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10/16/2009

ANDE Course - Phased Array Ultrasonics

October 08, 2009


C.V.Krishnamurthy

Overview
Phased Array probe
Beam forming
Array probe configurations

Linear
Matrix
Circular
Sectorial-annular

Probe modeling

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Array Probe
A
e
A aperture
e element width

g gap
p pitch
L element length

An array is basically a large single element transducer,


which has been subdivided by cutting it into small segments
Typical element sizes are from 0.02 inches to 0.1 inches,
although custom sizes are available.

Why not an array of large elements?


A large probe will give a
good flat coverage, but its
small beam angle limits
its "visibility".

Recall that the 6 dB beam


divergence is given by

sin 0.5

A
Aperture

6 dB beam width

6.35 mm (0.25 inch)

4.52

12. 7 mm (0.5 inch)

2.26

25.4 mm (1.0 inch)

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Why divide the probe into small elements?


A small element has a much larger
beam divergence angle, and it is this
large angle which opens up the
useful features of arrays such as
dynamic focusing and beam
steering.

Another feature of small elements is


their energy transfer efficiency smaller elements take less energy to
excite and are more efficient
receivers due to the lower mass to
be energized.

Beam divergence is also a function


of frequency, lower frequencies will
give more divergence than higher.

Typical element sizes/frequencies for industrial applications


are 1mm wide for 2.5 MHz and 0.5 mm wide for 5 MHz

Overlapping beams using


Phased Array Elements

Small Flaw

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Phased Array Beamforming

Beamforming requires precise pulsing and time delays.


Receiving is the reverse of pulsing.

Array Probe Head


The array head module includes
16, 32, 64, or 128 elements
(dependant on array type)
A separate pulser and
preamplifier for each element,
together with a multiplexer, which
connects up to 8, 16, or 32
elements to create a
virtual probe.
The output from the virtual probe
is connected to 8, 16, or 32 coaxial
wires,which connect the module
to the main evaluation electronics.

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Typical Parameters
Max No. of elements in system
256
Max No. of elements to fire as
one group 32
Pulser Voltage 50V fixed spike
Amplifier Bandwidth 0.25 - 20
MHz
Max PRF 20 kHz
Pre amplifier gain fixed 6 dB
Digitization resolution 50 MHz

The pulser fire signals can be


delayed from 0 to 2.5 s, in
steps of 2.5 ns.
The returned RF echoes from
each channel are amplified
+/- 10 dB in steps of 0.1 dB
and are digitized at 50 MHz.
The digitized echoes are
delayed from 0 to 2.5 s in
steps of 2.5 ns. This process is
entirely digital.

Typical Array Probe Types


A Linear array is a series of transducer elements
aligned in a single housing, typically a rectangular
single element that has been segmented into smaller
individual elements.
A Curved array is similar to the linear array
with the elements curved to produce a desired
beam shape or conform to the geometry of the
part under test.
An Annular array is a series of
concentric ring elements contained
in a single housing. Imagine a single
round element being divided into
multiple individual concentric rings.

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Other Array Configurations

Electronic Linear Scan

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Electronic Focusing

Electronic Steering and Focusing

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Uniform Arrays - I

Uniform Arrays - II

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Uniform Arrays - III

Uniform Arrays - IV

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Array Beam Characteristics - I


Near-field to far-field distance

6 dB angular beam divergence

Focusing power (when focusing


option is used)
Beam dimension at focal
distance (in steering plane)

A2
N
4

sin 0.5

F
N

d st

F
A

A is the dimension of the active aperture

Recap: Depth of Field

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Strong and Weak Focusing: Example


Linear array probe pitch p = 1 mm,
frequency f = 5 MHz
Number of
active
elements

10

16

32

Active
Aperture
(mm)

10

16

32

N (mm)

84

216

865

84

84

84

0.99

0.39

0.10

d (in mm)
at F

2.49

1.55

0.78

F (mm)

Calculations for water medium


(v = 1480 m/s)

Array Beam Characteristics - II

Beam width (main beam)


determined by active
aperture A

sin 0.5

Steering width determined


by element width e

sin st 0.5

Angular position of lobes


determined by frequency f
and pitch p:

lobe

e
p

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Focusing using Phased Array - I

Focal depth: 4 mm

Focal depth: 8 mm

Focusing using Phased Array - II

Focal depth: 12 mm

Focal depth: 16 mm

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How many elements are needed?


(Beam Formation I)

Simulations at 5 MHz in Al

How many elements are needed?


