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The Practical Welding

Engineer
BY
J. Crawford Lochhead
and
Ken Rodgers

American Welding Society

550 N.W. LeJeune Rd.
Miami, FL 331 26

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Brown and Root McDermott

Fabricators, Ltd.,
Inverness, Scotland.

International Standard Book Number: 0-87171-620-8

American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126
O 2000 by American Welding Society.
All rights reserved.
Text edited by Tim Heston.
Printed in the United States of America

The American Welding Society is not responsible for any statement made or opinion expressed herein. Data
and informationdeveloped by the authors are for informational purposes only and are not intended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the part of potential users.
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Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 1: Contracts and Role of the Welding Engineer ................. .i

Commercial Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dealing with Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1
7

Chapter 2: Selection of Welding Processes, Equipment. and Consumables 13

Welding Process Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equipment and Consumable Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 3: Weld Procedure Qualification

........................

Assessing Weld ProcedureRequirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Routine Mechanical Tesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SimpleChecks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fracture Mechanics Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Test Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 4: Production Welding Control

...............................

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Defect Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Welder Training and Qualification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Useful Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Consumable Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Production Weld Test Pieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43
43
47

50
51
58
60
67
67
72

.................................

83
83
84
89
90
92
94
99

....................

101
102
106
114
120
122

.................................................
.................................................

Chapter 6:Practical Problem Solving

25
25
30
36
37
39

....................

Chapter 5: Estimating and Reducing Welding Costs

Estimating Welding Costs
Reducing Welding Costs

13
18

WhatisaProblern? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chevron Cracking in Submerged Arc Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Low Toughness in Selt-Shielded Flux Cored Arc Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cast-to-CastVariability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MagneticArcBlow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elimination of Postweld Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fitness for Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 7: Common Defects and Remedial Actions

Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Profile Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Volumetric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Incomplete Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Some Additional Informationon SolidificationCracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 8: Oxyfuel Cutting, Arc Air, and Electrode Gouging .............125

OxyiuelCuiiing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
125

Air Arc GouginglCuting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Electrode GougingKutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

129
130

Appendix I: Recommended Reading ................................. 133

Appendix II: Useful Tables, Formulas, and Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
Index ............................................................ 149

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iii
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When we, the authors, decided to write this book, we had a definite aim in mind
- to present a practical approach to the application of welding theories.

Over recent years universities and colleges have recognized the previous lack of
attention paid to the welding fraternity and subsequently greatly improved teaching
capabilities and lecture contents. As a result, the modem engineer is well versed in
basic metallurgical behavior; he is aware of the application of electronic wizardry to
modem equipment; fracture mechanics is not just an obscure theory but a practical
everyday tool; and, modem materials and consumables have apparently eliminated
many of the problems of the past. What the modem welding engineer lacks is the
knowledge of how to apply this knowledge in a practical sense. What we have
attempted to write is basically a distillation of almost 60 years (between the two of
us) of hard-gained realism in heavy engineering fabrication.
The basis of the book is therefore an assumption that the reader is already knowledgeable of basic welding and metallurgical theory. He is most likely a metallurgist,
materials science or mechanical engineering graduate who, during his or her university career has stumbled, or been fortuitously directed, into the welding field. It is
obviously a biased view, but in the opinion of the authors, welding is one of the most
exciting fields available to a young graduate. It is both vibrant and dynamic with new
avenues to be explored becoming available on a regular basis. Synergic gas metal arc
welding and inverter power sources, electron and laser welding, magnetic-impelled
arc butt-joint welding (MIAB), robotic welding, and diffusion bonding are careers in
themselves. It is difficult to identify another discipline where the range of possibilities are as diverse, broad, and exciting, and where the potentials for exploration and
discovery stretch enticingly into the future.
However, enough of such esoteric digressions. This book was not written from
that approach. It is intended to present the inexperienced welding engineer with some
sage advice on some of the pitfalls awaiting in the hard commercial world that
awaits. Be under no illusions; it is not sufficient to be the best theoretical welding
engineer in your company. You must know how to apply that knowledge in an almost
street-wise manner.

