1

(Signals)

(information)

(data)

(
)
(Systems)
(

inputs)

outputs)

1-1
1.1.1
1.
(continuous-time signals,
1(a))

(discrete-time signals,

1(b))

1.

2.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

2.
(

)
(analog signals)

(digital signals) (

2)

3.
(deterministic signals)
(stochastic or random signals)
4.
g(t)

g(t ) = g(t + T0 ),

T0
"t

(periodic signals)

g(t)
T0

g(t)

(1)
(aperiodic signal)

(1)

5.
(energy)

(power)

g(t)

Eg =

g(t ) dt.

1
T T

Pg = lim

T /2

-T /2

(2)

g(t ) dt.

(energy signals)
(power signals)

(2)(3)
(

(3)

3.

1.1.2
1.

(Time Shifting)
g(t)

g(t T)
(

2.

T>0

)
(Time Scaling)
(

3)

T<0

3.
g( t)

(Time Reversal)
g(t)

4.
g(t)

g( t) = g(t)

(odd function)

g(t)

g( t) = g(t)

(even function)
go (t ) :=

go(t)

ge(t)

g(t)

1
[ g(t ) - g(-t )] ,
2

ge (t ) :=

1
[ g(t ) + g(-t )].
2

g(t)

1.1.3
(a)

(Sinusoidal Signal)

(b)

(Rectangular Pulse)
1,
x(t ) = P(t ) =
0,

x(t ) = A cos( w0 t + q0 ) = A cos(2 p f 0 t + q0 ) = Re { Ae j ( 2 p f 0 +q0 ) } .

t < 12
elsewhere

(c)

(Triangular Signal)
1 - t , t < 1
x(t ) = L(t ) =
0, elsewhere

(d)

(Exponential Signal)
Ae-at , t > 0, a > 0
x(t ) =
0 , t < 0

(Unit Step Function)

1, t > 0,
u( t ) =
0 , t < 0

(e)

(f)

(g) Sinc

(h)

(Unit Ramp Function)

t , t > 0,
r (t ) =
0 , t < 0
(

)
sin(p x )
sinc( x ) =
px
(sign function)
1,
x>0

x=0
sgn( x ) = 0,

x <0
-1

g(t)

1.1.4

(Phasor Signals and Spectra)

A useful periodic signal in system analysis is the signal:

x(t ) = Ae j( w0t+q ) ,

- < t <

which is characterized by three parameters, amplitude A, phase q in radians, and frequency

w0 in radians per second or f0 = w0/2p Hz. We refer to x(t ) as a rotating phasor to distin-

guish it from the phasor Ae jq , for which is e jw0t implicit. Using Eulers theorem, we may
readily show that x(t ) = x(t + T0 ) , where T0 = 2 p / w0 . Thus x(t ) is a periodic signal with
period 2p / w0 .
The rotating phasor Ae j( w0t+q ) can be related to a real, sinusoidal signal A cos( w0t + q )
in two ways:
1. x(t ) = A cos( w0t + q ) = Re( x(t )) = Re( Ae j( w0t+q ) ),
2. x(t ) = A cos( w0t + q ) =

1
1
1
1
x(t ) + x* (t ) = Ae j( w0t+q ) + Ae- j( w0t+q )
2
2
2
2

Frequency-Domain Representation of Signal: Line Spectra

1-2

(Signal, Singularity Functions)

4.

1.2.1

(Unit Impulse Function)

d (t )

P.A.M. Dirac

d( t ) = 0,

Dirac delta function)

t0

d(t )dt = 1

(singularity
function)

4)

d(t ) = lim d (t ),

1
pt
where d ( t ) = sin
pt

(a) f(t )d(t - T ) = f(T )d(t - T ) ,

(b)

where d (t ) =

1 t
P
2 2

d(t ) = lim d (t ),

f(t )d(t - T )dt = f(T )

(sampling property)

f(t)

t=T

d(t - T )dt = f(T )

(sifting property)

(c) d ( at ) =

1
d (t ), a
a

(d) d( t) = d(t).
(e)

t2

t1

f(t )d ( n ) (t -T )dt = (-1)n f( n ) (T ),

(f) d(t ) =
(g) If

du(t )
,
dt
f(t)
=

u(t)
where

g(t),

g(t ) = b0d(t ) + b1d (t ) +

f (t ) = a0d(t ) + a1d (1)(t ) +

+ and ( n )( t )

and

+ bnd ( t ) , this implies that a0 = b0, a1 = b1,, an = bn.

