Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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The American Welding Society is not responsible for any statement made or opinion expressed herein. Data
and informationdeveloped by the authors are for informational purposes only and are not intended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the part of potential users.
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Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
7
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Defect Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Welder Training and Qualification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Useful Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Consumable Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Production Weld Test Pieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
43
47
50
51
58
60
67
67
72
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83
83
84
89
90
92
94
99
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101
102
106
114
120
122
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25
25
30
36
37
39
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13
18
WhatisaProblern? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chevron Cracking in Submerged Arc Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Low Toughness in Selt-Shielded Flux Cored Arc Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cast-to-CastVariability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MagneticArcBlow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elimination of Postweld Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fitness for Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Profile Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Volumetric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Incomplete Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Some Additional Informationon SolidificationCracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
129
130
iii
Not for Resale
When we, the authors, decided to write this book, we had a definite aim in mind
- to present a practical approach to the application of welding theories.
Over recent years universities and colleges have recognized the previous lack of
attention paid to the welding fraternity and subsequently greatly improved teaching
capabilities and lecture contents. As a result, the modem engineer is well versed in
basic metallurgical behavior; he is aware of the application of electronic wizardry to
modem equipment; fracture mechanics is not just an obscure theory but a practical
everyday tool; and, modem materials and consumables have apparently eliminated
many of the problems of the past. What the modem welding engineer lacks is the
knowledge of how to apply this knowledge in a practical sense. What we have
attempted to write is basically a distillation of almost 60 years (between the two of
us) of hard-gained realism in heavy engineering fabrication.
The basis of the book is therefore an assumption that the reader is already knowledgeable of basic welding and metallurgical theory. He is most likely a metallurgist,
materials science or mechanical engineering graduate who, during his or her university career has stumbled, or been fortuitously directed, into the welding field. It is
obviously a biased view, but in the opinion of the authors, welding is one of the most
exciting fields available to a young graduate. It is both vibrant and dynamic with new
avenues to be explored becoming available on a regular basis. Synergic gas metal arc
welding and inverter power sources, electron and laser welding, magnetic-impelled
arc butt-joint welding (MIAB), robotic welding, and diffusion bonding are careers in
themselves. It is difficult to identify another discipline where the range of possibilities are as diverse, broad, and exciting, and where the potentials for exploration and
discovery stretch enticingly into the future.
However, enough of such esoteric digressions. This book was not written from
that approach. It is intended to present the inexperienced welding engineer with some
sage advice on some of the pitfalls awaiting in the hard commercial world that
awaits. Be under no illusions; it is not sufficient to be the best theoretical welding
engineer in your company. You must know how to apply that knowledge in an almost
street-wise manner.
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Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the following personnel for their assistance in the
execution of this work.
T. Clement and M. Dorricott, Managing Directors, Brown & Root Highlands
Fabricators Ltd.
D. J. Wright, Managing Director, Brown and Root McDermott Fabricators, Ltd.
I. G. Hamilton, Consultant (for general advice).
Dr. W. Welland, for assistance with run-outstub length information.
Mrs. Patricia Vass and Claire Lochhead, for general secretarial assistance.
All other suppliers of photographs, tables, suggestions, etc.
The authors would also like to thank Training Publications, Ltd., Watford, England,
for permission to use data and Figures 8.1-8.9 and 8.11-8.13 extracted from Module
Manual F10 of the General Welding and Cutting for Engineering Craftsmen manual.
Permission is not transferable.