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Welding is regarded by many employers as a black art. Some of this reputation

has been due to welding engineers camouflaging their inadequacies, or uncertainties,
with professional jargon. Telling ones employer that the problem is one of cracking
initiated in a highly tensile stressed region of hard martensite or body centered cubic
microstructure of poor crack resistance surrounded by material of similar sensitivity
to crack propagation into which atomic hydrogen has diffused, and that until the diffusion rate is beneficially altered the problem will persist, is not clear. Telling him
that you have identified the problem to be one of delayed hydrogen cracking and that
increasing the preheat temperature by 25C will resolve it will undoubtedly raise
your standing in the company - unless you have an enlightened employer who asks
you why you didnt recognize that a higher preheat was necessary in the first place.
The book is entitled The Practical Welding Engineer. We hope you find it to be
practical. We also hope that, although you may not totally or even partially agree with
its contents, you find it readable and interesting.
Good Reading

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J. C. Lochhead and K. J. Rodgers

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the following personnel for their assistance in the
execution of this work.
T. Clement and M. Dorricott, Managing Directors, Brown & Root Highlands
Fabricators Ltd.
D. J. Wright, Managing Director, Brown and Root McDermott Fabricators, Ltd.
I. G. Hamilton, Consultant (for general advice).
Dr. W. Welland, for assistance with run-outstub length information.
Mrs. Patricia Vass and Claire Lochhead, for general secretarial assistance.
All other suppliers of photographs, tables, suggestions, etc.
The authors would also like to thank Training Publications, Ltd., Watford, England,
for permission to use data and Figures 8.1-8.9 and 8.11-8.13 extracted from Module
Manual F10 of the General Welding and Cutting for Engineering Craftsmen manual.
Permission is not transferable.

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vi
Not for Resale

Index

access to joints, 82
air-jet efficiency, in cutting, 129
all-weld tensile tests, 33
annular stiffener weld, 87-88
arc air gougingkutting, 129-130
arc blow, 92-94, 113
arc monitoring, 52-53
arc stability, 23
arc strikes, 107
arc time, cost of, 68
automated processes, cost of, 68
automatic processes, cost of, 73-74
automation, degree of, 73-74
backgouging, 44
backstep welding technique, 94, 106, 108
baking ovens, 86
bare wire electrode
bead appearance, 23
bead contours, 75
bend testing, 34-35
bevel angle, 76
bid. See tender
block weave, 90
BS 7910,99
budgets, estimating, 25
burning. See oxyfuel cutting
buttering, 95-97
cap-pass sequence control, 97-98
carbon equivalent formulae, 140
cast-to-cast variability, 90-92
centerline cracks, 105-106
Charpy V-notch test, 35-36
chevron cracking, in SAW, 84-88

claims, 1
codes, 108. See also specifications
for fracture toughness, 99
communication, engineer and welder, 47-49
about procedure tests, 55
compensation, 1, 5-6
conflict of interest, 50
consumables. See also electrodes
availability of, 16
changing, for costs, 74-75
coating brittleness, 23
color coding, 59
control of, 58-60
COSt Of, 67,68-70,75
evaluation of, 18-22
in defect analysis, 44
issue of, 80
low hydrogen, storage, 59-60
metal powder, 75
nitrogen in, 65
operability of, 20
organization of, 59-60
problems with, 64
properties of, 20
storage of, 58-60
traceability of, 58
contracts, 1, 2-5
obligations of, 2, 5
planning for, 3
purchasing, 2 , 4
subcontracting, 2, 4
tender, 2, 3
copper inclusions, 114, 119
corrosion resistance testing, 32