(1)

1.2.2

t1 < T < t 2

(n)

(Unit Step Function)

0,

u(t ) := d(l )dl = 1,

-

undefined,
t

or

d (t ) =

t <0

t>0

t=0

du(t )
,
dt

(unit rectangular pulse function)

1
1
P(t ) = ut + - u t -

2
2

1. Determine whether the following signals are energy or power, or neither and
calculate the corresponding energy or power in the signal:
(a) x1(t) = u(t), where u(t) is the unit step function.
(b) x2(t) = 4cos(2pt) + 3cos(4pt).
1
t
(d) x4 (t ) = e-at u(t )

(c) x3 (t ) =

(e) x3(t) = P(t/3) + P(t)

(f) x6 (t ) = 5e(-2 t+ j 10 pt )u(t ).

t - 4n

(g) x7 (t ) = L
2
n=-
Solution:

2 Write the signal x(t ) = sin(6pt ) + 2 cos(10pt ) as

(a) The real part of a sum of rotating phasors.
(b) A sum of rotating phasors plus their complex conjugates.
(c) From your results in parts (a) and (b), sketch the single-sided and double-sided amplitude
and phase spectra of x(t).
Solution:

3 For an energy signal g(t) with energy Eg, show that the energy of any one of the signals g(t), g(t), and g(t T) is Eg. Show also that the energy of g(at) as well as g(at b) is Eg/a.
This shows that time inversion and time shifting do not affect signal energy. On the other hand,
time compression of a signal by a factor a reduces the energy by the factor a. What is the effect
on signal energy if the signal is (a) time-expanded by a factor a (a>1), and (b) multiplied by a
constant a?
Solution:

4 For the signal g(t) shown in the following figure, sketch (a) g( t); (b) g(t + 6); (c) g(3t);
(d) g(6 t). Also find their energies.

Solution:

1-3
1.3.1 Signals versus Vectors
[a, b]

x(t)
N
t1 = a , t2 = a + , t 3 = a + 2 ,..., tN = a + ( N - 1) = b, where

N
x = [ x(t1 ) x(t2 )

x(t N ) ]

N
x

lim x = x(t ),

t [ a , b ].

b -a
N -1

This relationship clearly shows that continuous-time signals are straightforward generalizations of finite dimension vectors. Thus, basic definitions and operations in a vector space
can be applied to continuous-time signals as well.

1.

(Complex Exponential Fourier Series)

x(t)

w0 = 2 p f 0 =

(t0, t0+T)

x(t ) = X n e jnw0t ,
-

Xn =

1
T0

t0 +T0

t0

2p
T0

x(t)

t0 t < t0 + T0

x(t )e- jnw0t dt := x(t )e- jnw0t .

(Fourier coefficients)
1 t0 +T0

f(t )dt , if x(t ) is periodic with period=T0
T0 t0
f(t ) :=

1 T
lim f(t )dt , if x(t ) is aperiodic.
T T -T

5. Consider the signal

x(t ) = cos(w0t ) + sin 2 (2w0t ),

where w = 2p/T0. Find the complex exponential Fourier series.

(Ziemer
Solution:

(Euler formula)
X n = x(t ) cos( nw0 t ) - j x(t )sin(nw0 t ) = Re(X n ) + j Im( X n ) = X n e j
Re(Xn)

x(t)
X n = X- n

X-n = Xn*

Xn

Im(Xn)
X n = - X- n ,

and

X n = x(t ) cos( nw0 t )

x(t)

x(t)

Xn =

- j x(t )sin( nw0 t )

(a)

(Linearity)
x(t)

y(t)

Xn

Yn

AXn+BYn

Ax(t)+By(t)

A, B
(b)

(Time Shifting)
x(t)

(c)

Xn

Xn e- jw0 a

(Frequency Shifting)
x(t)

(d)

x(t-a)

Xn

x(t )e jkw0t

Xn

x*(t)

X-* n

x( t)

Xn-k

(Conjugate)
x(t)

(e)

(Time Reversal)
x(t)

Xn

(f) Parsevals Theorem

1 t0 +T0
2
2
x
(
t
)
dt
=
Xn := Pav

T0 t0
n=-

1.

Pav

2.

(Line Spectra)
(t0, t0+T0)

x(t)

X n = x(t ) cos( nw0 t ) - j x(t )sin(nw0 t ) = Re(X n ) + j Im( X n ) = X n e j

Xn e j

Xn

(phasor)

Xn

w = nw0 (n

Xn

Xn

(line spectra)

X0

DC

x(t)

Xn

x(t)

(n-th harmonic)

3. First determine the fundamental frequency w0 of the following continuous-time

periodic signal

p
x(t ) = 1 + 2 cos( 2 pt ) + sin(2 pt ) + 3 cos 4pt + + 2 e j 6pt .

4
Then derive all of its Fourier series coefficients, ak, when x(t) is expanded as
x(t ) =

ae

k =-

jkw0 t

(93

Solution:

1-4

(Fourier Transform)
x(t)

x(t)

x(t ) dt <

x(t)

(Fourier integral)

X( f ) =

x(t ) =

x(t )e- j 2 p ft dt

X( f )e j 2 p ft df

(4)
(Fourier transform)

x(t)

F {x(t )} = X( f ) =

x(t )e- j 2 p ft dt.