(Beam Formation II)

Simulations at 5 MHz in Al

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Beam quality

15 MHz / 6mm x 0.2mm / 0.3mm spacing / 1.5 focus

0.9

0.9
0.8

0.8

0.7

0.7

0.6

0.6

Focus

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.2

0.2

0.1
0
10
1

8 Elements
20

30

40

50

60

70

80

0.1
90

0.9

0
-30
1
0.9

0.8

-20

-10

10

20

30

Narrower
Main Lobe

16 Elements

0.8

0.7

0.7

0.6

0.6

0.5

0.5

0.4

0.4

Focus

0.3

0.3

0.2

0.2

0.1
0
10

Grating Lobes

0.5

0.5
0.4

8 Elements

16 Elements
20

30

40

50

60

On Axis (mm)

70

80

0.1

90

0
-30

-20

-10

10

20

30

Off Axis (mm)

Effect of Steering Angle on Directivity

N = 16, d = /2

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Directivity for small d/

Grating Lobes
For an N-element array, inter-element spacing d,
time-delay between adjacent elements , the
steering angle is given by
c

s sin 1

Directivity is a product of the directivity of


discrete line sources H2( ), and the directivity of
a single element H1( )
H ( ) H1 ( ) H 2 ( )

For sufficiently small e/, H( ) H2( )


and is given by

Example plot for N=16,


c = 5850 m/s, f = 2.3 MHz,
e = /100, d = 2/(1+3) and
s = 30

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Directivity for large d/

Avoiding Grating Lobes


Maximum inter-element
spacing without producing
grating lobes
Note: When N is large, for a 60 sector scan corresponding to
maximum steering angles 30, even an inter-element spacing of
2/3 does not produce grating lobes.

Maximum steerable angle


given the inter-element
spacing d, and the
number of elements N

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Modeling a 1-D Phased Array


64 rectangular elements
Centre Frequency: 7.5 MHz
Overall lateral dimension: 19.1 mm
(Near field distance in Steel is about 115 mm)
Medium: Steel

Normal Incidence
Axial Distance (mm)

Beam Steered to 39

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Focused & Steered to 39


0

20

20

20

40

40
40

60

100
0

20

40

60

60

80
100

80
-60 -40 -20

40

60

60

80

120

Focused On-axis
0

-60 -40 -20

20

40

60

120

80
-60 -40 -20

20

40

60

-60 -40 -20

20

40

60

Lateral Distance (mm)

Steering and Focusing


- Beam Quality in the Far Field of the Array

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Steering and Focusing


- Beam Quality in the Near Field of the Array

Regular and Random 2D - Arrays

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Random and Optimized 2D - Arrays

Array probes on Wedges

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Focal law for Wedge - I

Refraction
point

X axis or Scan axis


Interface

Law scan offset

Depth
Refracted Angle
The calculator searches the Snell point. It considers the center of the active aperture
(from elements 2 to 7 in this example). Then, the X, Z point of the focal point is
determined. The wedge delay is calculated and the focal law is offset accordingly.

Focal law for Wedge - II

X axis or Scan axis


Interface
Time

Sound path (time)

Focal point (X,Z)

In wedge
In material

Element number

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Examples of PAUT Applications

Relative Arrival Time Technique (RATT)


Absolute Arrival Time Technique (AATT)
Linear scan - Cruciform case
Dynamic depth focusing
Sectorial scan
Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique
Advantages of phased array
Limitations

Tandem Scans

Phased arrays allow for dynamic scanning using the tandem technique.
Separate array groups are defined as transmit and receive "virtual
probes" and scanned to cover the test area.
This technique can be used for testing weldments in thick sections.

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Dynamic Depth Focusing

Uses the basic focusing techniques, but sequentially


focuses at various depths to cover the thickness of the part
to be tested.
Useful with linear arrays for a line scan effect, or annular
arrays to give a point focus effect

Dynamic Depth Focusing

Phased array with specified


focal depth

Phased array with


dynamic depth focusing

DDF is useful for inspecting thick components in a single pulse.


The beam is refocused electronically on its return.

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Tube Inspection
Segment arrays for
large pipes

Rotating water
system segment
arrays for mid-size
pipes

Rotating water system


encircling arrays for
small size tubes.

Relative Arrival Time Technique - Principle

h (CD AB) cos


Ultrasound path between crack tip and corner trap signals
for a surface crack.

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10/16/2009

RATT Notches in Large MS Pipes


Actual
Depth (mm)

Estimated
from
Simulations

Estimated
from
Experiment

3.1

2.9

4.8

4.7

7.2

7.4

Comparison of the simulated and experimental


estimated notch sizes obtained by RATT on 10-mm
thick mild-steel pipe sample at 45 angle of incidence

RATT Inspection Angle

Comparison of simulated and experimental B-scan images of 7-mm bottom surface crack
obtained for the various angles of incidence. (a) 35, (b) 45 and (c) 55 angle inspections

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Example of Signal Processing in RATT

L. Satyanarayan et al., Inverse method for detection and sizing of cracks in thin sections ..., Theor.
Appl. Fract. Mech. (2008)

AATT - Principle

h UT2 cos 2 UT1 cos1

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10/16/2009

AATT Examples

Estimated crack length: 4.9 mm (5 mm)


Angle of Inspection: 49

Estimated crack length: 6.4 mm (6.3 mm)


Top tip Inspection Angle: 74.5
Corner Inspection Angle: 42.5

Example: Monitoring Crack Growth


PA

A
B
C

Steel specimen

Schematic

Snapshot
Scanned Images

10

10

20

30

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40

30

50

60
40

70

50

80

90

Experiment
10

15

20

25

Simulation

60

30

35

40

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Applications in the Fatigue Crack Growth Studies


in Large Nuclear Components - BARC

Nondestructive PA results compared with that of


Destructive Dye penetrant test

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10/16/2009

S-scan
S-scans are stacked A-scans

Detection of four side-drilled holes (SDHs)