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149

I 50

The Practica Weiing Engineer

crack tip opening displacement (CTOD), 35, 3739,64,65,98-99

cracking susceptibility formula, 140
cracks, types of, 102-106
crater pipes, i 14-115
craters, 115
cross-weid tensile tests, 33
cutting oxygen pressure, 128
D1.l, 25
defect analysis, 43-46
defects. See weld defects
DeLong diagram, 144
deposition efficiency factor, 69
deposition rate, in calculating costs, 68
discontinuities. See also weld defects
chevron cracking, 84-88
communicating to welder, 49
from arc blow, 93
hydrogen cracking, 31
in micro-examination, 32
transverse planar, 85
distortion, excess, 107-108
drag, 127
electrode basicity index, 140
electrode gouging/cutting, 130-132
electrodes. See also consumables
angle, 94
bare wire, 22
cellulostic/rutile, 34, 75
classification of, 146-147
coating, 23
diameter, charts for, 56, 57
ferritic,buttering with, 97
low-hydrogen, 75
re-striking, 23
SMAW rods, storage of, 59
solid GTAW wire (straight lengths), 59
stub lengths, 54
electroslag welding (ESW), 76
normalizing, 95
equipment assessment, 19-20
etches, dendritic and nital, 31.32
ferrite testing, 32
filler metal. See consumables
fish eyes, 34,35
fitness for purpose, 99
fixturing, 77-78
flame cutting. See oxyfiel cutting
flux cored arc welding (FCAW), 16,31,34, 49,
84, 118
low toughness in, 89-90
test procedures, 62-63
flux recycling, 86
flux-covered electrode, gouging with, 131
fracture mechanics. See fitness for purpose

fracture mechanics tests, 37-39

gas shielded processes, cost of, 69-70
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), 19, 145
cast-to-cast variability in, 91
gauges, 53-54
geometry defects, 44
groove angle, 76
grooving. See electrode gouging
hardness equivalent table, 136
hardness survey, 31-32
hardness surveys, 10
heat input formula, 141
heat input, significance of, 55
heat line bending, 108
heat treatment, 108
heat-affected zone (HAZ)
hardness of, 29, 31, 55, 56, 96
hydrogen cracking in, 31
in CTOD, 38-39
in impact testing, 36
in micro-examination, 32
in temper bead technique, 29-30
heating pad. See fixturing
high deposition rate techniques, 75-76
hot cracking susceptibility (HCS), 122
hot-wire gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), 76
hydrogen cracking, 31
hydrogen cracks, in HAZ, 102-103
hydrogen, in chevron cracking, 85-86
impact tests, 10, 35-36, 65
incomplete fusion, 46, 120-121
incomplete root penetration, 109
international specifications, 7
iron carbon equilibrium diagram, 142
joint completion rate, 68
joint type, costs, 72, 80-82
kerf. 125
labor, cost of, 67
lamellar tearing, 103-104
linear completion rate, 68
low-alloy steels, cutting, 125
low-carbon steel, cutting, 125
macro-examination, 30-31
macroscopic examination, FCAW, 63
manual processes, cost of, 68,73
material mechanical properties, 16-18
material weldability, 9
mechanical tests, 30-36
bend testing, 34-35
hardness survey, 31-32
impact testing, 10, 35-36

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Index 151

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macro-examination, 30-3 1
micro-examination, 32
tensile testing, 33-34
mechanized processes, cost of. See automated
processes
micro-examination, 32
mild steel, cutting, 125
misalignment, 109-110
M d S ratios, 106, 122
moisture level, in flux, 86
monitoring production, 9-1 1
by pass length, 57-58
multiwire welding, 75
narrow-groove welding, 65, 76-77
nelson curve diagram, 142-143
nickel alloys, 31
nital etch, 31, 32
nondestructive examination (NDE), 13, 16, 18,
28,30,84, 99
nozzle, cutting, 130
offshore fabrication,justifying pass lengths in, 55
overheating, 23
overpenetration, 111
oxyfuel cutting, 125-129
partial penetration welds, costs, 81-82
pass length (SMAW), 55-58
pipe butt joint weld procedure, 28
poor profile, 111-112
porosity, 46
porosity, elongated, 117
porosity, restart, 115
porosity, uniformsurface, 116-117
positioners. See faturing
postweld heat treatment (PWHT)
elimination of, 94-99
power sources, 19
selecting to avoid arc blow, 94
preheat, 49
preheat flames, in cutting, 128
preheating bands, 78
prequalification procedures, 25-26
material costs, 28-29
production monitoring, 9-11
by pass length, 57-58
production time, 17
profile defects, 106-113
profit, 1, 2
purchasing, 2 , 4
qualification test program, 26,28
reheat cracking, 104
reinforcement, excess, 108-109
replicas, weld, 51-52
residual magnetism, arc blow, 93