(inverse Fourier transform)

F-1 {X( f )} = x(t ) =

X( f )e j 2 p ft df .
X(f)

X( f ) =

x(t )cos(2p ft )dt - j

x(t )sin(2 p ft )dt = Re(X( f )) + j Im( X( f )) = X( f ) e j

Re(X(f))

x(t)

X( f ) = Re( X( f ))2 + Im( X ( f ))2

2

X (- f ) = - X ( f )

X( f )

Re(X(f))

X (- f ) =

tan X ( f ) = Im( X ( f )) /Re( X ( f ))

X(f) = jIm(X(f))

X(f) =

x(t)

X( f )

X( f )

x(t)

x(t)

E :=

x * (t ) X ( f )e j 2 p ft df dt ,
-
-

x(t ) dt =
2

E = X( f ) x * (t )e j 2 p ft dt df = X ( f ) x(t )e j 2 p ft dt df
-
-
-

X( f )X * ( f )df

E=

x(t ) dt =
2

X( f ) df

Rayleighs energy theorem

X( f )

Parseval

jouls/hertz (

energy density)

(energy spectral density)

G( f ) := X ( f )

G(f)
(
1.

(Superposition Theorem)
a1 x1 (t ) + a2 x 2 (t ) a1 X 1 ( f ) + a2 X 2 ( f ) (

Proof.
2.

(Time-Delay Theorem)

x(t - t0 ) X( f )e- j 2 p ft0

Proof.

Im(X(f))

X( f) = X*(f) (

x(t)

X( f )

3.

(Scale-Change Theorem)
1 f
x( at ) X
a a

Proof.

4.

(Duality Theorem)
X (t ) x(- f )
x(t)

X(f)

X(t) (

x( f)
Proof.

5.

(Frequency Transition Theorem)

x(t )e j 2 p f0t X( f - f 0 )
Proof.

6.

(Modulation Theorem)
1
1
x(t ) cos(2 p f 0 t ) X( f - f 0 ) + X( f + f 0 )
2
2

7.

(Differentiation Theorem)

d n x(t )
( j 2 p f )n X ( f )
n
dt

8.

(Integration Theorem)

Proof.

1
x(l )dl ( j 2 p f )-1 X ( f ) + X (0)d( f )
2

X(t)

9.

Proof.

(Convolution Theorem)

x1 (t ) * x2 (t ) :=

10.

Proof.

x1 (l )x2 (t - l )dl =

x1 (t - l )x2 (l )dl X1 ( f )X2 ( f )

(Multiplication Theorem)

x1 (t )x2 (t ) X 1 ( f ) * X 2 ( f ) =

X1 (l )X 2 ( f - l )dl

4. Obtain the following Fourier transform pairs:

(1) Ad(t ) A
(2) Ad(t - t0 ) Ae- j 2 p ft0
(3) A Ad( f )

(4) Ae j 2 p f 0t Ad ( f - f 0 )
(Ziemer
Solution:

5. As another example of obtaining Fourier transform of signals involving impulses,

let us consider the signal
y s (t ) =

d(t - mT ).
s

m=-

It is a periodic waveform referred to as the ideal sampling waveform and consists of a

doubly infinite sequence of impulses spaced by Ts s. Find the Fourier transform of ys(t).
(Ziemer

Solution:
ys(t)

y s (t ) =

Yn =

1
Ts

m=-

y s (t ) = f s

Ts

d(t - mTs ) =

jn 2 p f st

n=-

m=-

(5)

n=-

jn 2 p f st

fs =

1
,
Ts

d (t )e- jn 2 p fs t dt = f s .

Ys ( f ) = f s

Ye

(4)

n=-

F 1 e j 2 pnfs t = f s

d(t - mTs ) f s

d( f - nf ).

n=-

d(t - nf )

(5)

n=-

F d(t - mTs ) = d(t - mTs ) e- j 2 p ft dt

m=-

-
m=-

- j 2 p ft
- j 2 p ft

(
)
(
)
d
t
mT
e
dt
=
d
t
mT
e
dt
=
e- j 2 pmTs f

s
s
- m

-
=-
m=-
m=-

(5)

m=-

e j 2 pmTs f = f s

d(t - nf )

n=-

p(t) = x(t)

p(t) = 0)

x(t ) = d(t - mTs ) * p(t ) = d(t - mTs ) * p(t ) = p(t - mTs )

m=-

m=-
m=-
x(t)

X( f ) = F d(t - mTs ) P( f ) = f s d ( f - nf s ) P( f )

m=-

n=-

(5)

= fs
P(f)

-Ts / 2 < t < Ts / 2

p(t) (

x(t)

n =-

d ( f - nf s )P( f ) =

n =-

f s P(nf s )d( f - nf s ),

p(t)

m=-

p(t - mTs )

(6)

n=-

f s P(nf s )d( f - nf s )

(6)

Poisson Sum Formula

F {exp(- j 2 pnf s t )} = d( f - nf s )

(6)

F-1 f s P(nf s )d( f - nf s ) = f s P(nf s )e j 2 p fs t .

n=-
n=-
(6)

m=-

p(t - mTs ) = f s

P(nf )e
s

n=-

Poisson Sum Formula (Poisson

1-5

j 2 p f st

(Correlation)
x(t)

