Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1 Biography
Other mathematical achievements include deriving an accurate approximation of pi, dening and investigating
the spiral bearing his name, and creating a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers. He
was also one of the rst to apply mathematics to physical phenomena, founding hydrostatics and statics, including an explanation of the principle of the lever. He is
credited with designing innovative machines, such as his
screw pump, compound pulleys, and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion.
Archimedes died c.
212 BC during the Second
Punic War, when Roman forces under General Marcus
Claudius Marcellus captured the city of Syracuse after
a two-year-long siege. According to the popular account given by Plutarch, Archimedes was contemplating
a mathematical diagram when the city was captured. A
Roman soldier commanded him to come and meet General Marcellus but he declined, saying that he had to nish working on the problem. The soldier was enraged by
this, and killed Archimedes with his sword. Plutarch also
gives a lesser-known account of the death of Archimedes
which suggests that he may have been killed while attempting to surrender to a Roman soldier. According
to this story, Archimedes was carrying mathematical instruments, and was killed because the soldier thought that
they were valuable items. General Marcellus was reportedly angered by the death of Archimedes, as he considered him a valuable scientic asset and had ordered that
he not be harmed.[11] Marcellus called Archimedes a geometrical Briareus".[12]
The last words attributed to Archimedes are Do not disturb my circles, a reference to the circles in the mathematical drawing that he was supposedly studying when
disturbed by the Roman soldier. This quote is often given
in Latin as "Noli turbare circulos meos, but there is no
reliable evidence that Archimedes uttered these words
and they do not appear in the account given by Plutarch.
Valerius Maximus, writing in Memorable Doings and
1
2.2
Heat ray
Archimedes screw
3
of the Ancient World built a version of the claw and concluded that it was a workable device.[29][30]
2.4
Sun
Mirror
Archimedes
Heat
Ray
Mirror
2.3
Claw of Archimedes
Mirror
Shor
Archimedes may have used mirrors acting collectively as a parabolic reector to burn ships attacking
Syracuse. The 2nd century AD author Lucian wrote
that during the Siege of Syracuse (c. 214212 BC),
Archimedes destroyed enemy ships with re. Centuries
later, Anthemius of Tralles mentions burning-glasses as
Archimedes weapon.[31] The device, sometimes called
the Archimedes heat ray, was used to focus sunlight
onto approaching ships, causing them to catch re.
This purported weapon has been the subject of ongoing
debate about its credibility since the Renaissance. Ren
Descartes rejected it as false, while modern researchers
have attempted to recreate the eect using only the
4
means that would have been available to Archimedes.[32]
It has been suggested that a large array of highly polished bronze or copper shields acting as mirrors could
have been employed to focus sunlight onto a ship. This
would have used the principle of the parabolic reector
in a manner similar to a solar furnace.
A test of the Archimedes heat ray was carried out in 1973
by the Greek scientist Ioannis Sakkas. The experiment
took place at the Skaramagas naval base outside Athens.
On this occasion 70 mirrors were used, each with a copper coating and a size of around ve by three feet (1.5
by 1 m). The mirrors were pointed at a plywood mockup of a Roman warship at a distance of around 160 feet
(50 m). When the mirrors were focused accurately, the
ship burst into ames within a few seconds. The plywood
ship had a coating of tar paint, which may have aided
combustion.[33] A coating of tar would have been commonplace on ships in the classical era.[d]
In October 2005 a group of students from the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology carried out an experiment with 127 one-foot (30 cm) square mirror tiles,
focused on a mock-up wooden ship at a range of around
100 feet (30 m). Flames broke out on a patch of the ship,
but only after the sky had been cloudless and the ship had
remained stationary for around ten minutes. It was concluded that the device was a feasible weapon under these
conditions. The MIT group repeated the experiment for
the television show MythBusters, using a wooden shing
boat in San Francisco as the target. Again some charring
occurred, along with a small amount of ame. In order to
catch re, wood needs to reach its autoignition temperature, which is around 300 C (570 F).[34][35]
When MythBusters broadcast the result of the San Francisco experiment in January 2006, the claim was placed
in the category of busted (or failed) because of the
length of time and the ideal weather conditions required
for combustion to occur. It was also pointed out that since
Syracuse faces the sea towards the east, the Roman eet
would have had to attack during the morning for optimal gathering of light by the mirrors. MythBusters also
pointed out that conventional weaponry, such as aming
arrows or bolts from a catapult, would have been a far
easier way of setting a ship on re at short distances.[36]
In December 2010, MythBusters again looked at the heat
ray story in a special edition entitled Presidents Challenge. Several experiments were carried out, including
a large scale test with 500 schoolchildren aiming mirrors
at a mock-up of a Roman sailing ship 400 feet (120 m)
away. In all of the experiments, the sail failed to reach the
210 C (410 F) required to catch re, and the verdict was
again busted. The show concluded that a more likely effect of the mirrors would have been blinding, dazzling, or
distracting the crew of the ship.[37]
