Modern humans (Homo sapiens, primarily ssp.

Homo sapiens sapiens) are the only e

xtant members of the hominin clade (or human clade), a branch of the great apes;
they are characterized by erect posture and bipedal locomotion, manual dexterit
y and increased tool use, and a general trend toward larger, more complex brains
and societies.[3][4]
Early hominins particularly the australopithecines, whose brains and anatomy are i
n many ways more similar to ancestral non-human apes are less often referred to as
"human" than hominins of the genus Homo.[5] Some of the latter used fire, occup
ied much of Eurasia, and gave rise to [6][7] anatomically modern Homo sapiens in
Africa about 200,000 years ago. They began to exhibit evidence of behavioral mo
dernity around 50,000 years ago, and migrated in successive waves to occupy[8] a
ll but the smallest, driest, and coldest lands. In the last 100 years, this has
extended to permanently manned bases in Antarctica, offshore platforms, and to o
rbiting the Earth.
The spread of humans and their large and increasing population has had a profoun
d impact on large areas of the environment and millions of native species worldw
ide. Advantages that explain this evolutionary success include a relatively larg
er brain with a particularly well-developed neocortex, prefrontal cortex and tem
poral lobes, which enable high levels of abstract reasoning, language, problem s
olving, sociality, and culture through social learning. Humans use tools to a mu
ch higher degree than any other animal, are the only extant species known to bui
ld fires and cook their food, as well as the only extant species to clothe thems
elves and create and use numerous other technologies and arts.
Humans are uniquely adept at utilizing systems of symbolic communication (such a
s language and art) for self-expression and the exchange of ideas, and for organ
izing themselves into purposeful groups. Humans create complex social structures
composed of many cooperating and competing groups, from families and kinship ne
tworks to political states. Social interactions between humans have established
an extremely wide variety of values,[9] social norms, and rituals, which togethe
r form the basis of human society. Curiosity and the human desire to understand
and influence the environment and to explain and manipulate phenomena (or events
) has provided the foundation for developing science, philosophy, mythology, rel
igion, anthropology, and numerous other fields of knowledge.
Humans began to practice sedentary agriculture about 12,000 years ago, domestica
ting plants and animals, thus allowing for the growth of civilization. Humans su
bsequently established various forms of government, religion, and culture around
the world, unifying people within a region and leading to the development of st
ates and empires. The rapid advancement of scientific and medical understanding
in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the development of fuel-driven technologie
s and improved health, causing the human population to rise exponentially. By 20
14 the global human population was estimated to be around 7.2 billion.[10][11]
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology and definition
2 History
2.1 Evolution and range
2.1.1 Evidence from molecular biology
2.1.2 Evidence from the fossil record
2.1.3 Anatomical adaptations
2.2 Rise of Homo sapiens
2.3 Transition to civilization
3 Habitat and population
4 Biology
4.1 Anatomy and physiology
4.2 Genetics
4.3 Life cycle

4.4 Diet
4.5 Biological variation
4.5.1 Structure of variation
5 Psychology
5.1 Sleep and dreaming
5.2 Consciousness and thought
5.3 Motivation and emotion
5.4 Sexuality and love
6 Behavior
6.1 Language
6.2 Gender roles
6.3 Kinship
6.4 Ethnicity
6.5 Society, government, and politics
6.6 Trade and economics
6.7 War
6.8 Material culture and technology
6.8.1 Body culture
6.9 Religion and spirituality
6.10 Philosophy and self-reflection
6.11 Science
6.12 Art, music, and literature
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Etymology and definition
Further information: Man (word) and Names for the human species
In common usage, the word "human" generally refers to the only extant species of
anatomically and behaviorally modern Homo sapiens. Its usage oft
the genus Homo
en designates differences between that species as a whole and any other group or
entity.[citation needed]
In scientific terms, the meanings of "hominid" and "hominin" have changed during
the recent decades with advances in the discovery and study of the fossil ances
tors of modern humans. The previously clear boundary between humans and apes has
blurred, resulting in now acknowledging the hominids as encompassing multiple s
pecies, and Homo and close relatives since the split from chimpanzees as the onl
y hominins. There is also a distinction between anatomically modern humans and A
rchaic Homo sapiens, the earliest fossil members of the species.
The English adjective human is a Middle English loanword from Old French humain,
ultimately from Latin humanus, the adjective form of homo "man". The word's use
as a noun (with a plural: humans) dates to the 16th century.[12] The native Eng
lish term man can refer to the species generally (a synonym for humanity), and c
ould formerly refer to specific individuals of either sex, though this latter us
e is now obsolete.[13] Generic uses of the term "man" are declining, in favor of
reserving it for referring specifically to adult males.[citation needed] The wo
rd is from Proto-Germanic mannaz, from a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root man-.[ci
tation needed]
The species binomial Homo sapiens was coined by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th centur
y work Systema Naturae.[14] The generic name Homo is a learned 18th century deri
vation from Latin homo "man", ultimately "earthly being" (Old Latin hemo, a cogn
ate to Old English guma "man", from PIE d???emon-, meaning "earth" or "ground").
[15] The species-name sapiens means "wise" or "sapient". Note that the Latin wor
d homo refers to humans of either gender, and that sapiens is the singular form
(while there is no such word as sapien).[16]
History