(a) Sectorial scanning, (b) S-scan view using 30

Examples of S-scan

Turbine Blade Root


Turbine Welded Rotor

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Volumetric Weld Coverage - I


TOFD is sensitive to all defects
including volumetric defects
TOFD has dead zones near surfaces
PE complements TOFD
The combination covers 100% of the
weld volume
Alternative to RT (ASME CC2235,
AWS)

Volumetric Weld Coverage - II

TOFD
PE 45 SW
PE 60 SW

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10/16/2009

Probe Movement

Volumetric Weld Coverage - Data Visualisation

45-SW

60 SW

TOFD

60-SW

45-SW

Synthetic aperture focusing


with Phased Array
Individual A- Scans

Time

Small Flaw

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10/16/2009

Example of SAFT
Element by element pulse-echo from a 1.5 mm dia SDH in Al
100

200

300

400

RAW
Image

500

600

100

100

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200

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300

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400

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500

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300

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500

600

600

600
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50

60

10

100

200

300

400

100

100

100

200

200

200

300

300

300

400

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400

500

SAFT
Image

500

600

10

20

30

40

50

10

20

30

40

50

1
X: 27
Y: 1

X: 36
Y: 1

X: 29
Y: 0.8049

10

0.8

0.7

0.7

0.6

X: 31
Y: 0.3422

30

40

X: 25
Y: 1

X: 42
Y: 0.8298

50

60

10

X: 45
Y: 0.9315

X: 35
Y: 1

20

30

40

50

60

1
X: 35
Y: 1

X: 27
Y: 0.9589
X: 43
Y: 0.9178

0.9

0.8

X: 35
Y: 0.7397

0.8

X: 29
Y: 0.6986

0.7

X: 22
Y: 0.6438

0.7

0.6

X: 27
Y: 0.5802

0.6
X: 34
Y: 0.5054

0.4

X: 35
Y: 0.3466

0.3

0.5

0.4

0.4
X: 36
Y: 0.2977

X: 37
Y: 0.254

0.3

X: 53
Y: 0.5802
X: 36
Y: 0.5309

X: 18
Y: 0.4938

0.5

X: 33
Y: 0.3148

X: 49
Y: 1
X: 47
Y: 0.9505

X: 36
Y: 0.9146

X: 22
Y: 0.8764

X: 40
Y: 0.6809

X: 32
Y: 0.6489

0.5

0.4

20

0.9

0.6

0.5

60

X: 44
Y: 0.9255

X: 40
Y: 0.8049

0.8

50

600

60

X: 43
Y: 0.9681

0.9
X: 34
Y: 0.8171

40

X: 45
Y: 0.9681

X: 27
Y: 0.9146

X: 24
Y: 0.8902

30

500

600

60

0.9

0.3

X: 34
Y: 0.2826

0.3

X: 37
Y: 0.2653

X: 30
Y: 0.2619

0.2

X: 29
Y: 0.115

0.2

0.2

X: 34
Y: 0.1011

X: 33
Y: 0.0715

0.1

10

20

30

0.2

X: 40
Y: 0.112

0.1

500

600

20

40

50

60

70

13 mm deep SDH

10

20

30

X: 32
Y: 0.07272

0.1

40

50

60

70

19 mm deep SDH

10

20

30

X: 32
Y: 0.1241

X: 39
Y: 0.09162

X: 40
Y: 0.1107

0.1

40

50

60

26 mm deep SDH

70

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

45 mm deep SDH

Advantages of Phased Arrays

Inspection Speed

Real-time images

Flexibility

POD ( many angles and imaging)

Access to remote areas

Analysis Tools

Reporting

Good coverage (Multiple scan


options)
Real-time images
Wedge-based applications
Variety of probe types
Similar to conventional procedures in
TOFD
Lends to Image processing
techniques
Simulations aid quantitative
assessment
Allows for new probe designs

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Advantages of Digital Recording


Permanent record of all collected data
Various signal processing options
Enables data to be compared throughout the service life
of a component
Re-analysis of raw data, at any time
Variety of visual displays available

All the usual ultrasonic limitations

Coupling
Frequency, attenuation etc.
Acoustic impedance mismatch requirements
Dead zones

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10/16/2009

ASME Codes

Phased arrays specifically accepted


as Computerized Imaging
Techniques

ASME CC 2235 (CIT) allows use of


UT instead of RT for wall thickness
> 12.7mm

Code cases for manual S-scans and


E-scans first submitted Feb 2006.
Now approved.

TOFD, PA and TOFD/PE techniques


allowed

Code cases for encoded E-scans


and S-scans expected for August
2006. Now Approved

Phased arrays specifically approved


for ASME CC

Mandatory phased array appendix


being drafted concurrently. Expect
approval of appendix in a few years

Phased arrays currently being


approved through Performance
Demonstration approaches, e.g.
Article 14 and ASME code case
2235

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