Cost Estimating in Construction Part 1, Course #406

Presented by:

PDH Enterprises, LLC

PO Box 942
Morrisville, NC 27560
www.pdhsite.com

This course Cost Estimation in Construction Part 1 provides a study of the methods and
procedures needed for estimating the cost of construction projects. Students are given exercises
to take out quantities from building drawings and to select the appropriate type of tools and
equipment needed for estimating the project construction costs. Knowledge about the labor and
equipment required and their costs are also imparted. Bond, tax, and insurance requirements are
also dealt with. Part 1 of the course offers hands- on experience for estimating project costs in
the areas of transport of materials, earthwork excavation, and foundations.
To receive credit for this course, each student must pass an online quiz consisting of twenty-five
(25) questions. A passing score is 70% or better. Completion of this course and successfully
passing the quiz will qualify the student for four (4) hours of continuing education credit.
Course Author:
JN Ramaswamy, PhD, PE

Copyright J.N. Ramaswamy, Ph D, PE

www.PDHSite.com

TABLEOFCONTENTS
PageNo
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.

Introduction.2
EstimatingProcess4
ConceptualCostEstimating6
CostofLaborandEquipment.14
HandlingandTransportingMaterial..20
EarthworkandExcavation.25
Foundations.37
ListofFigures

II.1. Estimatingworkprogress4
III.1. Costcapacitycurve10
VII.1. Crosssectionofatrenchwithshoring,walesandbraces..37
ListofTables
III.1.
III.2.
III.3.
III.4.
III.5.
III.6.
VI.1.
VI.2.
VI.3.
VI.4.
VI.5.
VI.6.
VI.7.
VI.8.
VI.9.
VI.10.
VI.11.
VI.12.
VII.1.
VII.2.
VII.3.
VII.4.
VII.5.

Costdataofpreviouslyconstructedprojects7
Unitcostpercarspace....7
ConstructioncostindicesforTime.8
ConstructioncostindicesforLocation..9
Equipmentwithfactors.....................12
Equipmentwithpurchaseprice.13
Rangeofswellfactors26
Approximateunitweightofmaterials26
Ratesofhandlingearthbyhand28
Dataonwheeltypetrenchingmachines..29
Dataonladdertypetrenchingmachines29
Idealoutputofdraglines,cy/hr,bankmeasure.30
Adjustmentfactorsforangleofswingandotherthanidealdepthofcutfordraglines..31
Fillfactorsforfrontshovelbuckets.32
Timeforelementsinashovelproductioncycle.33
Adjustmentfactorsfordepthofcutandangleofswingforshovel.33
Representativecycletimeforbackhoes..35
Representativevaluesofbucketfillfactors36
Representativenumberofsheetpilesdriven/hour39
Representativenumberofwoodpilesdriven/hour,fullpenetration.4o
Approximatenumberofsteelpilesdriventofullpenetration/hour...42
Representativeratesofdrillingshaftsinsoils44
Representativeratesofdrillingshaftsinsoftrockmaterial45

I.

INTRODUCTION

Thepurposeofthiscourseistoenablethestudenttogainfundamentalknowledgeofestimatingthe
costofconstructionprojects.Theinformationcontainedinthiscoursepresentsthebasicconceptsto
assistthestudentinunderstandingtheestimatingprocessandprocedures.
Estimationisnotanexactscience.Knowledgeofconstruction,commonsense,andjudgmentare
required.Theestimatorandhisteamplayavitalroleinpreparingestimates.Theestimatormust
reviewandcheckallpartsofanestimatetoensurerealisticcosts.Hemustalsodocumenttheestimate
sothatitcanbeusedforcostcontrolduringtheconstructionprocess.
Theaimofestimationistodeterminethecostsrequiredtocompleteaprojectinaccordancewiththe
contractplansandspecifications.Foragivenproject,theestimatorcandeterminethedirectcostsfor
labor,materials,andequipment.Thebidpricecanthenbedeterminedbyaddingthecostsfor
overhead(indirectcosts),contingencies(costsforanypotentialunforeseenwork),andprofittothe
directcost.Becausetheestimateispreparedbeforetheprojectisconstructed,theestimateis,atbest,
acloseapproximationoftheactualcost.Estimatesareperformedthroughoutthelifeoftheproject.
Estimatesareclassifiedasapproximateestimatesanddetailedestimates.Approximateestimatesare
alsocalledfeasibility,screening,authorization,preliminary,conceptual,orderofmagnitude,
equipmentfactored,orbudgetestimates.Detailedestimatesarealsocalledfinal,bid/tender,or
definitiveestimates.Approximateestimatesaresufficientlyaccuratefortheevaluationofdesign
alternativesorthepresentationofpreliminaryconstructionestimatestotheowner.Detailedestimates
arepreparedbydeterminingthecostsofmaterials,labor,equipment,subcontractwork,overheadand
profit.Thedetailedestimateisimportanttoboththeownerandthecontractor.Asignificantamount
ofworkisperformedbysubcontractorswhospecializeinaparticulartypeofwork.Examplesinclude
clearing,drywall,painting,roofing,guardrails,striping,signs,andfences,etc.Estimateincludesboth
directandindirectcosts.Directcostcomprisesofmaterial,labor,equipment,andsubcontractorcosts.
Thequantityofmaterialinaprojectcanbeaccuratelydeterminedfromthedrawingsandthedifferent
costofmaterialcanbeobtainedfrommaterialsuppliers.Multiplyingthetotalquantityofworkwiththe
correspondingunitcostofthematerialgivesthetotalcostofthematerial.Ifequipmentisused,a
similarprocedureisadoptedtogettheequipmentcost.Addinglabor,materialandequipmentcosts
givesthedirectcosttotal.Indirectcostcomprisesofmobilization,fieldofficeexpenses,taxes,bonds,
insurance,finalcleanup,andoverheadexpensesrequiredtocompletetheproject.Taxesonlaborand
materialvarydependingonthelocation.Besides,socialsecuritytaxandunemploymenttaxmustbe
added.Thesetaxesvaryfromyeartoyearandtheymustbeascertainedtoincludeintheestimate.
Bondsincludebidbond,materialandlaborpaymentbond,andperformancebond.Thebidbond
ensurestheownerthatthecontractorwillsignacontractforthebidamount.Usuallyitisabout5
percentoftheconstructioncostoftheproject.Theperformancebondensurestheownerthatthe
contractorwillperformallworkinaccordancewiththecontractdocuments.Thepaymentbond
ensurestheownerthatallmateriallaborandmaterialwillbepaid.Theabovetwobondswillbeusually
2