Evolution and range

Main article: Human evolution
Further information: Anthropology, Homo (genus) and Timeline of human evolution
The genus Homo evolved and diverged from other hominins in Africa, after the hum
an clade split from the chimpanzee lineage of the hominids (great apes) branch o
f the primates. Modern humans, defined as the species Homo sapiens or specifical
ly to the single extant subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens, proceeded to colonize a
ll the continents and larger islands, arriving in Eurasia 125,000 60,000 years ago
,[17][18] Australia around 40,000 years ago, the Americas around 15,000 years ag
o, and remote islands such as Hawaii, Easter Island, Madagascar, and New Zealand
between the years 300 and 1280.[19][20]
Evidence from molecular biology
Family tree showing the extant hominoids: humans (genus Homo), chimpanzees and b
onobos (genus Pan), gorillas (genus Gorilla), orangutans (genus Pongo), and gibb
ons (four genera of the family Hylobatidae: Hylobates, Hoolock, Nomascus, and Sy
mphalangus). All except gibbons are hominids.
The closest living relatives of humans are chimpanzees (genus Pan) and gorillas
(genus Gorilla).[21] With the sequencing of both the human and chimpanzee genome
, current estimates of similarity between human and chimpanzee DNA sequences ran
ge between 95% and 99%.[21][22][23] By using the technique called a molecular cl
ock which estimates the time required for the number of divergent mutations to a
ccumulate between two lineages, the approximate date for the split between linea
ges can be calculated. The gibbons (Hylobatidae) and orangutans (genus Pongo) we
re the first groups to split from the line leading to the humans, then gorillas
(genus Gorilla) followed by the chimpanzees (genus Pan). The splitting date betw
een human and chimpanzee lineages is placed around 4 8 million years ago during th
e late Miocene epoch.[24][25] During this split, chromosome 2 was formed from tw
o other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared
to 24 for the other apes.[26][27]
Evidence from the fossil record
There is little fossil evidence for the divergence of the gorilla, chimpanzee an
d hominin lineages.[28][29] The earliest fossils that have been proposed as memb
ers of the hominin lineage are Sahelanthropus tchadensis dating from 7 million y
ears ago, Orrorin tugenensis dating from 5.7 million years ago, and Ardipithecus
kadabba dating to 5.6 million years ago. Each of these species has been argued
to be a bipedal ancestor of later hominins, but all such claims are contested. I
t is also possible that any one of the three is an ancestor of another branch of
African apes, or is an ancestor shared between hominins and other African Homin
oidea (apes). The question of the relation between these early fossil species an
d the hominin lineage is still to be resolved. From these early species the aust
ralopithecines arose around 4 million years ago diverged into robust (also calle
d Paranthropus) and gracile branches, possibly one of which (such as A. garhi, d
ating to 2.5 million years ago) is a direct ancestor of the genus Homo.[citation
needed]
The earliest members of the genus Homo are Homo habilis which evolved around 2.8
million years ago.[30] Homo habilis is the first species for which there is cle
ar evidence of the use of stone tools. The brains of these early hominins were a
bout the same size as that of a chimpanzee, and their main adaptation was bipeda
lism as an adaptation to terrestrial living. During the next million years a pro
cess of encephalization began, and with the arrival of Homo erectus in the fossi
l record, cranial capacity had doubled. Homo erectus were the first of the homin
ina to leave Africa, and these species spread through Africa, Asia, and Europe b
etween 1.3 to 1.8 million years ago. One population of H. erectus, also sometime
s classified as a separate species Homo ergaster, stayed in Africa and evolved i
nto Homo sapiens. It is believed that these species were the first to use fire a
nd complex tools. The earliest transitional fossils between H. ergaster/erectus