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rods, storage of, 59

root concavity, 112
SASPA-NANSA, 31,32
schaeffler diagram, 144
shielded m e G arc welding (SMAW), 16, 17, 18,
22, 28, 54,55, 118, 145
costs of, 70-71
procedure tests for, 55
single-pass welds, 32
slag inclusions, 118
slag removal, 23
solidification cracks, 105-106, 122-123
spatter, 23,46, 112-113
specifications, 7-1 1
clarifications to, 8
exceptions to, 8
international codes, 7,47
national codes, documentation of, 47
stainless steel alloys, 31
Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, 25
stress conversion, 137
stringer bead technique, 90
stub lengths, 54
variable, 56-57
subcontracting, 2 , 4
submerged arc strip cladding, 76
submerged arc welding (SAW), 16, 28, 38.75,
118
fluxes, storage of, 59
narrow-groove, 77
without iron powder additions, 65
suppliers, data from, 11
temper bead technique, 97-98
temperature conversion table, 138-139
tender, 2, 3
tensile loading, 86
tensile testing, 33-34
fish-eyes in, 34
test failures, 39-42
test plates, 26, 30
test programs, 26-28
test welds, 29-30, 31
material costs, 28-29
techniques, 3 1
yield stress, in test welds, 33
toe profiles, 75
tool issue, restricted, 80
total weld cost, equation, 67
transverse tensile test, 33
tungsten inclusions, 119-120
tunneling. See porosiq, elongated
turning rolls. See f i t u r i n g
ultimate tensile strength (UTS), 33
ultrasonic testing, buttering for, 97
ultrasonic testing, of SAW, 84-85

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The Plactlcal Welding ngineer

undercut, 113-114
units of crack susceptibility (UCS), 122
variation request, 6
vibratory stress relief, 98
volume fill rate, in calculating costs, 68
volumetric defects, 114-120
weave technique, FCAW, 89-90
weid bead appearance, 23
weid porosity, 46
weid cracks, types, 102-106
weld defects. See also discontinuities
analysis of, 43-46
arc strikes, 107
copper inclusions, 114, 119
crater pipes, 114-115
excess distortion, 107-108
geometry-related, 44
hydrogen cracks, in HAZ, 102-103
incomplete fusion, 46, 120-121
incomplete root penetration, 109
lamellar tearing, 103-104
material-related, 46
misalignment, 109-110
overpenetration, 111
poor profile, 111-112
porosity, elongated, 117
porosity, restart, 115
porosity, uniform/surface, 116-117
profile, 106-113
reheat cracking, 104
reinforcement, excess, 108-109
root concavity, 112
slag inclusions, 118
solidification cracks, 105-106
spatter, 46, 112-113
tungsten inclusions, 119-120
undercut, 113-114
volurnehic defects, 114-120
weld cracks, types of, 102-103
weld metal cracking, 86
welder-related, 45-46
weid failure, material related, 64
weld geometry defects, 44
weld iength, 70
weld metal cracking, 86
weid microstructure, 55
weid procedure requirements, 25-30
prequalification procedures, 25-26
test programs, 26-28
weld procedures, 27
pipe butt joint weid qualification, 28
weld replicas, 51-52
weid test failures, dealing with, 61-66
weid test pieces, 60-66
weld volume, 70, 76-77
weld weight, 70

weldability, 9, 16-18
welder access, 44
welders
communicating with, 47-49
supervision of,50
training and qualification of, 47-49
welding costs, estimating, 67-71
welding costs, reducing, 72-82
welding procedure specification (WF'S), 55,57
welding processes
constraints of, 16.17
consumable availability, 16
economic factors, 17-18
electroslag welding (ESW), 76
normalizing, 95
flux cored arc welding (FCAW), 16, 31, 34,
49,84, 118
low toughness in, 89-90
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), 19, 145
cast-to-cast variability in, 91
hot-wire gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW),
76
material weldability, 16-18
pass length (SMAW), 55-57
production time with, 17
selection of, 13-18
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), 16, 17,
18, 22.28, 54.55, 118, 145
Costs of, 70-71
procedure tests for, $5
submerged arc welding (SAW), 16,28,38,
75, 118
fluxes, storage of, 59
narrow-groove, 77
without iron powder additions, 65
wire, storage of, 59
working environment, 79-80
workmanship example, 5 1
WRC-1992 diagram, 145
yield stress, 33
yield stress formula, 141

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