vi
Not for Resale
Index
access to joints, 82
air-jet efficiency, in cutting, 129
all-weld tensile tests, 33
annular stiffener weld, 87-88
arc air gougingkutting, 129-130
arc blow, 92-94, 113
arc monitoring, 52-53
arc stability, 23
arc strikes, 107
arc time, cost of, 68
automated processes, cost of, 68
automatic processes, cost of, 73-74
automation, degree of, 73-74
backgouging, 44
backstep welding technique, 94, 106, 108
baking ovens, 86
bare wire electrode
bead appearance, 23
bead contours, 75
bend testing, 34-35
bevel angle, 76
bid. See tender
block weave, 90
BS 7910,99
budgets, estimating, 25
burning. See oxyfuel cutting
buttering, 95-97
cap-pass sequence control, 97-98
carbon equivalent formulae, 140
cast-to-cast variability, 90-92
centerline cracks, 105-106
Charpy V-notch test, 35-36
chevron cracking, in SAW, 84-88
claims, 1
codes, 108. See also specifications
for fracture toughness, 99
communication, engineer and welder, 47-49
about procedure tests, 55
compensation, 1, 5-6
conflict of interest, 50
consumables. See also electrodes
availability of, 16
changing, for costs, 74-75
coating brittleness, 23
color coding, 59
control of, 58-60
COSt Of, 67,68-70,75
evaluation of, 18-22
in defect analysis, 44
issue of, 80
low hydrogen, storage, 59-60
metal powder, 75
nitrogen in, 65
operability of, 20
organization of, 59-60
problems with, 64
properties of, 20
storage of, 58-60
traceability of, 58
contracts, 1, 2-5
obligations of, 2, 5
planning for, 3
purchasing, 2 , 4
subcontracting, 2, 4
tender, 2, 3
copper inclusions, 114, 119
corrosion resistance testing, 32
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149
I 50
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Index 151
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macro-examination, 30-3 1
micro-examination, 32
tensile testing, 33-34
mechanized processes, cost of. See automated
processes
micro-examination, 32
mild steel, cutting, 125
misalignment, 109-110
M d S ratios, 106, 122
moisture level, in flux, 86
monitoring production, 9-1 1
by pass length, 57-58
multiwire welding, 75
narrow-groove welding, 65, 76-77
nelson curve diagram, 142-143
nickel alloys, 31
nital etch, 31, 32
nondestructive examination (NDE), 13, 16, 18,
28,30,84, 99
nozzle, cutting, 130
offshore fabrication,justifying pass lengths in, 55
overheating, 23
overpenetration, 111
oxyfuel cutting, 125-129
partial penetration welds, costs, 81-82
pass length (SMAW), 55-58
pipe butt joint weld procedure, 28
poor profile, 111-112
porosity, 46
porosity, elongated, 117
porosity, restart, 115
porosity, uniformsurface, 116-117
positioners. See faturing
postweld heat treatment (PWHT)
elimination of, 94-99
power sources, 19
selecting to avoid arc blow, 94
preheat, 49
preheat flames, in cutting, 128
preheating bands, 78
prequalification procedures, 25-26
material costs, 28-29
production monitoring, 9-11
by pass length, 57-58
production time, 17
profile defects, 106-113
profit, 1, 2
purchasing, 2 , 4
qualification test program, 26,28
reheat cracking, 104
reinforcement, excess, 108-109
replicas, weld, 51-52
residual magnetism, arc blow, 93
152
undercut, 113-114
units of crack susceptibility (UCS), 122
variation request, 6
vibratory stress relief, 98
volume fill rate, in calculating costs, 68
volumetric defects, 114-120
weave technique, FCAW, 89-90
weid bead appearance, 23
weid porosity, 46
weid cracks, types, 102-106
weld defects. See also discontinuities
analysis of, 43-46
arc strikes, 107
copper inclusions, 114, 119
crater pipes, 114-115
excess distortion, 107-108
geometry-related, 44
hydrogen cracks, in HAZ, 102-103
incomplete fusion, 46, 120-121
incomplete root penetration, 109
lamellar tearing, 103-104
material-related, 46
misalignment, 109-110
overpenetration, 111
poor profile, 111-112
porosity, elongated, 117
porosity, restart, 115
porosity, uniform/surface, 116-117
profile, 106-113
reheat cracking, 104
reinforcement, excess, 108-109
root concavity, 112
slag inclusions, 118
solidification cracks, 105-106
spatter, 46, 112-113
tungsten inclusions, 119-120
undercut, 113-114
volurnehic defects, 114-120
weld cracks, types of, 102-103
weld metal cracking, 86
welder-related, 45-46
weid failure, material related, 64
weld geometry defects, 44
weld iength, 70
weld metal cracking, 86
weid microstructure, 55
weid procedure requirements, 25-30
prequalification procedures, 25-26
test programs, 26-28
weld procedures, 27
pipe butt joint weid qualification, 28
weld replicas, 51-52
weid test failures, dealing with, 61-66
weid test pieces, 60-66
weld volume, 70, 76-77
weld weight, 70
weldability, 9, 16-18
welder access, 44
welders
communicating with, 47-49
supervision of,50
training and qualification of, 47-49
welding costs, estimating, 67-71
welding costs, reducing, 72-82
welding procedure specification (WF'S), 55,57
welding processes
constraints of, 16.17
consumable availability, 16
economic factors, 17-18
electroslag welding (ESW), 76
normalizing, 95
flux cored arc welding (FCAW), 16, 31, 34,
49,84, 118
low toughness in, 89-90
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), 19, 145
cast-to-cast variability in, 91
hot-wire gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW),
76
material weldability, 16-18
pass length (SMAW), 55-57
production time with, 17
selection of, 13-18
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), 16, 17,
18, 22.28, 54.55, 118, 145
Costs of, 70-71
procedure tests for, $5
submerged arc welding (SAW), 16,28,38,
75, 118
fluxes, storage of, 59
narrow-groove, 77
without iron powder additions, 65
wire, storage of, 59
working environment, 79-80
workmanship example, 5 1
WRC-1992 diagram, 145
yield stress, 33
yield stress formula, 141
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