and archaic humans are from Africa such as Homo rhodesiensis, but seemingly tran
sitional forms are also found at Dmanisi, Georgia. These descendants of African
H. erectus spread through Eurasia from ca. 500,000 years ago evolving into H. an
tecessor, H. heidelbergensis and H. neanderthalensis. The earliest fossils of an
atomically modern humans are from the Middle Paleolithic, about 200,000 years ag
o such as the Omo remains of Ethiopia and the fossils of Herto sometimes classif
ied as Homo sapiens idaltu.[31] Later fossils of archaic Homo sapiens from Skhul
in Israel and Southern Europe begin around 90,000 years ago.[32]
Anatomical adaptations
Reconstruction of Homo habilis, the earliest known species of the genus Homo and
the first human ancestor to use stone tools
Human evolution is characterized by a number of morphological, developmental, ph
ysiological, and behavioral changes that have taken place since the split betwee
n the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The most significant of th
ese adaptations are 1. bipedalism, 2. increased brain size, 3. lengthened ontoge
ny (gestation and infancy), 4. decreased sexual dimorphism. The relationship bet
ween all these changes is the subject of ongoing debate.[33] Other significant m
orphological changes included the evolution of a power and precision grip, a cha
nge first occurring in H. erectus.[34]
Bipedalism is the basic adaption of the hominin line, and it is considered the m
ain cause behind a suite of skeletal changes shared by all bipedal hominins. The
earliest bipedal hominin is considered to be either Sahelanthropus[35] or Orror
in, with Ardipithecus, a full bipedal, coming somewhat later.[citation needed] T
he knuckle walkers, the gorilla and chimpanzee, diverged around the same time, a
nd either Sahelanthropus or Orrorin may be humans' last shared ancestor with tho
se animals.[citation needed] The early bipedals eventually evolved into the aust
ralopithecines and later the genus Homo.[citation needed] There are several theo
ries of the adaptational value of bipedalism. It is possible that bipedalism was
favored because it freed up the hands for reaching and carrying food, because i
t saved energy during locomotion, because it enabled long distance running and h
unting, or as a strategy for avoiding hyperthermia by reducing the surface expos
ed to direct sun.[citation needed]
The human species developed a much larger brain than that of other primates
typi
cally 1,330 cc in modern humans, over twice the size of that of a chimpanzee or
gorilla.[36] The pattern of encephalization started with Homo habilis which at a
pproximately 600 cc had a brain slightly larger than chimpanzees, and continued
with Homo erectus (800 1100 cc), and reached a maximum in Neanderthals with an ave
rage size of 1200-1900cc, larger even than Homo sapiens (but less encephalized).
[37] The pattern of human postnatal brain growth differs from that of other apes
(heterochrony), and allows for extended periods of social learning and language
acquisition in juvenile humans. However, the differences between the structure
of human brains and those of other apes may be even more significant than differ
ences in size.[38][39][40][41] The increase in volume over time has affected dif
ferent areas within the brain unequally
the temporal lobes, which contain center
s for language processing have increased disproportionately, as has the prefront
al cortex which has been related to complex decision making and moderating socia
l behavior.[36] Encephalization has been tied to an increasing emphasis on meat
in the diet,[42][43] or with the development of cooking,[44] and it has been pro
posed[by whom?] that intelligence increased as a response to an increased necess
ity for solving social problems as human society became more complex.[citation n
eeded]
The reduced degree of sexual dimorphism is primarily visible
the male canine tooth relative to other ape species (except
mportant physiological change related to sexuality in humans
f hidden estrus. Humans are the only ape in which the female