about100to200percent.Insurancerequirementincludesworkmenscompensation,contractors
publicliability&propertydamage,andbuildersriskinsurance.Thebaseestimateisthetotalofdirect
andindirectcosts.Anappropriatecontingencyisaddedtothebaseestimatetoaccountforriskand
uncertaintiessuchaspricing,escalation,schedule,omissions,anderrors.Contingencyisarealand
necessarycomponentofanestimate.Finally,aprofitisaddedanditdependsuponnumerousfactors
suchassizeandcomplexityofproject,accuracyandcompletenessofdesigndocuments,competitionfor
work,availabilityofmoney,andvolumeofconstructionactivityintheprojectarea.Itrangesfrom5
percentforlargeprojectsto30percentforsmallhighriskprojects.


II. ESTIMATINGPROCESS

Estimatingisaprocess.Informationmustbeassembled,evaluated,documented,andmanagedinan
organizedmanner.Peopleinvolvedinpreparingtheestimatemustknowtheirrole,responsibility,and
authority.Effectivecommunicationsamongmembersoftheestimatingteamareessentialtoselecting
theestimatemethodology,collectingprojectdata,confirminghistoricalcostinformation,organizingthe
estimatetothedesiredformat,reviewingandcheckingtheestimate,anddocumentingtheestimate
afteritiscomplete.FigureII.1showsEstimatingworkprogress.

FigureII.1Estimatingworkprogress
Thefirststepisthekickoffmeetingwhichprovidesbackgroundinformationabouttheprojecttothe
estimatingteam,expectationsoftheteam,andanypertinentinformationthatmaybeneededto
preparetheestimate.Thenextstepistoestablishaworkplanpriortostartingtheestimatingprocess.
Theworkplanidentifiestheworkthatisneededtopreparetheestimate,includingwhoisgoingtodoit,
whenitistobedone,andthebudgetforpreparingtheestimate.Theworkplanshouldcontain
sufficientdetailtoenableallmembersoftheestimatingteamtounderstandwhatisexpectedofthem.
Selectionofthemethodofpreparinganestimatedependsuponthelevelofscopedefinition,time
allottedtoprepare,desiredlevelofaccuracy,andintendeduseoftheestimate.Astheestimateisbeing
prepared,itisimportanttoperformrealitycheckstomakesurethecostsdevelopedarewithin
reason.
Thequalityofanestimateisgovernedbythefollowingconsiderations:
1. Qualityandamountofinformationavailableforpreparingtheestimate.
2. Timeallocatedtopreparetheestimate.
3. Proficiencyoftheestimatorandtheestimatingteam.
4. Toolsandtechniquesusedinpreparingtheestimate.

Thepreparationofanestimateinvolvesthefollowing:
1. Developmentofconstructionmethods.
2. Preparationoftheconstructionschedule.
3. Materialquantitytakeoffs.
4. Assessmentofrisksforcontingency.
Foraccuracy,aninvestigationofthephysicalcharacteristicsoftheprojectsitemustbeconducted.The
scheduleisanintegralpartoftheestimate.Estimatedocumentationisessentialasitimproves
communicationbetweentheestimatingteamandmanagement,establishesamechanismforestimate
reviews,andformsabasisforearlyprojectcostcontrol.
Oncetheestimateiscomplete,adetailedreviewshouldbemade.Thenumberofreviewswillvary
dependingonthesizeoftheproject,typeofestimateand,thelengthoftimeallowedforpreparingthe
estimate.Foranyestimatethereshouldbeatleasttworeviews,oneduringthedevelopmentofthe
estimateandtheotheratornearthecompletionoftheestimate.Thefinalestimatereviewismorea
structuredprocessandthereviewmeetingmaybelengthy.
Afinalprojectcostreportmustbepreparedanditisanextremelyvaluabledocumenttocapturelessons
learnedforimprovingfutureestimates.Itprovidesarealfeedbacktocomparewiththeoriginalcost
estimate.Estimatefeedbackisanintegralpartoftheestimatingprocess.


