a lead is an indication of
a prospect

Basin petroleum system play lead/prospect


Basin Screening

Basin

Petroleum system

Play

Lead/Prospect

The presence of hydrocarbons (1)


The presence of large quantities of hydrocarbons in a sedimentary
basin, indicates that six independent requirements have been met.
The first three relate to the charge (source/migration), the
formation of hydrocarbons within the basin:
I) there must have been a source rock, rich in organic carbon to be
converted to hydrocarbons
II) there must have been sufficient heat over long periods of time
to convert the organic carbon into hydrocarbons (such temperatures
can only be achieved at depths of between two and four kilometres,
depending on the age and geological setting, and the basin will need
to be deep enough to ensure that the source rock reaches the
required depth)
III) there must have been migration pathways to enable the
hydrocarbons to migrate upwards from the source rock, and,
perhaps, reach a trap

The presence of hydrocarbons (2)


The other three conditions concern the reservoir and the trap, which
prevents migrating hydrocarbons from escaping to the surface, and
which therefore must pre-date the charge:
IV) there must be a suitable reservoir rock, such as limestone or
sandstone, which must have sufficient porosity to store the
hydrocarbons and be permeable enough to allow them to be produced
at economic rates
V) there must be an effective seal of impermeable rock, such as clay,
shale or salt, above and against the reservoir
VI) there must be a closed structure, a geometric disposition of the
reservoir and a seal to arrest the upward migration of the
hydrocarbons

The presence of hydrocarbons

(3)

In some literature this description is simplified, and only three


conditions instead of six are listed:
Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs to form:

a source rock rich in hydrocarbon material buried deep enough for


subterranean heat to cook it into oil (ref. I, II, III)
a porous and permeable reservoir rock for it to accumulate in (ref. IV)
and a cap rock (seal) or other mechanism that prevents it from
escaping to the surface (ref. V, VI)

Within these reservoirs, fluids will typically organize themselves


like a three-layer cake with a layer of water below the oil layer
and a layer of gas above it, although the different layers vary in
size between reservoirs.
Because most hydrocarbons are lighter than rock or water, they
often migrate upward through adjacent rock layers until either
reaching the surface or becoming trapped within porous rocks
(known as reservoirs) by impermeable rocks above.
However, the process is influenced by underground water flows,
causing oil to migrate hundreds of kilometres horizontally or even
short distances downward before becoming trapped in a reservoir.

Play Probabilities
P(Reservoir): The probability of occurrence of reservoir facies

on a regional scale.

P(Seal): The probability of occurrence of a regional top seal,

capable of preventing hydrocarbons from upward migration.

P(Source): The probability of occurrence of a rock unit that

can generate and expel oil or gas in sufficient quantity to form


one or more accumulations within the play.

Prospect Probabilities
P(Reservoir): The probability of occurrence of reservoir facies with

effective porosity/permeability, capable of holding hydrocarbons above a


specified minimum volume in the prospect (IV).
P(Trap): The probability of occurrence of a structural or stratigraphic

configuration that provides a trap for migrating hydrocarbons (V and


VI).

P(Charge/Migration): The probability of presence, quality and maturity

of source rocks in the drainage area of the prospect, sufficient


migration of hydrocarbons into the trap and of in-reservoir
biodegradation (I, II and III).

Illustration of types of traps

Illustration of types of traps

Faults - earth quake is natural

A normal fault; one of the dominant structures of sedimentary basins

Illustration based on seismic surveys

In reflection seismology, a bright spot is a local high amplitude seismic


attribute anomaly that can indicate the presence of hydrocarbons and is
therefore known as a direct hydrocarbon indicator

Traps, leakage, spill-point

Source Rocks and migration

Short summary

Prospect: a defined (mapped) trap with reservoir rock and associated


source rock

Lead: an indication of a not yet mapped prospect

Play: a geographically and stratigraphically delimited area that may


contain discoveries, prospects and leads - all based on the same source-,
reservoir- and seal rocks

Petroleum system: a geographically and stratigraphically delimited area


that may contain several plays all based on the same source rock

Basin: basins are large scale areas of the Earths crust with a long history
of subsidence and within which a thick sequence of sediments has
accumulated. A sedimentary basin may contain petroleum systems