in the reduction of
gibbons). Another i
was the evolution o
is fertile year rou

nd, and in which no special signals of fertility are produced by the body (such
as genital swelling during estrus). Nonetheless humans retain a degree of sexual
dimorphism in the distribution of body hair and subcutaneous fat, and in the ov
erall size, males being around 25% larger than females. These changes taken toge
ther have been interpreted as a result of an increased emphasis on pair bonding
as a possible solution to the requirement for increased parental investment due
to the prolonged infancy of offspring.[citation needed]
Rise of Homo sapiens
Further information: Recent African origin of modern humans, Multiregional origi
n of modern humans, Anatomically modern humans, Archaic human admixture with mod
ern humans and Early human migrations
World map of early human migrations according to mitochondrial population geneti
cs (numbers are millennia before present, the North Pole is at the center).
By the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period (50,000 BP), full behavioral mo
dernity, including language, music and other cultural universals had developed.[
45][46] As modern humans spread out from Africa they encountered other hominids
such as Homo neanderthalensis and the so-called Denisovans. The nature of intera
ction between early humans and these sister species has been a long-standing sou
rce of controversy, the question being whether humans replaced these earlier spe
cies or whether they were in fact similar enough to interbreed, in which case th
ese earlier populations may have contributed genetic material to modern humans.[
47] Recent studies of the human and Neanderthal genomes suggest gene flow betwee
n archaic Homo sapiens and Neanderthals and Denisovans.[48][49][50]
This dispersal out of Africa is estimated to have begun about 70,000 years BP fr
om Northeast Africa. Current evidence suggests that there was only one such disp
ersal and that it only involved a few hundred individuals. The vast majority of
humans stayed in Africa and adapted to a diverse array of environments.[51] Mode
rn humans subsequently spread globally, replacing earlier hominins (either throu
gh competition or hybridization). They inhabited Eurasia and Oceania by 40,000 y
ears BP, and the Americas at least 14,500 years BP.[52][53]
Transition to civilization
Main articles: Neolithic Revolution and Cradle of civilization
Further information: History of the world
The rise of agriculture, and domestication of animals, led to stable human settl
ements.
Globe icon.
The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view
of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk pa
ge. (May 2015)
Until c. 10,000 years ago, humans lived as hunter-gatherers. They generally live
d in small nomadic groups known as band societies. The advent of agriculture pro
mpted the Neolithic Revolution, when access to food surplus led to the formation
of permanent human settlements, the domestication of animals and the use of met
al tools for the first time in history. Agriculture encouraged trade and coopera
tion, and led to complex society. Because of the significance of this date for h
uman society, it is the epoch of the Holocene calendar or Human Era.[citation ne
eded]
The more complex human societies, called the first civilisations emerged around
3000 BC in the river valleys of Mesopotamia, India and China, Egypt, from the la
tter of which the Western civilisation borrowed much, especially in technology.[
54] An increase in food production led to the significant growth in human popula
tion and the rise of cities. Efforts to control the flow of water for farming al
so led to organised governments in the new urban civilisations. The peoples of S
outhwest Asia and Egypt laid the foundations of Western civilization, they devel