III. CONCEPTUALCOSTESTIMATING

Alwaysownerswanttoknowtheapproximatecostofaprojectinordertoevaluatetheeconomic
feasibilityforproceedingwiththeproject.Aconceptualcostestimateprovidessuchapproximatecost
oftheproject.Aconceptualcostestimateisidentifiedbytheinformationfromwhichtheestimateis
compiledandisclassifiedintothreelevelsasshownbelow:
1. Level1Itisanestimatepreparedfromthedescriptionoftheprojectscopewherethereislittle
ornodesign.Theaccuracyofthisestimatefallsbetween+40and10percent.
2. Level2Itisanestimateprepareduponcompletionofpreliminarydesignandtheaccuracyof
whichfallsbetween+25and5percent.
3. Level3Itisanestimateprepareduponcompletionofthefinaldesignandtheaccuracyof
whichfallsbetween+10and3percent.
Theconceptualestimateisgenerallypreparedbytheowneraspartofeconomicfeasibilityanalysisorby
thedesignerduringthedesignphaseforselectingthedesignalternativesorbythecontractorfor
negotiatedworkbetweenownerandacontractor.Thepreparationofconceptualcostestimates
requiresknowledgeandexperiencewiththeworkrequiredtocompletetheproject.Costinformation
frompreviousprojectsofsimilartypeandsizeisessential.Fromthecostrecordsofpreviousprojects,
theestimatorcandevelopunitcoststoforecastthecostoffutureprojects.Theunitcostisdeveloped
fromweightingofthedatathatemphasizestheaveragevalue,yetitaccountsfortheextrememaximum
andminimumvalues.Thefollowingequationisusedforweightingcostdatafrompreviousprojects:
UC=(A+4B+C)/6Eq.(III.1)
whereUC=forecastunitcost
A=minimumunitcostofpreviousprojects
B=averageunitcostofpreviousprojects
C=maximumunitcostofpreviousprojects
ExampleIII.1illustratestheweightingofthecostdatafrompreviousprojectstoforecasttheunitcostof
aproposedproject.

ExampleIII.1:
CostdatafromeightpreviouslyconstructedparkinggarageprojectsisshowninTableIII.1.

TableIII.1Costdataofpreviouslyconstructedprojects

ProjectTotalCostNo.ofcarspaces

1$466,560150
2290,30480
3525,096120
4349,92090
5259,29060
6657,206220
7291,71870
8711,414180

Usetheweightedunitcosttodeterminetheconceptualcostestimateforaproposedparkinggarage
thatistocontain135parkingspaces.
Solution:
FromthedataprovidedintheTableIII.1,theunitcostperparkingspaceiscalculatedforeachprojectby
dividingthetotalcostbytherespectivenumberofspacesandtheresultisshowninTableIII.2below:
TableIII.2Unitcostofpreviouslyconstructedprojects

ProjectUnitcostpercarspace

1
$3,110.40
2
3,628.80
3
4,375.80
4
3,888.00
5
4,321.50
6
2,987.30
7
4,167.40
8
3,952.30
Total$30,431.50

Theaveragecostpercarspace=$30,431.508=$3,803.94

FromEq.(III.1),theforecastunitcost(UC)willbe=2,987.30+4(3,803.94)+4,375.80
6
=$3,763.14
Theconceptualcostestimatefor135carparkingspaceswillbe=135x3,763.14
=$508,023.00
Thecostinformationofpreviouslycompletedprojectsmustbeadjustedfortime,location,andsize
beforeapplyingthecostfortheproposedprojectbecauseofthedifferenceincostduetotime,location
andsizebetweentheproposedprojectandthepreviousprojects.
III.1TimeadjustmentSinceprojectsareconstructedatdifferenttimes,anadjustmentrepresenting
relativeinflationordeflationofcostsduetofactorssuchaslaborrates,materialcosts,interestratesetc.
mustbemade.Everyquarter,theEngineeringNewsRecord(ENR)publishesindicesofconstruction
industryrepresentingtheeconomictrendoftheindustrywithrespecttotime.Theindexcanbeusedto
adjustpreviouscostinformationforuseinpreparingaconceptualcostestimate.Thechangeinvalueof
anindexbetweenanytwoyearscanbeusedtocalculateanequivalentcompoundinterestrate.This
equivalentinterestcanbeusedtoadjustthepastrecordstoforecastfutureprojectcosts.ExampleIII.2
illustratesthetimeadjustmentbyusingtheindices.
ExampleIII.2:
Aprojectwasconstructedatacostof$843,500lastyear.Anewprojectisproposedforconstruction3
yearsfromnow.TheconstructioncostindicesforTime,asobtainedfromENR,areasshownin
TableIII.3:
TableIII.3ConstructioncostindicesforTime

YearIndex
3yrago358
2yrago359
1yrago357
Currentyr378

Determinetheconceptualcostestimateoftheproposedproject.
Solution:
Thecostindexhasincreasedfrom358to378in3years.Anequivalentcompoundinterestcanbe
calculatedfromthischange,thatis,
378=358(1+i)3or(378/358)=(1+i)3or1.05586=(1+i)3or1.01828=1+i
ori=0.01828or1.828%Usingthisivalueandthe4yeardifferenceinconstruction
8

ofthetwoprojects,thecostoftheproposedprojectisadjusted
tobe=$843,500x(1+0.01828)4=$906,960.
III.2LocationadjustmentThecostofconstructionvariesfromonelocationtotheotherduetothe
differenceincostsofmaterials,equipment,andlabor.Henceanadjustmenthastobemadethat
representsthecostdifferencebetweenthelocations.TheENRpublishesindicesofconstructioncosts
withrespecttogeographiclocations.Usingtheseindices,anadjustmentcanbemadetotheprevious
costinformationtodeterminetheconceptualcostoftheproposedconstruction.ExampleIII.3
illustratesthelocationadjustmentbyusingconstructioncostindices.
ExampleIII.3:
AprojectwasconstructedinCityAatacostof$387,200andanewprojectisproposedforconstruction
inCityD.ThelocationindicesforconstructioncostsofsomecitiesareasshowninTableIII.4:
TableIII.4ConstructioncostindicesforLocation