Rx (t ) =

Rx(0) = E

x(t )x(t + t )dt = x(t ) * x(-t )

x(t)
F {Rx (t )} = X( f ) := G( f )
2

x(t)

(time-average autocorrelation

function)
1
T 2T

Rx (t ) = lim

-T

x(t )x(t + t )dt

Rx ( t )

Rx (0) = x 2 (t ) := P

F {Rx (t )} =

Sx(f)

Rx (t )e- j 2 p f t dtSx ( f )

(Power Spectrum Density)

1. Rx (0) = x 2 (t ) Rx (t ) , for all t.

Rx ( t )

2. Rx (-t ) = x(t )x(t - t ) = Rx ( t )

3.

x(t)

4.

x(t)

lim t Rx (t ) = x(t )

Rx ( t )

T0

T0

5.

t)

(nonnegative functions)

6.
(a) Prove Parsevals relation

1
2
X ( j w ) dw

2p
where X ( jw ) is the Fourier transform of x(t).

x(t ) dt =
2

(b) Explain the physical meaning of Parsevals relation.

Solution:

5.

1-6

(89

5
(
Hybrid System

1.7.1

(Linear Time-Invariant System)

[ a1 x1 (t ) + a2 x 2 (t )] = a1 [ x1 (t )] + a2 [ x2 (t )].

a1

a2

y (t ) =

t0
y (t - t 0 ) =

[ x( t )]

(
response)

t = 0

t0

[ x(t - t0 )]

h( t ):= [d(t )]

x(t)

y(t ) = x(t ) * h(t ) :=

x(t)

1.7.2

(impulse

h(t)

y(t)

x(l )h(t -l )dl

(Stability)
(bounded)

BIBO

(Bounded-Input, Bounded-Output Stable)

1.7.3

h(t ) dt <

)
h(t)

y(t ) = x(t ) * h(t ) :=

x(l )h(t -l )dl

Y ( f ) = H ( f )X ( f )
X ( f ) = F[ x(t )], Y ( f ) = F[ y(t )]

H ( f ) = F[h(t )] =

h(t ) = F-1 { H( f )} =

h(t )e- j 2 p ft dt

H(f )

H ( f )e j 2 p ft dt

BIBO

y (t ) =

1.7.4

X( f )H( f )e j 2 p ft dt

(Causality)

(Memoryless)
(Causality)
h(t) = 0, for t < 0

When causality is viewed from the standpoint of the frequency-response function of

the system, a celebrated theorem by Wiener and Paley states that if

ln H ( f )

1+ f 2

h(t ) dt =
2

H ( f ) df <
2

with h(t ) 0 for t < 0, it is necessary that

df < .

(memoryless)
[]
[]

[ [ x(t )]] = x(t )

[]

1.7.5 H(f )
H(f )

H ( f ) = H ( f ) exp [ j H ( f )]
H( f )

H( f )

H ( f ) = H (- f )

h(t)
H ( f ) = - H (- f )

H(f )

7. The output signal y(t) of a system is given by

y( t ) =

t-t2

t-t1

x(t )dt ,

where t1 and t2 are constant, t 2 0 t 1 , and x(t) is the input signal.

(a) Find the impulse response h(t) of the system.
(b) Determine whether this system is
Linear
Time-invariant
Causal. Explain
(c) Find the power spectral density of y(t) with respect to the autocorrelation function of
x(t) given by
Rx (t ) = s 2d(t ) +

sin(2pt )
.
pt

(92.

Solution:

1, t 2 t t 1
d( t )dt = u(t - t 2 ) - u(t - t1 ) =
t-t1
0, else
(b) The system is linear and time-invariant but not causal, because h(t ) 0 for t < 0.

(a) h(t ) =

t -t 2

t +t

- j 2 p f 1 2
f
2

(c) SX ( f ) = s + P and H ( f ) = (t1 - t2 )sinc((t1 - t2 ) f )e

2
2

f
2
Therefore, SY ( f ) = SX ( f ) H ( f ) = s 2 + P (t1 - t2 )sinc2 [(t1 - t2 ) f ] .
2

1.7.6
H(f )

x(t), y(t)

Gx ( f ) = X( f ) , and Gy ( f ) = Y ( f )
2

Gy ( f ) = H ( f ) Gx ( f ).
2

x(t)

y(t)

Sy ( f ) = H ( f ) Sx ( f ).
2

1.7.7

(Distortionless Transmission)
x(t)
y(t) = H0x(t t0)
H0

t0

H ( f ) = H 0 e- j 2 p ft0

Y(f )=H(f )X(f )

H(f )
(distortionless system)

(amplitude

distortion)

(phase,

or delay, distortion)

1.7.8

(nonlinear distortion)

(Ideal Filter)
(frequency-selective device)
(low-pass)

(band-pass)

(high-pass)

1.

H LP ( f ) = H 0 P( f / 2 B)e- j 2 p ft0

2.

H HP ( f ) = H 0 [1 -P( f /2 B)]e- j 2 p ft0

3.

H BP ( f ) = [ H 1 ( f - f 0 ) + H 1 ( f + f 0 )]e- j 2 p ft0 ,

where H 1 ( f ) = H 0 P( f / B).

