Biotech Applied looks at the practical applications of biotechnology - including drug development, the use of bacteria in industry, biotechnology

on the farm and at the dinner table (the issue of genetically modified foods), the use of DNA forensics, and strategies for
introducing biotechnology into the classroom.

Revolutions in Medicine

• DNA Primer: An Introduction to Nucleic Acids and Their Application to Infectious Disease Detection

• The Biopharmaceuticals - FDA - approved biopharmaceutical drugs and vaccines

• The Chips Are Coming - Implanted biochips - is it Big Brother or bionic man?

• Genes and disease

o Blazing a Genetic Trail in Medicine - To decipher diseases and discover cures, start with DNA.

o Case Studies - Hereditary Colon Cancer - A genetic test result yields more questions than answers.

o Inheritance of an Illness - For many diseases, a back-up copy of a gene can keep you well.

o The Ras Gene and Cancer - Rats and viruses lead to the discovery of a key cancer-causing gene.

• More targets, more chemicals, faster testing: the three revolutions in drug making

o Genomics: Selling DNA - Incyte doesn't need to make drugs. It already makes millions of dollars selling a bunch of As, Cs, Gs and Ts.

o Combinational Chemistry: Making More Drugs - Combinatorial chemistry promises better drugs, new superconductors and an artificial nose, all with a one-thousand-fold increase in productivity.

o Drug Testers Think Small - Hunting for drugs using worms, single cells and glass chips.

• Take One Snail And Call Me In The Morning - Replacing morphine and other opiates with pain drugs from a sea snail and a tree frog.

Bacteria Going to Work

• Biomining - Using bacteria to extract minerals from ores.

• Cleaning Up Wastes - Using bacteria to digest away pollutants.

• Future Fuel - Ideas for using bacteria-based energy abound, but their application lags.

• Prospecting for Extremophiles - Bacteria living on marine worms or in boiling pools of mud could provide the next ingredient in your detergent.

• The Smell of Wealth - The ultimate in high-temperature composting.

From Farms to Your Table

• Agriculture - An Overview - The logic of using biotechnology in agriculture.

• Ag-Biotech Forecast - A review of the economic impact of adopting genetically engineered crops in the U.S. - preliminary results.

• Animal Health Care - An Overview - The farm animals are sick, and biotechnology is coming to the rescue.

• Animal Health - Research Update - Highlights of animal health and how biotechnology is used to develop new medicines for farm and companion animals.

• Barnyard 101: An Introduction to Transgenic Farm Animals - How to get genes into animals, and why you would want to.

• Biotechnology in Agriculture: Review - A brief discussion of the government efforts to regulate biotechnology's role in agriculture.

• Cloning and Transgenic Animals: The Influence of Technical Confluence - Dolly and Polly are here; homologous recombination is next.

• Genetically Engineered Virus-Resistant Squash Approved For Sale - It has been named Freedom II, but not everyone is happy about its commercialization.

• Gene Gun Speeds Search for New Orchid Colors - Firing DNA into orchid flower petals allows a quick test for color changes.

• Green Genes - The history, methods and promise of plant biotechnology. An overview by Gerald R. Fink, Ph.D. from the Winding Your Way Through DNA Symposium

• Herman the Bull - He's transgenic, so his daughters will make extra-special milk.

• Rhizobium Meliloti Field Tests - Report on whether alfalfa yields are increased with legume inoculation with rhizobium.

• Sugar from Tobacco? - Bacterial gene + tobacco host = a new low-calorie sweetener.

• Transforming Plants - Basic Genetic Engineering Techniques - How to get new genes into plants.

Biotechnology - It's In Your Food

• Agricultural Biotechnology, a Virtual Tour: "Look Ma, No Seeds in my Watermelon" - Building the perfect watermelon - a case-study from research to market.

• The Development and Introduction of Genetically Modified Potatoes in the Netherlands - Why Holland needs genetically modified potatoes, and the issues surrounding their introduction.

• European Attitudes - Agricultural Biotech - Even in 1994, Europe was nervous about genetically modified foods. A view of the calm before the more recent storm.

• Feed the World -- But How? - Before biotechnology helps improve food production in developing countries, there are bureaucratic and ethical issues to face.

• The Flavr Savr Arrives - A genetically modified tomato is approved by the FDA.

• Two Views of the Flavr Savr - How the brave new tomato was approved, and an assessment of the tastiness factor.

Forensics - Sleuthing with Biotech

DNA Fingerprinting in Human Health and Society - How to read and interpret a DNA fingerprint. DNA Fingerprinting in Human Health and Society

Written by David F. Betsch, Ph.D., Biotechnology Training Programs, Inc. Edited by Glenda D. Webber, Iowa State University Office of Biotechnology.