LocationIndex
CityA1,025
CityB1,170
CityC1,260
CityD1,105
CityE1,240

UsingtheinformationfromtheaboveTable,determinethecostoftheproposedproject.
Solution:
Thecostofaprojectisproportionaltothecostindexofthecitywheretheprojectisconstructed.
Inthisexample,(costofprojectinCityA/cityAindex)=(costofprojectinCityD/cityDindex)
AssumethecostoftheproposedprojectinCityDasXandrewritingtheaboveequationwithnumbers,
($387,200/1,025)=(X/1,105)orX=($387,200x1,105)/1,025orX=$417,200
Thecostoftheproposedprojectis$417,200
III.3SizeadjustmentIngeneral,thecostofaprojectisdirectlyproportionaltoitssize.Soan
adjustmenthastobemadetorepresentthesizeoftheproposedprojectwithrespecttothepreviously
constructedprojectwhoseconstructioncostisavailable.Theadjustmentisasimpleratioofthesizes.
ExampleIII.4illustratesthesizeadjustment.
ExampleIII.4:
Aprojectcontaining62,700sfoffloorareaisproposedforconstruction.Aprojectconstructedearlier
containingafloorareaof38,500sfatacostof$2,197,540istobeusedfordeterminingtheconceptual
costoftheproposedproject.Whatisthecostoftheproposedproject?
9

Solution:
AssumethecostoftheproposedprojectasX
Sincethecostisproportionaltothesize,($2,197,540/38,500)=($X/62,700)or
X=($2,197,540x62,700)/38,500=$3,578,850
Foragivenproject,allthethreeadjustmentshavetobemade.
III.4ConceptualCostEstimatingforIndustrialprojectsForindustrialprojects,thecommonlyused
methodsinclude:
1. Costcapacitycurve.
2. Capacityratios,raisedtoanexponent.
3. Plantcostperunitofproduction.
4. Equipmentfactoredestimates.
III.4.1.CostcapacitycurveAcostcapacitycurveissimplyagraphthatplotscostontheverticalaxis
andcapacityonthehorizontalaxis.Thesecurvesaredevelopedforavarietyofindividualprocessunits,
systemsandservicesandupdatedutilizingreturncostdatafromcompletedjobs.Theestimatedcostis
determinedbylocatingthecapacityonthehorizontalaxis,thenfollowingastraightlineuptothepoint
ofintersectionwiththecurve.Theestimatedcostisthenreadfromtheverticalaxisbyastraightline
fromthehorizontalaxispointofintersectionwiththecurvetotheverticalaxis.Thetotalinstalledcost
derivedfromthecurvemaybeadjustedfortimeandlocation.ExampleIII.5illustratestheprocedure
forpreparingacostcapacitycurveestimate.
ExampleIII.5:
CostcapacitycurvesfordifferentprocessunitsinachemicalplantareshowninFigureIII.1
EstimatethecostforaprojectthathasaprocessunitCwithacapacityof6,000barrelsperday?

FigureIII.1costcapacitycurve
10


Solution:
Adoptthefollowingsteps:
1. Locatethe6,000barrelsperdaycapacityalongthehorizontalaxis.
2. DrawaverticallineupwarduntilitintersectstheProcessUnitCcostcurve.
3. Drawahorizontallinefromtheaboveintersectionuntilitcutstheverticalaxis.
4. Readthenumberwherethehorizontallinecutstheverticalaxis.
Byfollowingtheabovesteps,theestimatedcostisfoundtobe$151,000.
III.4.2.CapacityRatiosRaisedtoanExponentThismethodtakesintoaccounttheeconomyofscale
onthetotalinstalledcost.Thecostofaprocessunitisdeterminedbymeansofthefollowingequation:
CostofProcessUnitA={CapacityofprocessunitA}X
CostofProcessUnitB{CapacityofProcessUnitB}xEq.(III.2)
whereCostofProcessUnitAistobedetermined
CostofProcessUnitBisknown
Capacityofthetwoprocessunitsareknown
xisanexponentderivedmathematicallyfromhistoricalrecordsfromcompletedprojects
Typically,thevalueofexponentxrangesfrom0.55to0.88dependinguponthetypeofprocessunit.
Generallyavalueof0.6isused.
TheuseoftheequationisillustratedinExampleIII.6

ExampleIII.6:
Thecostofa320ft3/hrprocessunitis$675,000.Fromhistoricalcostrecords,thecapacityratio
exponentoftheprocessunitis0.72.Estimatethecostofasimilarprocessunitwithacapacityof
450ft3/hr.
Solution:
CostofProcessUnittobedetermined={CapacityofProcessUnitwhosecostistobedetermined}0.72
CostofProcessUnitalreadydetermined{CapacityofProcessUnitwhosecostisalreadydetermined}0.72

Substitutingnumbersintheaboveequation,
(CostofprocessUnittobedetermined)={450}0.72
(675,000){320}0.72
11