(
)

hLP (t ) = 2 BH 0 sinc[2 B(t - t 0 )].

6.

(a)

(b)

hBP (t ) = 2 h1 (t - t 0 ) cos[2 p f 0 (t - t 0 )]

h1 (t ) = F-1[ H 1 ( f )] = H 0 Bsinc( Bt )
hBP (t ) = 2 H 0 Bsinc[ B(t - t0 )]cos[ 2p f 0 (t - t0 )].

(1) Null-to-Null Bandwidth

(2) 3-dB Bandwidth

(3) RMS Bandwidth

Brms

8. Assume

2
2
2
f H ( f ) df

= -
2

H
f
df
(
)

t
t - 10 k
t 1 - ,

x(t ) = L
, where L =
t
2
t
k =-
0,

t <t

otherwise

t
If this signal passes through a low-pass filter with the impulse response h(t ) = sinc ,
4
find the filtered output signal.
Solution:

x(t)

1-7

(95.

Hilbert
Transform

x (t )

(Hilbert Transform)
h( t ) =

H ( f ) = - j sgn( f )

1. X ( f ) = X ( f )[- j sgn( f )].

x(l )
2. x (t ) = x(t ) * h(t ) =
dl = F-1 {X( f )[- j sgn( f )]} .
- p(t - l )
Example: x(t ) = cos 2 p f 0 t x (t ) = sin 2p f 0 t ,

x( t ) = sin 2 p f 0 t x(t ) = - cos 2 p f 0t

exp( j 2 p f 0t ) = - j sgn( 2p f 0 )exp( j 2p f 0t ).

1.8.1
1. X ( f ) = X ( f )

1
pt

2. x (t ) = -x(t )
x (t )

3. x(t)
4.

5.

x(t )x (t )dt = 0.

c(t)

m(t)

c(t)

m(t)

x(t)=m(t)c(t)

x (t ) = m(t )c(t )

m(t)

c(t)

m(t )c(t ) =

M ( f ) = F {m(t )} , C ( f ) = F {c(t )}

m(t)

M( f )C ( f ')e j 2 p( f + f ')t dfdf '

M ( f ) = 0, for f > W , C ( f ') = 0, for f ' < W (

c(t)

m(t )c(t ) =

M(f )C(f)

m(t )c(t ) =

M ( f )C ( f ')exp[ j 2 p( f + f ')t ]dfdf '

M ( f )C ( f ')[- j sgn( f + f ')]exp[ j 2 p( f + f ')t ]dfdf '

f <W

f '>W

sgn(f + f)

M( f )C ( f ')[- j sgn( f + f ')]exp[ j 2 p( f + f ')t ]dfdf '

M( f )C( f ')[- j sgn( f ')]exp[ j 2 p( f + f ')t ]dfdf '

M ( f )exp( j 2p ft )df

= m(t )c(t )

C( f ')[- j sgn( f ')]exp[ j 2p f ' t ]df '

Example: x(t ) = m(t )cos 2p f 0t x (t ) = m(t )cos(2 p f 0t ) = m(t )sin(2p f 0t ).

1.8.2

(Analytic Signals)
xp(t)

x(t)
xp ( t ) = x(t ) + jx (t )

xp(t)

x(t)

pre-envelope

xp(t)

X p ( f ) = X ( f ) + j[- j(sgn f )X( f )] = X ( f )[1 + sgn f ]

2 X( f ),
=
0,

f >0

f <0

sgn(f)

xn (t ) = x(t ) - jx (t )
x (t )

-x (t )

Xn ( f ) = X ( f ) - j[- j(sgn f )X( f )] = X( f )[1 - sgn f ]

2 X( f ), f < 0
=
0,
f >0

1.8.3
x(t)

f0

(bandpass signal)

xp (t ) = x(t )e j 2 p f0t
(complex envelope)

x(t )

xp (t ) = x(t ) + jx (t )
= x(t )e j 2 p f 0t

= [ x I (t ) + jxQ (t )]e j 2 p f0t

= [ A(t )e jf ( t ) ]e j 2 p f0t

xp ( t ) = x(t ) + jx (t )

xI (t ) := Re{ x(t )}

: in-phase component of x(t), xQ (t ) := Im{x(t )}

: quadra-

ture-phase component of x(t)

1. x(t ) = Re{ x(t )e j 2 p f 0t }

2. x(t ) = xI (t ) cos( 2 p f 0t ) - xQ (t )sin(2 p f 0 )

3. x(t ) = A( t ) cos( 2 p f 0t + f(t ))

A( t ) = xI2 (t ) + xQ2 (t ),

x (t )
f( t ) = tan -1 Q
xI (t )

9. Consider the signal x(t ) = 2 Fsinc(Ft ) cos(2 p f 0 t ), where f0 >> F.

(a) Sketch the spectrum of x(t).
(b) Sketch the spectrum of xp ( t ) = x(t ) + jx (t ) , x (t ) is the Hilbert transform of x(t).
(c) Sketch the complex envelope x (t ) , where x p (t ) = x(t )e- j 2 p f 0t , and also sketch its
spectrum.
(95.
Solution:

1.8.4

(Bandpass Systems)
Bandpass
System

x(t)

H ( f ) = 0,

y (t )

f - f0 W

x(t ) = Re{x(t )e j 2 p f0t }

h(t ) = Re{h(t )e j 2 p f0t }

y(t ) = Re{ y(t )e j 2 p f 0t }

1
y(t ) = x(t ) * h(t ) y(t ) = x(t ) * h(t ).
2
x(t ) = m(t ) cos 2p f c t

x(t ) = m( t )

H ( f ) = ke jb ( f )
b ( f ) -2 p f 0 t (

)
y(t ) = km(t - t g ) cos[ 2 p fc (t - t p )]

t g := -

1 db ( f )
2p df

(group delay)
f = fc

t p := -

b( f )
2p f

(phase def = fc

lay)

10.
Solutions:

y ( t ) = x(t ) * h(t )

y (t ) =

1
x(t ) * h(t ).
2

11. Given the bandpass signal x(t ) = sinc(t ) cos(2 p f c t ), which is passed through a

bandpass filter with impulse response h(t ) = sinc 2 (t )sin(2p f c t ).

(a) Find the low-pass equivalent of x(t) and h(t).
(d) Find the low-pass equivalent of the output and from it find the output y(t).

(modulated signal))
xc (t ) = A(t )cos[2p f c t + f(t )],
fc
(message signal, m(t))
1.

vs.
A(t)

AM,

m(t)

DSB, SSB, VSB

f(t)

m(t)
PM, FM

2.

vs.
DSB, SSB, VSB
AM, PM, FM.

2-1 Double-Sideband (DSB) Modulation

2.1.1

1.

s(t ) = Ac m(t ) cos(2 p fc t )

2.

S( f ) =

Ac
[ M ( f - f c ) + M ( f + f c )]
2

DSB

BT = 2W (

3.

Ac2 PM
PS =
2
DSB

2.1.2 DSB

PM

PS
Eff = 100%

(Modulator)

1. Balanced Modulator

s(t ) = s1 (t ) - s2 (t )

= Ac [1 + m(t )]cos(2p fc t ) - Ac [1 - m(t )]cos(2p f c t )

= 2 Ac m(t ) cos(2p f c t ).

2. Switching Modulator

p(t ) =

t - kTc - t0
1
, f c = , t < Tc

Tc
t

k =-

P( f ) = F{ p(t )} =

n=-

f c sinc(nfc t )d( f - nf c )e- j 2 p fct0

Bandpass
System
fc

x(t)

m(t)

p(t)

s( t )

x(t) = m(t)p(t)

X( f ) = M( f ) * P( f ) =
x(t)

n=-

f c t sinc(nfc t )M( f - nf c )e- j 2 p f ct0

fc
s(t ) = F { fc sinc( f c t ) M ( f - f c )e- j 2 p fc t0 + f c sinc( f c t )M ( f + f c )e j 2 p fc t0 }
= f c t sinc( f c t )m(t )2 cos(2 p f c t + q ) = Ac m(t ) cos(2p f c t + q ),
-1

Ac = 2fctsinc(fct), q = -2pfct0

2.1.3 DSB
1.

(Demodulator)
(Coherent Demodulator)

Low-pass
Filter

v(t)

s(t)

v o (t )

Ac' cos( 2p f c't + q )

q: carrier phase offset

(1)

( f c = fc' , q = 0)

v(t ) = Ac' cos(2 p f c t ) Ac m(t ) cos(2p f c t ) =

vo (t ) = LPF{ v(t )} =

Ac Ac'
m(t ).
2

Ac Ac'
m(t )[1 + cos(4p f c t )]
2

( f c = fc' , but q 0 )

(2)

v(t ) = Ac' cos(2 p f c t + q ) Ac m(t ) cos(2p f c t ) =

vo (t ) = LPF{ v(t )} =
Remarks
I.

q=

II.

p
,
2

vo(t)=0
v0(t)

Ac Ac'
m( t )[cos q + cos(4p f c t + q )]
2

Ac Ac'
m(t ) cos q.
2

quadrature null effect

m(t)

q
III.

pilot signal

s(t)

fc

2. Costas Receiver

1
1
Vp = LPF Ac m(t ) cos f Ac m(t )sin f = LPF Ac2 m 2 sin 2f = k sin 2f

2
2

2
2
1
k = Ac2 m2 (t )
f << 1
Vp = k sin 2f k 2f
phase offset f > 0
Vp > 0
8
VCO
phase error
phase offset f < 0
Vp < 0
VCO
phase error

2.1.4

(Quadrature Carrier Multiplexing)

s(t ) = Ac m1 (t ) cos(2 p f c t ) + Ac m2 (t )sin(2p fc t )
Ac cos(2 p f c t ), Ac sin(2 p f c t )

m1(t)

m2(t)