Like the fingerprints that came into use by detectives and police labs during the 1930s, each person has a unique DNA fingerprint. Unlike a conventional fingerprint that occurs only on the fingertips and can be altered by surgery, a DNA fingerprint is the same for every cell, tissue, and organ of a person. It cannot be altered by any known
treatment. Consequently, DNA fingerprinting is rapidly becoming the primary method for identifying and distinguishing among individual human beings.

An additional application of DNA fingerprint technology is the diagnosis of inherited disorders in adults, children, and unborn babies. The technology is so powerful that, for example, even the blood-stained clothing of Abraham Lincoln could be analyzed for evidence of a genetic disorder called Marfan's Syndrome.
The Structure of DNA
The characteristics of all living organisms, including humans, are essentially determined by information contained within DNA that they inherit from their parents. The molecular structure of DNA can be imagined as a zipper with each tooth represented by one of four letters (A, C, G, or T), and with opposite teeth forming one of two pairs,
either A-T or G-C. The letters A, C, G, and T stand for adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, the basic building blocks of DNA.

The information contained in DNA is determined primarily by the sequence of letters along the zipper. For example, the sequence ACGCT represents different information than the sequence AGTCC in the same way that the word "POST" has a different meaning from "STOP" or "POTS," even though they use the same letters. The traits of a
human being are the result of information contained in the DNA code.

Living organisms that look different or have different characteristics also have different DNA sequences. The more varied the organisms, the more varied the DNA sequences. DNA fingerprinting is a very quick way to compare the DNA sequences of any two living organisms.

Making DNA Fingerprints

DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory procedure that requires six steps:
1: Isolation of DNA.
DNA must be recovered from the cells or tissues of the body. Only a small amount of tissue - like blood, hair, or skin - is needed. For example, the amount of DNA found at the root of one hair is usually sufficient.
2: Cutting, sizing, and sorting.
Special enzymes called restriction enzymes are used to cut the DNA at specific places. For example, an enzyme called EcoR1, found in bacteria, will cut DNA only when the sequence GAATTC occurs. The DNA pieces are sorted according to size by a sieving technique called electrophoresis. The DNA pieces are
passed through a gel made from seaweed agarose (a jelly-like product made from seaweed). This technique is the biotechnology equivalent of screening sand through progressively finer mesh screens to determine particle sizes.
3: Transfer of DNA to nylon.
The distribution of DNA pieces is transferred to a nylon sheet by placing the sheet on the gel and soaking them overnight.
4-5: Probing.
Adding radioactive or colored probes to the nylon sheet produces a pattern called the DNA fingerprint. Each probe typically sticks in only one or two specific places on the nylon sheet.
6: DNA fingerprint.
The final DNA fingerprint is built by using several probes (5-10 or more) simultaneously. It resembles the bar codes used by grocery store scanners.

Uses of DNA Fingerprints

DNA fingerprints are useful in several applications of human health care research, as well as in the justice system.

Diagnosis of Inherited Disorders

DNA fingerprinting is used to diagnose inherited disorders in both prenatal and newborn babies in hospitals around the world. These disorders may include cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, Huntington's disease, familial Alzheimer's, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, and many others.

Early detection of such disorders enables the medical staff to prepare themselves and the parents for proper treatment of the child. In some programs, genetic counselors use DNA fingerprint information to help prospective parents understand the risk of having an affected child. In other programs, prospective parents use DNA fingerprint
information in their decisions concerning affected pregnancies.

Developing Cures for Inherited Disorders

Research programs to locate inherited disorders on the chromosomes depend on the information contained in DNA fingerprints. By studying the DNA fingerprints of relatives who have a history of some particular disorder, or by comparing large groups of people with and without the disorder, it is possible to identify DNA patterns associated
with the disease in question. This work is a necessary first step in designing an eventual genetic cure for these disorders.

Biological Evidence

FBI and police labs around the U.S. have begun to use DNA fingerprints to link suspects to biological evidence - blood or semen stains, hair, or items of clothing - found at the scene of a crime. Since 1987, hundreds of cases have been decided with the assistance of DNA fingerprint evidence.

Another important use of DNA fingerprints in the court system is to establish paternity in custody and child support litigation. In these applications, DNA fingerprints bring an unprecedented, nearly perfect accuracy to the determination.

Personal Identification

Because every organ or tissue of an individual contains the same DNA fingerprint, the U.S. armed services have just begun a program to collect DNA fingerprints from all personnel for use later, in case they are needed to identify casualties or persons missing in action. The DNA method will be far superior to the dogtags, dental records, and
blood typing strategies currently in use.