4. Exploration and reservoir


description
Reserve replacement

Sedimentary basins and


petroleum systems

Finding hydrocarbons

Plays, leads, prospects,


traps

Cost of exploration

Reservoir description,
characterization of
reservoir rocks
Geology and formation of Prospect evaluation
hydrocarbons

Reservoir
A reservoir is a subsurface body of rock having sufficient porosity
and permeability to store and transmit fluids.
Sedimentary rocks are the most common reservoir rocks because
they have more porosity than most igneous and metamorphic rocks
and form under temperature conditions at which hydrocarbons can
be preserved.
A reservoir is a critical component of a complete petroleum system.

An accumulation of hydrocarbons

Sea bottom

Impermeable rock (seal)

Gas
Oil
Water
Permeable reservoir rock

Migration
Source rock

In geology, rock or stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals. The Earth's
outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock.
In general rocks are of three types, namely, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are the first great class. "Igneous" comes from the Latin for fire, and all igneous rocks
began as hot, fluid material. This material may have been lava erupted at the Earth's surface, or
magma (unerupted lava) at shallow depths, or magma in deep bodies (plutons). Rock formed of lava is
called extrusive, rock from shallow magma is called intrusive and rock from deep magma is called
plutonic.
The two best-known igneous rock types are basalt and granite, which differ in composition. Basalt is
the dark, fine-grained stuff of many lava flows and magma intrusions. Its dark minerals are rich in
magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe), hence basalt is called a mafic rock. So basalt is mafic and either
extrusive or intrusive. Granite is the light, coarse-grained rock formed at depth and exposed after
deep erosion. It is rich in feldspar and quartz (silica) and hence is called a felsic rock. So granite is
felsic and plutonic.

basalt

granite

Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are the second great rock class. Whereas igneous rocks are born hot, sedimentary rocks
are born cool at the Earth's surface, mostly under water. They usually consist of layers or strata, hence
they are also called stratified rocks. Depending on what they're made of, sedimentary rocks fall into one of
three types, Clastic, Organic and Chemical Sedimentary Rocks.
Clastic: The most common set of sedimentary rocks consist of the granular materials that occur in
sediment: mud and sand and gravel and clay. Sediment mostly consists of surface minerals quartz and
clays that are made by the physical breakdown and chemical alteration of rocks. Sand and mud is carried
down rivers to the sea, mostly. Sand is made of quartz, and mud is made of clay minerals. As these
sediments are steadily buried over geologic time, they get packed together under pressure and low heat,
not much more than 100C. In these conditions the sediment is cemented into rock: sand becomes
sandstone and clay becomes shale.
Organic: Another type of sediment actually forms in the sea as microscopic organisms plankton build
shells out of dissolved calcium carbonate or silica. Dead plankton steadily shower their dust-sized shells
onto the seafloor, where they accumulate in thick layers. That material turns to two more rock types,
limestone (carbonate) and chert (silica).

sandstone

shale

limestone

Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are the third great class of rocks. These are what happens when
sedimentary and igneous rocks become changed, or metamorphosed, by conditions
underground. The four main agents that metamorphose rocks are heat, pressure, fluids and
strain.

Quartzite

Marble

Gneiss

Petrophysics

the study of the physical properties of rocks.


For a rock to form a reservoir:
a) It must have a certain storage capacity (it must have many tiny
spaces or pores): This property is characterized by the porosity .
b) The fluids must be able to flow in the rock (the pores must be
connected) : This property is characterized by the permeability.
c) It must contain a sufficient quantity of hydrocarbons, with a
sufficient concentration: The impregnated volume is a factor here, as
well as the saturations.
The methods used to characterize reservoir rocks are essentially core
analysis and well logging.

Reservoir Rocks
The main reservoir rocks are made up of:
sandstones
carbonates
These are sedimentary rocks, in other words rocks made up of
sediments formed at the earth's surface by debris (mineral, animal
and vegetable) or chemical precipitations.
They are stratified in successive beds.