Coherent Demodulator

1. Two message signals x1 (t ) = 2 cos(10pt ) and x2 (t ) = sin(20pt ) are used to

modulate two phase-quadrature carriers, resulting in a quadrature multiplexed (QM)
signal x(t) as follows:
x(t ) = x1 (t )cos( 2p f c t ) + x 2 (t )sin(2p f c )
where the carrier frequency is fc = 100 Hz. Assume that x(t) is fed to a QM modulator, in
which the local oscillator (LO) has a phase offset of q = 30o, i.e., the LO cosine carrier is
2 cos(2p f c + q ) .
(a) Plot the spectrum X(f ) of x(t), and find its average power Px.
(b) The two input signals {x1(t), x2(t)} and two demodulated signals {y1(t), y2(t)} are related as follows:
y 1 (t ) R11 R12 x1 (t )
=

= RX(t ).
Y (t ) =
y 2 (t ) R21 R22 x2 (t )

Find the 2 2 transformation matrix R, and sketch the I/Q plot of y1(t) and y2(t).

Solution:

2-2 AM

(Amplitude Modulation)

2.2.1
AM

s(t ) = Ac [1 + ka m(t )]cos(2 p f c t ) = Ac [1 + amn ( t )]cos(2 p f c t )

Ac

m(t)

(amplitude sensitivity)

W fc

mn (t ) :=

m(t )
min m(t )

ka
a := k a min m(t ) 100%

(modulation index)

a 100%

a
(phase reversal)

a > 100%

1+kam(t)

1+kam(t)
(over-modulated)

fc >> W

a 100%

s(t)

(envelope

m(t)

detector)
M(f )

m(t)
S( f ) =

S(f )

S(f )

Ac
kA
[d( f - f c ) + d( f + f c )] + a c [ M( f - f c ) + M( f + f c )]
2
2

carrier, USB (Upper Sideband), LSB (Lower Sideband)

m(t)

PM

E ff :=

k a2 PM 1

Ps =

s(t)

Ac2 (1 + k a2 PM )
2
AM

Eff

k a2 PM
1 + ka2 PM

50%

Eff

Example: Single-Tone Modulation

m(t ) = Am cos(2p f mt )
s(t ) = Ac [1 + k a Am cos(2p f mt )]cos(2p f c t )
a = kaAm

s(t ) = Ac [1 + a cos(2 p f m t )]cos(2 p f c t )

Single-Tone

E ff =

ka2 ( Am /2)2
a2
=
33.3% (if a 1)
1 + ka2 ( Am /2)2 1 + a 2

2. The positive portion of the envelope of the output of an AM modulators is shown

in Figure 1. The message signal is a periodic waveform having zero DC value and period
= T. Determine the modulation index, the carrier power, the power in the sidebands, and
the power efficiency.
70

50
t
0

T/2

3T/2

2T
Figure 1

Solution:

2.2.2 AM
1.

(Square-Law Modulator)

Square-Law
Device

v1(t)

m(t)

v2 (t )

BPF
fc

s(t)

Ac cos(2 p f c t )

v1 (t ) = m(t ) + A cos(2 p f c t )
v2 (t ) = A cos( 2p f c t ) + m(t )
2. Switching Modulator
v1(t

m(t)
Ac cos(2p f ct )

v2(t
)
p(t)

v1 (t ) = m(t ) + A cos(2p f c t )

t - nT0
1
, T0 =
p(t ) = P

fc
T0 / 2
n=-

Bandpass
System
fc

s( t )

3. Amplitude Modulation
Figure 2 shows the circuit diagram of a square-law modulator. The signal applied to the
nonlinear device is relatively weak, such that it can be represented by a square law: v2(t)
= a1v1(t) + a2 v12 (t ) , where a1 and a2 are constants and v1(t), v2(t) are input and output
voltages, respectively. If the input voltage is defined by v1 (t ) = Ac cos(2 p f c t ) + m(t ),
where m(t) is the message signal and Accos(2pfct) is the carrier wave.
(a) Evaluate the output voltage v2(t).
(b) For the tuner circuit shown in Figure 2, specify the frequency response that the tuner
circuit must satisfy in order to generate an AM signal with fc as the center frequency.
(c) Calculate the amplitude sensitivity of this AM signal.
(d) Design a possible circuit that can be used to demodulate this signal.

Figure 2
Solution:

2.2.3 AM
1.

(Coherent Demodulator)

s(t)

Low-pass
Filter

x(t)
2 cos(2p f c t )

2.

v(t )

y(t)
C

(Square-Law Detector)
s(t)

Square-Law
Detector

v(t )

Low-pass
Filter

r(t)

y(t)
C

v(t ) = a1 s(t ) + a2 s 2 (t ),
y(t ) = LPF{ v(t )}

(1) m(t)

W << fc (2) m(t)

(3) m = k a min{ m(t )} << 1

r(t)

km(t)

3.