5
thought to have been beyond the range of the technology
available in ancient times, but the discovery of the Antikythera mechanism in 1902 has conrmed that devices
of this kind were known to the ancient Greeks.[47][48]
Mathematics
While he is often regarded as a designer of mechanical devices, Archimedes also made contributions to the
eld of mathematics. Plutarch wrote: He placed his
whole aection and ambition in those purer speculations
where there can be no reference to the vulgar needs of
life.[49] Archimedes was able to use innitesimals in a
way that is similar to modern integral calculus. Through
proof by contradiction (reductio ad absurdum), he could
give answers to problems to an arbitrary degree of accuracy, while specifying the limits within which the answer lay. This technique is known as the method of exhaustion, and he employed it to approximate the value of
. In Measurement of a Circle he did this by drawing a
larger regular hexagon outside a circle and a smaller regular hexagon inside the circle, and progressively doubling
the number of sides of each regular polygon, calculating
the length of a side of each polygon at each step. As the
number of sides increases, it becomes a more accurate approximation of a circle. After four such steps, when the
polygons had 96 sides each, he was able to determine that
the value of lay between 31 7 (approximately 3.1429)
and 310 71 (approximately 3.1408), consistent with its actual value of approximately 3.1416.[50] He also proved
that the area of a circle was equal to multiplied by the
square of the radius of the circle (r2 ). In On the Sphere
and Cylinder, Archimedes postulates that any magnitude
when added to itself enough times will exceed any given
magnitude. This is the Archimedean property of real
numbers.[51]
In Measurement of a Circle, Archimedes gives the
value of the square root of 3 as lying between
265
153 (approximately 1.7320261) and 1351 780 (approximately 1.7320512). The actual value is approximately
1.7320508, making this a very accurate estimate. He
//
d
//
d
n=0
4n = 1 + 41 + 42 + 43 + =
4
.
3
Writings
4.1
Surviving works
WRITINGS
4.1
Surviving works
7
a straight line is 4/3 multiplied by the area
of a triangle with equal base and height. He
achieves this by calculating the value of a
geometric series that sums to innity with the
ratio 1 4 .
A sphere has 2/3 the volume and surface area of its circumscribing cylinder including its bases. A sphere and cylinder were
placed on the tomb of Archimedes at his request. (see also:
Equiareal map)
(O)stomachion
This is a dissection puzzle similar to a
Tangram, and the treatise describing it
was found in more complete form in the
Archimedes Palimpsest. Archimedes calculates the areas of the 14 pieces which can
be assembled to form a square. Research
published by Dr. Reviel Netz of Stanford
University in 2003 argued that Archimedes
was attempting to determine how many ways
the pieces could be assembled into the shape
of a square. Dr. Netz calculates that the pieces
can be made into a square 17,152 ways.[59]
The number of arrangements is 536 when
solutions that are equivalent by rotation and
reection have been excluded.[60] The puzzle
represents an example of an early problem in
combinatorics.
The origin of the puzzles name is unclear,
and it has been suggested that it is taken from
the Ancient Greek word for throat or gullet,
stomachos ().[61] Ausonius refers to
the puzzle as Ostomachion, a Greek compound
word formed from the roots of (osteon,
bone) and (mach ght). The puzzle
is also known as the Loculus of Archimedes or
Archimedes Box.[62]
Archimedes cattle problem
5 ARCHIMEDES PALIMPSEST
This work was discovered by Gotthold
Ephraim Lessing in a Greek manuscript
consisting of a poem of 44 lines, in the Herzog
August Library in Wolfenbttel, Germany in
1773. It is addressed to Eratosthenes and the
mathematicians in Alexandria. Archimedes
challenges them to count the numbers of cattle
in the Herd of the Sun by solving a number
of simultaneous Diophantine equations. There
is a more dicult version of the problem
in which some of the answers are required
to be square numbers. This version of the
problem was rst solved by A. Amthor[63] in
1880, and the answer is a very large number,
approximately 7.76027110206544 .[64]
form, since it quotes Archimedes, suggesting modication by another author. The Lemmas may be based on an
earlier work by Archimedes that is now lost.[66]
It has also been claimed that Herons formula for calculating the area of a triangle from the length of its sides
was known to Archimedes.[c] However, the rst reliable
reference to the formula is given by Heron of Alexandria
in the 1st century AD.[67]
5 Archimedes Palimpsest
Main article: Archimedes Palimpsest
The foremost document containing the work of
4.2
Apocryphal works
9
to a private collector in the 1920s. On October 29, 1998 it
was sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for $2 million
at Christies in New York.[69] The palimpsest holds seven
treatises, including the only surviving copy of On Floating
Bodies in the original Greek. It is the only known source
of The Method of Mechanical Theorems, referred to by
Suidas and thought to have been lost forever. Stomachion
was also discovered in the palimpsest, with a more complete analysis of the puzzle than had been found in previous texts. The palimpsest is now stored at the Walters
Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland, where it has been
subjected to a range of modern tests including the use of
ultraviolet and x-ray light to read the overwritten text.[70]
The treatises in the Archimedes Palimpsest are: On the
Equilibrium of Planes, On Spirals, Measurement of a Circle, On the Sphere and the Cylinder, On Floating Bodies,
The Method of Mechanical Theorems and Stomachion.