CostofProcessUnitisdeterminedtobe=$675,000x{450}0.72=$862,797.
{320}0.72

III.4.3.PlantcostperUnitofproductionThismethodisusedtoestimatethetotalplantcostbasedon
theaverageplantcostsperunitofproductionobtainedfrompreviouslycompletedprojects.This
techniqueassumesthattherelationshipbetweenplantcostandproductioncapacityislinear.This
methodissimilartothesquarefootestimatingmethodusedforbuildingprojects.
III.4.4.EquipmentfactoredEstimatesThistechniqueinvolvesdevelopingafactorforeachequipment.
Thisfactoristheratiobetweenthetotalinstalledcosttothebaseequipmentcost.Totalinstalledcost
includesthebasecostoftheequipmentpluscostsassociatedwithtransportation,labor,insuranceetc.
whicharenecessarytoinstallandoperatetheequipment.Thismethodofestimationisillustratedin
ExampleIII.7
ExampleIII.7:
TableIII.5showsdifferenttypesofequipmentandtheirequipmentfactors:
TableIII.5Equipmentwithfactors

EquipmentFactor
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Condensers2.4
Controlinstruments4.1
Compressors2.5
Fans2.7
Furnaces2.0
Generators1.7
Heatexchangers4.5
Motors1.8
Pumps5.3
Reactors4.0
Powervessels3.5
Tanks2.5

UsingtheinformationfromTableIII.5,estimatethecostofaplantwherethefollowingtypesof
equipmentaretobeinstalled.ThenameoftheequipmentanditspurchasepriceisprovidedinTable
III.6

12

TableIII.6Equipmentwithpurchasep[rice
EquipmentPriceFactorPlantcost

Condenser$15,0002.4$36,000
Controlinstruments22,0004.190,200
Compressors85,0002.5212,500
Fans15,0002.740,500
Furnaces140,0002.0280,000
Generators25,0001.742,500
Heatexchangers95,0004.5427,500
Motors55,0001.899,000
Pumps18,0005.395,400
Reactors120,0004.0480,000
Towervessels325,0003.51,137,500
Tanks140,0002.7378,000
Total1,055,0003,318,900

Solution:
TheequipmentfactorfromTableIII.5forallitemsispostedagainsttherespectiveitemof
equipmentinTableIII.6(Equipmentwithpurchaseprice)forallitems.Theequipmentbasepriceis
multipliedbythecorrespondingequipmentfactorandtheamountisshowninthelastcolumnof
TableIII.6.Allsuchcostsareaddedtogivethetotalplantcostof$3,318,000

13


IV. COSTOFLABORANDEQUIPMENT

Peoplearethemostimportantresourceonaproject.Thecosttohirealaborerincludesthe
straighttimewageplusanyovertimepay,workerscompensationinsurance,socialsecuritytax,
unemploymentcompensationtax,liabilityandpropertydamageinsurance,andfringebenefits.
Fringebenefitsincludeapprenticeplans,pensionplans,andhealthandwelfareinsurance.Straight
timewagenormallyappliestoworkdoneduringthe40hrworkweek,8hrs/dayand5days/week.
Forworkinexcessof8hr/dayor40hr/week,thestraighttimewagerateisgenerallyincreasedto
1.5to2timesthestraighttimerate.
IV.1.CostoflaborThehourlyrateofconstructionlaborersisdeterminedbyoneofthefollowing
threemeans:
1. Unionwageconstructionworkerswhoaremembersofalaborunionarepaidawagerate
establishedbyalaborcontractbetweentheirunionandtheconstructioncontractors
management.Unionwageratesusuallyincludefringebenefits,whicharepaiddirectlytothe
union.
2. Openshopwageconstructionworkerswhoarenotmembersofaunionarepaidaopenshop
wageagreedtobyeachindividualemployeeandtheemployer.
3. Prevailingwageforconstructionworkerswhoareemployedonprojectsfundedwithstateor
federalmoney,theirwagerateisestablishedbytheprevailingwageattheprojectlocation.The
federalgovernmentandmanystateshavegovernmentestablishedwageforeachconstruction
craftforeachgeographiclocation.
ExampleIV.1illustratesthecalculationofthehourlycostwhenaworkerworksovertime.
ExampleIV.1:
Anironworkerworks10hr/day,6daysaweek.Abasewageof$20.97/hrispaidforallstraighttime
work,8hr/day,5day/week.Anovertimerateoftimeandonehalfispaidforallhoursover8hr/day,
MondaythroughFridayanddoubletimeforSaturdaywork.Thesocialsecuritytaxis7.65percent
andtheunemploymenttaxis3percentofactualwages.Therateforworkmenscompensation
insuranceis$12.50/$100.00ofbasewage,andpublicliabilityandpropertydamageinsurancerateis
$3.25/#100.00basewage.Fringebenefitsare$3.15/hr.Calculatetheaveragehourlycostofthe
ironworker.