oped cities and struggled with the problems of organised states as they moved fr
om individual communities to larger territorial units and eventually to empires.
These first civilisations invented writing to keep records and created literatu
re, while developing military, social and religious structures to deal with the
basic problems of human existence and organization.[55] Ancient Greece is the or
igin of many ideas and concepts that are central to Western culture, such as Wes
tern philosophy, democracy, as well as major scientific, mathematical, and liter
ary advances.[56] Influential religions, such as Judaism, originating in West As
ia, and Hinduism, originating in South Asia, also rose to prominence at this tim
e.[citation needed]
The Late Middle Ages saw the rise of revolutionary ideas and technologies. In Ch
ina, an advanced and urbanized society promoted innovations and sciences, such a
s printing and seed drilling. In India, major advancements were made in mathemat
ics, philosophy, religion and metallurgy. The Islamic Golden Age saw advancement
s in mathematics and astronomy in Muslim empires.[57] In Europe, the rediscovery
of classical learning and inventions such as the printing press led to the Rena
issance in the 14th and 15th centuries. Over the next 500 years, exploration and
European colonialism brought great parts of the world under European control, l
eading to later struggles for independence. The Scientific Revolution in the 17t
h century and the Industrial Revolution in the 18th 19th centuries promoted major
innovations in transport, such as the railway and automobile; energy development
, such as coal and electricity; and government, such as representative democracy
and Communism.[citation needed]
With the advent of the Information Age at the end of the 20th century, modern hu
mans live in a world that has become increasingly globalized and interconnected.
As of 2010, almost 2 billion humans are able to communicate with each other via
the Internet,[58] and 3.3 billion by mobile phone subscriptions.[59]
Although interconnection between humans has encouraged the growth of science, ar
t, discussion, and technology, it has also led to culture clashes and the develo
pment and use of weapons of mass destruction. Human civilization has led to envi
ronmental destruction and pollution significantly contributing to the ongoing ma
ss extinction of other forms of life called the Holocene extinction event,[60] w
hich may be further accelerated by global warming in the future.[61]
Habitat and population
Further information: Human migration, Demography and World population
The Earth, as seen from space in October 2000, showing the extent of human occup
ation of the planet. The bright lights signify both the most densely inhabited a
reas and ones financially capable of illuminating those areas.
Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to water and, depending on t
he lifestyle, other natural resources used for subsistence, such as populations
of animal prey for hunting and arable land for growing crops and grazing livesto
ck. But humans have a great capacity for altering their habitats by means of tec
hnology, through irrigation, urban planning, construction, transport, manufactur
ing goods, deforestation and desertification. Deliberate habitat alteration is o
ften done with the goals of increasing material wealth, increasing thermal comfo
rt, improving the amount of food available, improving aesthetics, or improving e
ase of access to resources or other human settlements. With the advent of largescale trade and transport infrastructure, proximity to these resources has becom
e unnecessary, and in many places, these factors are no longer a driving force b
ehind the growth and decline of a population. Nonetheless, the manner in which a
habitat is altered is often a major determinant in population change.[citation
needed]
Technology has allowed humans to colonize all of the continents and adapt to vir
tually all climates. Within the last century, humans have explored Antarctica, t

he ocean depths, and outer space, although large-scale colonization of these env
ironments is not yet feasible. With a population of over seven billion, humans a
re among the most numerous of the large mammals. Most humans (61%) live in Asia.
The remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Ocean
ia (0.5%).[citation needed]
Human habitation within closed ecological systems in hostile environments, such
as Antarctica and outer space, is expensive, typically limited in duration, and
restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has
been very sporadic, with no more than thirteen humans in space at any given tim
e.[62] Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the
Moon. As of October 2015, no other celestial body has been visited by humans, al
though there has been a continuous human presence in space since the launch of t
he initial crew to inhabit the International Space Station on October 31, 2000.[
63] However, other celestial bodies have been visited by human-made objects.[64]
[65][66]
Since 1800, the human population has increased from one billion[67] to over seve
n billion,[68] In 2004, some 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion people (39.7%) lived
in urban areas. In February 2008, the U.N. estimated that half the world's popu
lation would live in urban areas by the end of the year.[69] Problems for humans
living in cities include various forms of pollution and crime,[70] especially i
n inner city and suburban slums. Both overall population numbers and the proport
ion residing in cities are expected to increase significantly in the coming deca
des.[71]
Humans have had a dramatic effect on the environment. Humans are apex predators,
being rarely preyed upon by other species.[72] Currently, through land developm
ent, combustion of fossil fuels, and pollution, humans are thought to be the mai
n contributor to global climate change.[73] If this continues at its current rat
e it is predicted that climate change will wipe out half of all plant and animal
species over the next century.[74][75]
See also: City, Town, Nomad, Camping, Farm, House, Watercraft, Infrastructure, A
rchitecture, Building and Engineering
Biology
Basic anatomical features of female and male humans. These models have had body
hair and male facial hair removed and head hair trimmed. The female model is wea
ring red nail polish on her toenails and a ring.
Vitruvian Man, Leonardo da Vinci's image is often used as an implied symbol of t
he essential symmetry of the human body, and by extension, of the universe as a
whole.
Anatomy and physiology
Main article: Human body
Further information: Human physical appearance, Anatomically modern humans and S
ex differences in humans
Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects
of animal physiology. The human body consists of the legs, the torso, the arms,
the neck, and the head. An adult human body consists of about 100 trillion (101
4) cells. The most commonly defined body systems in humans are the nervous, the
cardiovascular, the circulatory, the digestive, the endocrine, the immune, the i
ntegumentary, the lymphatic, the muscoskeletal, the reproductive, the respirator
y, and the urinary system.[76][77]
Humans, like most of the other apes, lack external tails, have several blood typ
e systems, have opposable thumbs, and are sexually dimorphic. The comparatively
minor anatomical differences between humans and chimpanzees are a result of huma
n bipedalism. One difference is that humans have a far faster and more accurate