7 See also
6
Legacy
8 Notes
a. ^ In the preface to On Spirals addressed to Dositheus of
Pelusium, Archimedes says that many years have elapsed
since Conons death. Conon of Samos lived c. 280220
BC, suggesting that Archimedes may have been an older
man when writing some of his works.
Galileo praised Archimedes many times, and referred to him as a superhuman.[71] Leibniz said
He who understands Archimedes and Apollonius
will admire less the achievements of the foremost
men of later times.[72]
10
References
REFERENCES
11
full-
[57] Van Helden, Al. The Galileo Project: Hydrostatic Balance. Rice University. Archived from the original on 5
September 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-14.
[58] Heath, T.L. The Works of Archimedes (1897). The
unabridged work in PDF form (19 MB)". Archive.org.
Archived from the original on 6 October 2007. Retrieved
2007-10-14.
[59] Kolata, Gina (December 14, 2003). In Archimedes Puzzle, a New Eureka Moment. The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-07-23.
[60] Ed Pegg Jr. (November 17, 2003). The Loculus
of Archimedes, Solved. Mathematical Association of
America. Archived from the original on 19 May 2008.
Retrieved 2008-05-18.
[61] Rorres, Chris. Archimedes Stomachion. Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences. Archived from the original on 26 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-14.
[62] Graeco Roman Puzzles. Gianni A. Sarcone and Marie
J. Waeber. Archived from the original on 14 May 2008.
Retrieved 2008-05-09.
[63] Krumbiegel, B. and Amthor, A. Das Problema Bovinum des Archimedes, Historisch-literarische Abteilung
der Zeitschrift Fr Mathematik und Physik 25 (1880) pp.
121136, 153171.
[64] Calkins, Keith G. Archimedes Problema Bovinum.
Andrews University. Archived from the original on 200710-12. Retrieved 2007-09-14.
[65] English translation of The Sand Reckoner". University of
Waterloo. Archived from the original on 11 August 2007.
Retrieved 2007-07-23.
[66] Archimedes Book of Lemmas. cut-the-knot. Archived
from the original on 11 July 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-07.
[67] O'Connor, J.J. and Robertson, E.F. (April 1999). Heron
of Alexandria. University of St Andrews. Retrieved
2010-02-17.
elds.
[56] Editions of Archimedes Work. Brown University Library. Archived from the original on 8 August 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-23.
[51] Kaye,
R.W.
Archimedean
ordered
web.mat.bham.ac.uk. Retrieved 2009-11-07.
12
11
[74] Planetary Data System. NASA. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-13.
[75] Fields Medal.
International Mathematical Union.
Archived from the original on July 1, 2007. Retrieved
2007-07-23.
[76] Rorres, Chris. Stamps of Archimedes. Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences. Retrieved 2007-08-25.
[77] California Symbols. California State Capitol Museum.
Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-14.
[78] Casson, Lionel (1995). Ships and seamanship in the ancient world. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University
Press. pp. 211212. ISBN 978-0-8018-5130-8.
10
Further reading
Boyer, Carl Benjamin (1991). A History of Mathematics. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-54397-7.
Clagett, Marshall (19641984). Archimedes in the
Middle Ages. 5 vols. Madison, WI: University of
Wisconsin Press.
Dijksterhuis, E.J. (1987). Archimedes. Princeton
University Press, Princeton. ISBN 0-691-084211. Republished translation of the 1938 study of
Archimedes and his works by an historian of science.
Gow, Mary (2005). Archimedes: Mathematical Genius of the Ancient World. Enslow Publishers, Inc.
ISBN 0-7660-2502-0.
Hasan, Heather (2005). Archimedes: The Father of
Mathematics. Rosen Central. ISBN 978-1-40420774-5.
Heath, T.L. (1897). Works of Archimedes. Dover
Publications. ISBN 0-486-42084-1. Complete
works of Archimedes in English.
Netz, Reviel and Noel, William (2007). The
Archimedes Codex. Orion Publishing Group. ISBN
0-297-64547-1.
Pickover, Cliord A. (2008). Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind
Them. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19533611-5.
Simms, Dennis L. (1995). Archimedes the Engineer. Continuum International Publishing Group
Ltd. ISBN 0-7201-2284-8.
Stein, Sherman (1999). Archimedes: What Did He
Do Besides Cry Eureka?. Mathematical Association
of America. ISBN 0-88385-718-9.
10.1
EXTERNAL LINKS
11 External links
Archimedes on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
Works by Archimedes at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Archimedes at Internet Archive
Archimedes at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology
Project
Archimedes at PhilPapers
The Archimedes Palimpsest project at The Walters
Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland
The Mathematical Achievements and Methodologies of Archimedes
Archimedes and the Square Root of 3 at MathPages.com.
Archimedes on Spheres and Cylinders at MathPages.com.
Photograph of the Sakkas experiment in 1973
Testing the Archimedes steam cannon
Stamps of Archimedes
Eureka! 1,000-year-old text by Greek maths genius
Archimedes goes on display Daily Mail, October 18,
2011.
13
12
12.1
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