14

Solution:
Actualworkhours=10x6=60hr
Payhours={(5x8)@1.0}+{(5x2)@1.5}+{(10x1)@2.0}=40+15+20=75hr
Basewage=$20.97
Averagehourlypay=(75/60)x$20.97=$26.2125
Taxesarepaidonactualwagewhileinsuranceispaidonbasewage.
Averagehourlypay=$26.2125
Socialsecuritytax:7.65%x$26.2125=2.0053
Unemploymenttax:3%x$26.2125=0.7864
Workerscompensation:($12.50/$100)x$20.97=2.6213
Publicliabilityandpropertydamageinsurance:($3.25/$100)x$20.97=0.6815
Fringebenefits:3.1500
Averagehourlycost=sumofalltheabove=$35.4570/hr
Fromthehourlyrate,thedailyrateiscalculatedbymultiplying$35.4570by10=$354.57
theweeklycostcanbecalculatedbymultiplying$35.4570by60=$2,127.42
theyearlycostiscalculatedbymultiplyingtheweeklycostby52=$2,127x52
=$110,625.84
andthemonthlycostiscalculatedbydividingtheyearlycostby12
=$110,625.84/12=$9,218.82

IV.2CostofEquipmentAllprojectsinvolveuseofconstructionequipmenttosomeextent.
Constructionequipmentcanbepurchasedorrented.Theequipmentispurchasedwhenextensive
useisrequiredanditisrentedifitisusedsparingly.
Whenequipmentispurchased,itisnecessarytodetermine(a)thecostofowning(ownershipcost)
and(b)thecostofoperating(operatingcost)theunit.
(a) Theownershipcost(costofowning)includesthefollowing:
1. Investmentonmoneyrequiredtopurchasetheequipment.
Themoneytopurchasetheequipmentwillbeborrowedfromalender,oritwillbetakenfromthe
reservefundsofthepurchaser.Ineithercase,therewillbeinterestcosttothebuyer.Thatis,either
thelenderwillchargeaninterestfortheborrowedmoney,orthebuyerwillloseanyinterestincome
onthemoneytakenoutofhisreservefunds.Therefore,theinterestexpenseorthelossofthe
interestincome,ispartoftheownershipcost.Interestratevariesdependingupontheeconomic
15

situation.Anadditionalappropriateamountmustbeaddedtoaccountfortheriskinvolvedin
purchasingtheequipment.Themethodusedtoestimatetheprobableownershipcostusesthe
capitalrecoveryandsinkingfundequations.

CapitalRecoveryEquationisasfollows:
A=P{i(1+i)n}Eq.(IV.1)
{(1+i)n1}
whereP=purchaseprice
A=equivalentannualvalue
I=annualinterestrate
n=usefullife,yrs
Theaboveequationgivestheequivalentannualvalue(A)ofthepurchaseprice(P)assumingan
annualinterestrateof(i)duringtheusefullifeof(n)years.
SinkingFundequationisasfollows:
A=F{__i___}Eq.(IV.2)
{(1+i)n1}
whereA=equivalentannualvalue
F=futuresalvagevalue
i=annualinterestrate
n=usefullife,yrs
Theaboveequationgivestheequivalentannualvalue(A)ofthefuturesalvagevalue(F)assumingan
annualinterestrate(i)duringtheusefullifeof(n)years.
Inadditiontotheinterestratefortheborrowedmoney,additionalrateofinterestmustbeaddedto
covertheriskandanequivalentinterestratefortaxes,insuranceandstoragemustbeadded.Thesum
ofallthethreeinterestratesiscalledtheminimumattractiverateofreturn(MARR).
ExampleIV.2illustratesthedeterminationofannualownershipcost.
ExampleIV.2:
Thepurchasepriceofequipmentis$145,000.Theestimatedsalvagevalueis$25,000aftertheendof
itsexpectedusefullifeof6years.Assumeinterestforborrowingmoneyas9percent,forriskas5
percent,andtheequivalentinterestratefortaxes,insuranceandstorageas3percent.Determinethe
annualownershipcost.

Solution:
16

Minimumattractiverateofreturn=9+5+3=17percentori=0.17
Usefullifen=6yrs
Initialinvestment(P)=$145,000
Salvagevalueattheendofusefullife=$25,000
SubstitutingthenumbersinEq.(IV.1)

A=$145,000x{0.17(1+0.17)6}
{(1+0.17)61}
=$145,000x0.2786=$40,397.Thisistheequivalentannualcost.Sincethereisasalvagevalue,its
equivalentannualvaluemustbedeterminedandthisvaluemustbesubtractedfrom$40,397to
getthenetequivalentannualcost.
UsingEq.(IV.2)andsubstitutingnumbers,
A=$25,000x{0.17___}
{(1+0.17)61}
=$25,000x0.1086=$2715andnetannualownershipcost=$40,397$2,715=$37,684.

2. Depreciationoftheequipmentoveritsusefullife
Thedepreciationofequipmentisnormallyassumedtobelinearoveritsusefullife.Inother
words,annualdepreciationiscalculatedbydividingthepurchasepricebytheusefullifeofthe
equipment.
3. Taxes
4. Insurance,and
5. Storagewhennotinuse.
Foritems3to5above,anequivalentinterestrateisaddedtotheinterestrateontheborrowedmoney.
(b) Thecostofoperatingtheunit(operatingcost)includesthefollowing:
1. Costoffuelconstructionequipmentisdrivenbyinternalcombustionengineswhichrequire
fuel.Thefuelmaybegasolineordiesel.Theequipmentisseldomusedfor60minutesinan
hour.Mostmachinesnormallyoperatefor45minutesinanhour.Moreover,themachineis
notoperatedatitsfullcapacityallthetime.Itmayworkatitsfullpoweronlyduringheavyload
conditions.
Atnormaltemperatureandpressure,agasolineenginewillconsumeapproximately0.06gallons
offuelforeachactualhorsepowerdevelopedandadieselenginewillconsumeapproximately
0.04gallonsoffuelforeachhorsepowerdeveloped.
17