Porosity
A rock sample is considered. Its apparent
volume or total volume VT consists of a
solid volume VS and a pore volume VP. The
porosity is:
= VP/VT
It is often stated that the porosity is:
Low:
Mediocre:
Average:
Good:

if < 5%
if 5% < < 10 %
if 10% < < 20 %
if 20% < < 30 %

Excellent:

if > 30%

Nearly all rocks and sediments contain openings called pores or voids, which come in all
shapes and sizes.
The fraction of total volume occupied by pores or voids is called porosity. Materials
containing a relatively large proportion of void space are described as porous or said to
possess "high porosity."

Permeability
During production, the fluids flow in the rock pores with greater or
lesser difficulty, depending on the characteristics of the porous
medium.
Darcy's Law
The specific or absolute permeability of a rock is the ability of the
rock to allow a fluid with which it is saturated to flow through its
pores. Permeability can be determined by Darcy's Law, an
experimental law.
1
10
50
200

<1 mD:
to 10 mD:
to 50 mD:
to 200 mD:
to 500 mD:
> 500 mD:

Very low
Low
Mediocre
Average
Good
Excellent

Connected pores give rock permeability

NB.: in a porous medium, the permeability generally varies with the flow direction.

Permeability Darcys law

Permeability (mD)

Permeability versus Porosity

Porosity (%)

Saturations
In the pore volume Vp there may be found a volume Vw of water, a
volume Vo of oil, and a volume Vg of gas
(Vw + Vo + Vg = Vp).
The oil, water and gas saturations are:
expressed in percent, with Sw + So + Sg = 100 %.
Knowing the volumes of oil and gas in place in a reservoir requires
knowing the saturations at every point, or at least a satisfactory
approximation.

Viscosity
A property of fluids and slurries that indicates their resistance to
flow, defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear rate.
Poise is the unit for viscosity, equivalent to dyne-sec/cm2.
Because one poise represents a high viscosity, 1/100 poise, or one
centipoise (cp), is used for measurements.
One centipoise equals one millipascal-second.
Viscosity must have a stated or an understood shear rate in order
to be meaningful. Measurement temperature also must be stated or
understood.

4. Exploration and reservoir


description
Reserve replacement

Sedimentary basins and


petroleum systems

Finding hydrocarbons

Plays, leads, prospects,


traps

Cost of exploration

Reservoir description,
characterization of
reservoir rocks
Geology and formation of Prospect evaluation
hydrocarbons

Prospect evaluation
Prospect evaluation is a technical/economical calculation of the
expected value of a prospect.
The calculated expected value is used as basis for decision making
(drill or not drill, buy or sell etc.)
Prospect evaluation is a complex multidisciplinary task.

Prospect evaluation
the main steps

Cost&schedules
Production profile

Geology

Reservoir

Wells
Facilities

Tax, price, tariff

E(NPV)

Commercial

Economy

Basin evaluation

Probabilities

Play evaluation

Recoverable

Prospect evaluation

Resources initially in place


Sealing,
closure
Thickness

P(source)

P(prospect)

Recovery factor
Net/Gross
ratio

P(reservoir)
P(trap)

Shrinkage
Expansion

Gas/Oil
ratio

Porosity

P(source)
Saturations

P(discovery)

HC volume
in place

Source rock
Available charge, volume and HC type

P(seal)

Recoverable
resources

Trap capacity (HCPV)

P(play)

P(reservoir)

Rock volume

Trap and reservoir

Thickness

Area

Quality

Maturity

Migration

Calibration

Technical / Economical
evaluation

Development

Cash-flow
Income
Costs

Technical

Economical

Production

Net Present Value (NPV)

E(NPV)

E(NPV) = Expected Net Present Value of prospect

10 Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Define the reserves replacement rate


What is a basin?
What is a petroleum system?
What is a play and what is a prospect?
What is a trap? Name 4 types.
What is meant by migration?
List 6 requirements that must be satisfied if significant
volumes of hydrocarbons are to be found in a basin.
8. What is a well-testing and what is the purpose of it?
9. What is meant by 2D, 3D and 4D seismic?
10. What is the unit for quantifying permeability?

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