throw than other animals. Humans are also among the best long-distance runners i
n the animal kingdom, but slower over short distances.[78][79] Humans' thinner b
ody hair and more productive sweat glands help avoid heat exhaustion while runni
ng for long distances.[80]
As a consequence of bipedalism, human females have narrower birth canals. The co
nstruction of the human pelvis differs from other primates, as do the toes. A tr
ade-off for these advantages of the modern human pelvis is that childbirth is mo
re difficult and dangerous than in most mammals, especially given the larger hea
d size of human babies compared to other primates. This means that human babies
must turn around as they pass through the birth canal, which other primates do n
ot do, and it makes humans the only species where females require help from thei
r conspecifics[clarification needed] to reduce the risks of birthing. As a parti
al evolutionary solution, human fetuses are born less developed and more vulnera
ble. Chimpanzee babies are cognitively more developed than human babies until th
e age of six months, when the rapid development of human brains surpasses chimpa
nzees. Another difference between women and chimpanzee females is that women go
through the menopause and become unfertile decades before the end of their lives
. All species of non-human apes are capable of giving birth until death. Menopau
se probably developed as it has provided an evolutionary advantage (more caring
time) to young relatives.[79]
Apart from bipedalism, humans differ from chimpanzees mostly in smelling, hearin
g, digesting proteins, brain size, and the ability of language. Humans' brains a
re about three times bigger than in chimpanzees. More importantly, the brain to
body ratio is much higher in humans than in chimpanzees, and humans have a signi
ficantly more developed cerebral cortex, with a larger number of neurons. The me
ntal abilities of humans are remarkable compared to other apes. Humans' ability
of speech is unique among primates. Humans are able to create new and complex id
eas, and to develop technology, which is unprecedented among other organisms on
Earth.[79]
It is estimated that the worldwide average height for an adult human male is abo
ut 172 cm, while the worldwide average height for adult human females is about 1
58 cm. Shrinkage of stature may begin in middle age in some individuals, but ten
ds to be universal[clarification needed] in the extremely aged.[81] Through hist
ory human populations have universally become taller, probably as a consequence
of better nutrition, healthcare, and living conditions.[82] The average mass of
an adult human is 54 64 kg (120 140 lbs) for females and 76 83 kg (168 183 lbs) for male
s.[83] Like many other conditions, body weight and body type is influenced by bo
th genetic susceptibility and environment and varies greatly among individuals.
(see obesity)[84][85]
Although humans appear hairless compared to other primates, with notable hair gr
owth occurring chiefly on the top of the head, underarms and pubic area, the ave
rage human has more hair follicles on his or her body than the average chimpanze
e. The main distinction is that human hairs are shorter, finer, and less heavily
pigmented than the average chimpanzee's, thus making them harder to see.[86] Hu
mans have about 2 million sweat glands spread over their entire bodies, many mor
e than chimpanzees, whose sweat glands are scarce and are mainly located on the
palm of the hand and on the soles of the feet.[87]
The dental formula of humans is:
2.1.2.3
2.1.2.3
. Humans have proportionately shorter palates and much smaller teeth than other
primates. They are the only primates to have short, relatively flush canine teet
h. Humans have characteristically crowded teeth, with gaps from lost teeth usual
ly closing up quickly in young individuals. Humans are gradually losing their wi
sdom teeth, with some individuals having them congenitally absent.[88]