(Envelope Detector)

2-3 SSB

VSB

2.3.1

(Single-Sideband Modulation)

(USB)
(SSB)

USB
m(t)

(LSB)
DC

LSB

sDSB(t)

m(t)

Sideband Filter
HL(f ) or HU(f )

sUSB(t) or sLSB(t)

Ac cos(2 p f c t )

1. SSB
(a)

LSB

1
H L ( f ) = [sgn( f + f c ) - sgn( f - f c )]
2
SLSB ( f ) = SDSB ( f )H L ( f )
(b)

USB

(c)

BT = W

(d) PS =

Ac2
PM ,
4

HU ( f ) = 1 - H L ( f )
SUSB ( f ) = SDSB ( f )H H ( f )
E ff = 100%

2. SSB
(a)

Ac
1
[ M( f + f c ) + M ( f - f c )] [sgn( f + f c ) - sgn( f - fc )]
2
2
A
= c {M ( f + fc )sgn( f + f c ) + M( f +f c ) + M( f - f c ) - M( f - f c )sgn( f - f c )}
4
Ac
=
{ M ( f +f c ) + M ( f - f c ) +
4
j[ M( f + f c )(- j ) sgn( f + f c ) - M ( f - f c )(- j )sgn( f - f c )]}

SLSB ( f ) =

Ac
A
{M( f +f c ) + M ( f - f c )} + c j {M ( f +f c ) - M ( f - fc )}
4
4
sLSB (t ) =

Ac
A
(t )sin(2p f c t )
m(t ) cos(2p f c t ) + c m
2
2

sUSB (t ) =

Ac
A
(t )sin(2p f c t )
m(t ) cos(2 p f c t ) - c m
2
2

(b)

3. SSB

Phase-Shift Modulator (also called Hartley Modulator)

4. SSB
(1) Coherent Demodulator
v(t)

sUSB(t) or sLSB(t)

2 cos(2 p f c t + f )

(a) Ideal case: f = 0

(b) Non-ideal case: f

Low-pass
Filter

vo(t)

(2) Carrier Re-insertion Detector

vo(t)

Envelope
Detector

v(t)

sUSB(t) or sLSB(t)

y(t)
C

k cos(2 p f c t )

1
(t )sin(2p f c t )
v(t ) = Ac m(t ) + k cos( 2 p f c t ) Ac m
2

2
v(t)
1

(t )
vo (t ) = Ac m(t ) + k + Ac m
2

k >>

Ac
m(t )
2

v o (t )

Ac
m(t ) + k
2

DC
y (t )

2.3.2

Ac
m(t )
2

(Vestigial Side-band Modulation)

VSB
(vestige)

DC

m(t)

sDSB(t)
Ac cos(2 p f c t )

1.

Sideband
Filter, Hv(f )

vo(t)

SVSB ( f ) = SDSB ( f )H v ( f )

m(t)

VSB

sideband filter Hv(f )

H v ( f + f c ) + H v ( f - f c ),

VSB

B T = W + fv

-W f W

Eff = 100%

2.
sVSB (t )

sVSB (t ) = sI (t ) cos( 2 p f c t ) - sQ (t )sin(2p f c t )

SI ( f ) = SVSB ( f - f c ) + SVSB ( f + f c ) =
Ac
m(t )
2
SQ ( f ) = j{SVSB ( f - f c ) - SVSB ( f + fc )},

Ac
M( f ),
2

f W

s I (t ) =

f W

Ac
A
M ( f ){ j[ H v ( f - f c ) - H v ( f + f c )} = c M( f )H Q ( f )
2
2
A
sQ (t ) = c m(t ) * hQ (t )
2
where H Q ( f ) = j{ H v ( f - f c ) - H v ( f + f c )}, hQ (t ) = F -1 { H Q ( f )}
=

3.

Phase-Shift Modulator

m(t)
Ac
cos( 2 p f c t )
2

-90o

HQ(f )

Ac
sin(2 p f c t )
2

m(t ) * hQ (t )
4.

sVSB (t )

Coherent Demodulator
v(t)

sVSB(t)

Low-pass
Filter

vo(t)

2 cos(2p f c t )

2.3.3

1.

2.
3.
4. VSB

5.25 MHz)

(VSB+C)
FM
Sideband Filter

VSB
Envelope Detector
(

(a)

VSB

2.3.4

(Frequency Translation and Mixing)

1.

(Mixing)
f1

f2
s1 (t ) = cos( 2 p f 1t )

f LO = f 1 f 2 (

)
1
1
e(t ) = cos(2 p f 1t ) cos(2 p f LO t ) = cos[ 2 p( f 1 + f LO )t ] + cos[2p( f 1 - f LO )t ]
2
2
(1)
f2 > f1: up-conversion (
)
f2 < f1: down-conversion (
(2)

BPF

fLO > f1: high-side tuning

fLO < f1: low-side tuning

2.

(Image Signal/Image Frequency)

 f 1 + 2 f 2 ,
f image =
f 1 - 2 f 2 ,

3.

high-side tuning
low-side tuning

(Superheterodyne Receiver)

(1)

high-side tuning
(Intermediate Frequency, IF) fIF

(2)

fimage = fc + 2fIF

RF

(3)

high-side tuning

fLO

fLO

RF

fc

Example: