UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Measurement is an essential part of health careers such as nursing, dental hygiene, respiratory
therapy, nutrition, and veterinary technology. The temperature, height, and weight of a patient are
measured and recorded. Samples of blood and urine are collected and sent to a laboratory where
glucose, pH, urea, and protein are measured by the clinical technicians. By learning about
measurement, you develop skills for solving problems and learn how to work with numbers.
The International System of Units has been developed and agreed internationally. It overcomes
language barriers, enabling an exchange of health information within a country and between
nations to be made without the misunderstandings which arise when each country, or even a
separate hospital within a country, uses its own units of measurement for reporting tests.
SI BASE UNITS
The seven SI base units from which all the other units are derived are as follows:
SI base units
Metre
Kilogram
Second
Mole
Ampere
Kelvin
Candela

Symbol
m
kg
s
mol
A
K
cd

Quantity measured
length
mass
time
amount of substance
electric current
temperature
luminous intensity

SI DERIVED UNITS
SI derived units consist of combinations of base units:
SI derived unit
Symbol
Quantity measured
Square metre
m2
area
Cubic metre
m3
volume
Metre per second
m/s
speed
Special names have been given to those derived units with complex base combinations:
Name derived unit Symbol
Quantity measured
Hertz
Hz
frequency
Joule
J
energy, quantity of heat
Newton
N
force
Pascal
Pa
pressure
Watt
W
power
Volt
V
electric potential difference
Degree Celsius
C
Celsius temperature
SI UNIT PREFIXES

To enable the measurement of quantities larger or smaller than the base units or derived units, the
SI Unit System also includes a set of prefixes. The use of a prefix makes a unit larger or smaller.
Example
If the prefix milli (m) is put in front of the metre this would indicate that the unit should be
divided by a thousand, i.e. 103. The way of expressing this would be 10-3m, or mm.
If however the prefix kilo (k) were used this would indicate that the unit should be multiplied by
a thousand, i.e. 103. This would be expressed 103 m, or km.
The range of SI unit prefixes commonly used in laboratory work are listed as follows:

Prefix

Symbol

Function
1

Deci
Centi
Milli
Micro
Nano
Pico
Femto

d
c
m

n
p
f

10
102
103
106
109
1012
1015

Kilo

103

DIVIDE BY:
10
100
1 000
1 000 000
1 000 000 000
1 000 000 000 000
1 000 000 000 000 000
MULTIPLY BY:
1 000

Writing a Number in Scientific Notation

In chemistry, we use numbers that are very large or very small. We might measure something as
tiny as the width of a human hair, which is about 0.000 008 m. Or perhaps we want to count the
number of hairs in the average human scalp, which is about 100 000 hairs. It is more convenient
to write large and small numbers in scientific notation.
A number written in scientific notation has three parts: a coefficient, a power of 10, and a
measurement unit. For example, the number 2400 m is written in scientific notation as 2.4 x 103
m. The coefficient is 2.4, the 3 is the power of 10, and m is the measurement unit of meters. The
coefficient is determined by moving the decimal point to the left to give a coefficient that is at
least 1 but less than 10.
FUP: Write each of the following in scientific notation:
a. 55 000 m
b. 480 g
c. 0.000 005 cm
d. 0.000 14 s
e. 0.0072 L
f. 670 000 kg

Useful conversions
To convert C to F: multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32.

To convert F to C: subtract 32, multiply by 5, and divide by 9.

0C _ 32F
10C _ 50F
20C _ 68F

MATTER
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter makes up all things we use such as
water, wood, plates, plastic bags, clothes, and shoes. The different types of matter are classified
by their composition.
Classification of matter
Pure Substances
A pure substance is matter that has a fixed or definite composition. There are two kinds of pure
substances: elements and compounds. An element, the simplest type of a pure substance, is
composed of only one type of material such as silver, iron, or aluminum.
Every element is composed of atoms, which are extremely tiny particles that make up each type
of matter. E.g. Silver is composed of silver atoms.
A compound is also a pure substance, but it consists of atoms of two or more elements always
chemically combined in the same proportion. In compounds, the atoms are held together by
attractions called bonds, which form small groups of atoms called molecules. For example, a
molecule of the compound water has two hydrogen atoms for every one oxygen atom and is
represented by the formula H2O. An important difference between compounds and elements is
that compounds can be broken down by chemical processes into simpler substances, whereas
elements cannot be broken down further.
Mixtures
Much of the matter in our everyday lives consists of mixtures. In a mixture, two or more
substances are physically mixed, but not chemically combined. The air we breathe is a mixture of
mostly oxygen and nitrogen gases. Physical processes can be used to separate mixtures because
there are no chemical interactions between the components.

Types of Mixtures

Mixtures are classified further as homogeneous or heterogeneous. In a homogeneous mixture,

also called a solution, the composition is uniform throughout the sample. Familiar examples of
homogeneous mixtures are air, which contains oxygen and nitrogen gases, and sea water, a
solution of salt and water. In a heterogeneous mixture, the components do not have a uniform
composition throughout the sample. For example, a mixture of oil and water is heterogeneous
because the oil floats on the surface of the water. Mixtures can be separated by various methods.
For example, solids are separated from liquids by filtration, which involves pouring a mixture
through a filter paper set in a funnel.
States and Properties of Matter
On Earth, matter exists in one of three physical forms called the states of matter: solids, liquids,
and gases. A solid, such as a pebble or a baseball, has a definite shape and volume. In a solid,
strong attractive forces hold the particles such as atoms or molecules close together.
A liquid has a definite volume, but not a definite shape. In a liquid, the particles move in random
directions but are sufficiently attracted to each other to maintain a definite volume, although not
a rigid structure.
A gas does not have a definite shape or volume. In a gas, the particles are far apart, have little
attraction to each other, and move at high speeds, taking the shape and volume of their container.
Physical Properties and Physical Changes
Physical properties are those characteristics that can be observed or measured without affecting
the identity of a substance. In chemistry, typical physical properties include the shape, color,
melting point, boiling point, and physical state of a substance. When matter undergoes a physical
change, its state or its appearance will change, but its composition remains the same. Suppose
that you dissolve some salt in water. The appearance of the salt changes, but you could re-form
the salt crystals by heating the mixture and evaporating the water. Thus in a physical change of
state, no new substances are produced.
Chemical Properties and Chemical Changes
Chemical properties are those that describe the ability of a substance to change into a new
substance. When a chemical change takes place, the original substance is converted into one or
more new substances, which have different physical and chemical properties. For example,
methane (CH4) in natural gas can burn because it has the chemical property of being flammable.
When methane burns in oxygen (O2) it is converted to water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
which have different physical and chemical properties than the methane and oxygen.

ATOMS AND MOLECULES

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can exist and keep the properties of that
element, e.g. Na, He, Be etc. An element is the fundamental substance that cannot be broken
down by chemical means into a simpler substance, e.g. hydrogen, oxygen, gold etc. Elements are
the building blocks of matter. A molecule is a group of two or more atoms chemically combined
and it is the smallest, stable particle of an element or compound that exists on its own, e.g. H 2,
H20, NH3. A compound is a molecule that contains more than one element (H2O, C6H12O6, etc.)
Present Day Structure of the Atom
The atom is made up of three fundamental particles called protons (p), neutrons (n) and electrons
(e). Protons are positively charged (+1), electrons are negatively charged (- 1) and neutrons have
no charge (0) i.e. neutral.
The protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of the atom and the electrons are found around
the nucleus in orbits.
Protons and neutrons have a relative mass of 1 amu (atomic mass unit) and the electrons, 1/1840
amu.
The nucleus occupies a very small volume compared to the total volume of the atom.
Other terms associated with the atom
Atomic Number (Z) It is the number of protons in a given atom. For a neutral atom, number
of protons equals the number of electrons. Hence the atomic number may also be given by the
number of electrons (for a neutral atom).
Mass Number (A) It is given by the total number of protons and neutrons present in an atom.
i.e. A = p + n or A = Z + n.
Nucleons It refers to the particles that make up the nucleus of an atom, i.e. the protons and
neutrons of the atom. As such, we can say that the nucleon number of an atom is equal to its
mass number.
Nuclide It is an atom (or nuclear species) with a specific (or known) atomic number and mass
number. Representation AX or AY
Z

Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons but may differ in number of
neutrons. Thus: Isotopes. They are atoms of the same element having equal atomic numbers but
different mass numbers due to differences in their neutron numbers e.g. 3517Cl, 3717Cl; 126C, 136C,
14
79
81
6C; 35Br, 35Br.
Isotones They are nuclides (atoms) with the same number of neutrons but different mass
numbers, due to difference in their proton numbers e.g. 157N and 168O.
Atomic Mass, Relative Atomic Mass and Mass Number

Atomic Mass (Ma): The atomic mass (ma) is the mass of an atomic particle, sub-atomic particle,
or molecule. It is measured on the Carbon 12 scale and has units of Mu or U.
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): The relative atomic mass of an element is numerical and is equal to
its atomic mass but that has no unit.
Mass Number (A): It is the nearest whole number to the relative atomic mass.
For example, for the isotopes of Cl, 3517Cl, 3717Cl the three parameters are:
Isotope
35
17Cl
37
17Cl

Atomic Mass (Ma)

34.97 u
36.96 u

Relative Atomic Mass(Ar)

34.97
36.96

Mass Number (A)

35
37

Molecular mass or molecular weight refers to the mass of a molecule. It is calculated as the
sum of the mass of each constituent atom multiplied by the number of atoms of that element in
the molecular formula.
FUP: Calculate the molecular mass of the following compounds
C12H22011
H2SO4
NH4
AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE AND THE MOLE
Quantities of substances are measured in everyday life in volume or mass to determine the
quantity of matter (atoms, molecules and ions) present in the substances. In chemistry, quantity
of matter is mainly measured in a) mass quantity or b) amount of substance quantity (called the
mole).
The Mole
The mole of a substance is the amount of that substance which contains as many elementary
entities or particles as there are carbon atoms in 12g of 12C. It has the unit, mol.
The Avogadros Constant (L or NA)
The number of carbon atoms in 12g of 12C, according to the carbon-12 scale is 6.02 x 1023. Thus,
from the definition of the mole, it means a mole of every substance contains 6.02 x 10 23 atoms,
molecules or ions that make up the substance. This number of entities is called the Avogadros
constant or number. In short, the Avogadros constant is the number of elementary entities in one
mole of any substance. The unit is mol-1.
We can therefore conclude from the above that 6.02 x 10 23 units of any species is a mole of that
species. E.g. 6.02 x 1023 atoms of Na is a mole of Na; 6.02 x 10 23 molecules of Cl2 is a mole of
Cl2.
Hence 1 mole of any substance = L

Therefore mole of any substance = x L = N (where N is the number of entities in the

substance) i.e. N = n x L, where n = number of moles of the substance.
FUP: Calculate the number of
i)
oxygen molecules
ii)
ii) oxygen atoms
in 0.5 mol of oxygen gas, O2. (L = 6.02 x 1023 mol -1).
Molar Mass, M. It is the mass of one mole of any substance and so contains 6.02 x 10 23 entities.
Thus, molar mass of any substance is equal to its relative molecular mass (Mr) or relative atomic
mass (Ar)
.i.e. M = Mr gmol -1 or Ar gmol -1. E.g. Ar (Na) = 23 and M (Na) = 23 gmol -1.
Mr (NH3) = 17 and M (NH3) = 17 gmol-1.
If 1 mol of a substance = M g, then n mol = m g. Hence n/1 = m/M; n = m/M
Molar Volume, Vm. Avogadros law states that at the same temperature and pressure equal
volumes of all gases contain equal number of molecules (N). This means that 6.02 x 1023 (L)
molecules of all gases at the same temperature and pressure will occupy a certain specific
volume. This specific volume is the molar volume because L molecules of the particular gas is a
mole of the gas.
If 1 mol of a substance = Vm, then n mol = V. Hence n/1 = m/M; n = V/Vm
At standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p.) Vm = 22.4l = 22.4 dm3.