Foranenginethatworksatitsfullpoweronlyforafractionofitscycleofoperationandwith
partialhouroperation,anoperatingfactormustbeestablishedfirst.Theoperatingfactor
consistsoftwoparts:enginefactorandtimefactor.Theoperatingfactorisaproductofthese
factors.Tocalculatethefuelneeded,theratedhorsepowermustbemultipliedbythe
operatingfactorandtherequiredfuel/hp.
ExampleIV.3illustratesthecalculationforfuelrequirement:
ExampleIV.3:
Ashovelisusedinadiggingoperation.Itsratedhorsepoweris160.Duringanoperatingcycle
of20seconds,theengineisoperatedatfullpowerwhilefillingthebucketintoughground,
requiring5seconds.Duringthebalanceofthecycle,theengineisoperatedat50percentofits
ratedpowerandtheshovelisoperatedonlyfor45minutesinanhour.Calculatethediesel
requiredperhour.
Solution:
Enginefactor:
Fillingthebucket:(5/20)x100%=0.250
Restofcycle:(15/20)x50%=0.375
Enginefactor=0.625
Timefactor:45/60=0.750
Operatingfactor=0.625x0.750=0.470
Fuelrequired=0.47x160x0.04=3.0gallons/hour

2. Costoflubricatingoilthequantityoflubricatingoilrequiredbyanenginewillvarywiththesize
oftheengine,thecapacityofthecrankcase,theconditionsofthepistons,andthenumberof
hoursbetweenoilchanges.Thequantityofoilconsumedcanbeestimatedbymeansofthe
followingequation:
Q={(hpx0.6x0.006)/7.4}+c/tEq.(IV.3)
whereQ=quantityofoilrequired,gal/hr
hp=ratedhorsepoweroftheengine
c=capacityofcrankcase,gal
t=timebetweenoilchanges,hrsand0.6=operatingfactor(generallyused)

ExampleIV.4illustratestheuseofEq.(IV.3).

18


ExampleIV.4:
Ashovelfittedwitha100hpmotorisusedinadiggingoperation.Thecapacityofcrankcaseis4galand
oilhastobechangedevery100hoursofoperation.Assuminganoperatingfactorof0.6,calculatethe
lubricatingoilrequiredfortheengine.

Solution:
SubstitutingnumbersinEq.(IV.3),
Q={(100x0.6x0.006)/7.4}+4/100
=0.526gal/hr
Inaddition,enginesrequiregreasewhichisnormally0.5lb/hr
3. Costofmaintenance,andrepairs.
Theannualcostofmaintenanceandrepairsisoftenexpressedasapercentageofthepurchase
priceorasapercentageofthestraightlinedepreciationcosts(PF)/n

19


V. HANDLING&TRANSPORTINGMATERIAL

Constructionmaterialshavetobetransportedfromthestorageyardofthematerialsuppliertothejob
siteandalsofromthestockpilesonthejobsitetothelocationwherethematerialwillbepermanently
installed.Thisinvolvesacostthatmustbeincludedintheestimatefortheproject.
Thetimerequiredbyatruckfortransportofmaterialsisdividedintothefollowingfourelements:
1. Load.
2. Haul,loaded.
3. Unload.
4. Return,empty.
Thesefourelementsdefinethecycletimefortransportingmaterial.Thetimerequiredforeach
elementshouldbeestimated.Timeforelements2and4canbedeterminedfromthespeedofthe
vehicleandthedistancetraveled.Speeddependsuponthevehicle,trafficcongestion,conditionofthe
road,andotherfactors.Fordeterminingtimeforelements1and3,productionratemustbeknown.
Productionrateisdefinedasthenumberofunitsofworkproducedbyaunitofequipmentoraperson
inaspecifiedunitoftime.TheunitoftimeisusuallyIhr.Theproductionratewillbeamaximumifthe
workisperformedatthesamerateduringthe60minofthehour.Butthisisseldompossibledueto
interruptionsanddelays.Amachineoraworkermayworkonlyfor45mininanhr,inwhichcase,the
actualproductionrateis45/60or0.75ofthemaximumproductionrate.Theratio45/60or0.75is
definedastheefficiencyfactor.
Productionratesarecrucialtoestimatethetimeandcostofprojects.Thetimethatlaborand
equipmentwillbeonthejobcanbecalculatedbydividingthetotalquantityofworkbytheproduction
rate.Afterthetimetoperformtheworkiscalculated,thecostoflaborandequipmentcanbe
determinedbymultiplyingthetotaltimebythehourlyrateoflaborandequipment.ExampleV.1
illustratestheaboveprocess:
ExampleV.1:175tonsofsandwithadensityof100lb/cfmustbetransported7miusinga12cydump
truck.Twolaborersandadrivereachwillloadthetruckatarateof1.5cy/hr.Thehaulspeedis30mph
andreturnspeedis40mph.Ittakes3mintounloadthetruck.Thecostofthetruckis$25/hr,the
driveris$18/hr,andthelaboreris$15/hr.Determinethetotaltime,totalcost,andthecost/unitof
transportingthesandiftheactualworkingtimeis45mininonehr.

20

Solution:
1. Quantityofwork:
Volumeofsand(175x2,000x100)/27=130cy
2. Cycletime:
Load=12/(3x1.5)=2.667hr
Haul=7/30=0.233
Dump=3/60=0.050
Return=7/40=0.175
Totalcycletime=3.125hr/trip
3. Productionrate:
Numberoftrips/hr=1/3.125=0.32
Quantityhauled/trip=12cyx0.32=3.84cy/hr
Productionrate=3.84cyx45/60=2.88cy/hr
4. Time:
UsingItruckand2laborers,timetakentotransport130cyofsand=130/2.88=45.1hrs.
5. Cost:
Truck=45.1hrsx1x$25=$1,127.50
Driver=45.1hrsx1$18=811.80
Laborers=45.1hrsx2x$15=1,53.00
Totalcost$3,292.30
6. Unitcost:
Cost/cy=$3,292.30/130=$25.33
Cost/ton=$3,292.30/175=$18.81
InExampleV.1,theloadtime(2.667hr)issignificantlygreaterthanthetravelanddumptime(0.458hr)
whichindicatesanimbalancebetweenloadingandhauling.Theloadtimecanbereducedbyusinga
tractorloaderinsteadoflabor.ExampleV.2illustratestheuseofaloadertocalculatethecostof
transportationofthesandmentionedinExampleV.1

21

ExampleV.2:
Toloadthetruckwithsand,asmalltractorloaderisrentedatacostof$50/hr.Theproductionrateof
theloaderis95cy/hr.Thecostoftransportingtheloadertothesiteis$400.Theloaderoperatorcostis
$21/hr.Determinethetotaltime,cost,andcost/cyfortransportingthe175tonsofsand.
Solution:
1. Quantityofwork:
Volumeofsand(175x2,000x100)/27=130cy

2. Cycletime:
Load=12/95=0.126hr
Haul=7/30=0.233
Dump=3/60=0.050
Return=7/40=0.175
Totalcycletime=0.584hr/trip
3. Productionrate:
Numberoftrips/hr=1/0.584=1.71
Quantityhauled/trip=12x1.71=20.5cy/hr
Productionrate=20.85x45/60=15.4cy/hr
4. Time:
UsingItruckandIloader,timetakentotransport130cyofsand=130/15.4=8.4hrs
5. Cost:
Truck=8.4hrsx1x$25=$210.00
Driver=8.4hrsx1$18=151.20
Loader=8.4hrsx1x$50=420.00
Operator8.4hrsx1x$21=176.40
Total=$957.60
Transportingloader=400.00
Totalcost=$1,357.60

22

6. Unitcost:
Cost/cy=$1,357.60/130=$10.44
Cost/ton=$1,357.60/175=$7.67
Thetime,totalcost,andcost/unitusingtheloaderaresignificantlylowerthanthoseusingthelaborers
asinExampleV.1.Itisthereforejustifiedtousetheloadereventhoughthereisachargefor
transportingittothesite.
Useoftheloaderbecomeseconomicaliflargequantityofworkisinvolved.Forsmallerquantities,it
mayprovetobemoreexpensive.Thereforeitbecomesnecessarytocalculatethequantityofmaterial
overwhichitiseconomicaltousetheloader.Thedeterminationofthisquantityismadeasshown
belowusingthedatafromExamplesV.1andV.2.
Hourlycostusinglaborerstoloadthetruck=$25+$18+2x$15=$73/hr
Hourlycostusingloadertoloadthetruck=$50+$21+$25+$18=$114/hr
LetXcybethequantityoverwhichloaderiseconomical
Itcosts$73/hrusinglaborersandproduces2.88cy/hr
Thereforecost/cy=$73/2.88andforXcythecost=(73/2.88)xX..(1)
Likewiseitcosts$114/hrusingtheloaderandproduces15.4cy/hr+$400additionallyfor
transportationoftheloadertothejobsite.
Thereforecost/cy=$114/15.4andforXcythecost=($114/15.4)xX+$400..(2)
Expressions(1)and(2)mustbeequal
{73/2.88}X={114/15.4}X+400
23.53X=7.4X+400andX=22.3cy.
Thus,ifitislessthan22.3cyofsand,itismoreeconomicaltousethetwolaborersandonetruckto
transportthesand.Ifitismorethan22.3cy,itismoreeconomicaltousetheloaderandonetruck.
ItisseeninExampleV.2,theloadtimeismuchlessthanthetransporttimeby1truckandthusthe
loaderiskeptidlewhilethetruckistransportingthematerial.Additionaltrucksmustbeaddedsuch
thattheloadtimeandtransporttimebalance.ExampleV.3illustratestheuseofmultipletruckswith
theloaderandcalculatesthecostoftransportation.
ExampleV.3:
UsingthedatainExampleV.2,determinetheeconomicalnumberoftruckssuchthattheloadtimeand
transporttimebalance.Alsodeterminethecost/unitfortransportingthematerial.
Solution:
Thenumberoftrucksrequiredtobalancetheloadercanbecalculatedbydividingthetotalcycletimeby
theloadtime.
No.oftrucksrequired=totalcycletime/loadtime=0.584/0.126=4.63
23

Alternative1considerusing4trucks.With4trucks,therearefewertrucksthanneededandhencethe
productionrateisgovernedbythetruckproductionrate.
Quantityhauledbyonetruck=20.5cy/hr
Quantityhauledby4trucks=4x20.5=82.0cy/hr
Timerequiredfortransporting130cyofsand=130/82=1.6hrs

Cost:Loader=1.6hrsx$50=$80.00
Loaderoperator=1.6hrsx$21=33.60
Trucks=1.6hrsx4x$25=160.00
Truckdrivers=1.6hrsx4x$18=115.20
Totallaborandequipment=388.80
Transportingloader=400.00
Totalcost=$788.20
Cost/cy=$788.20/130=$6.07
Alternative2considerusing5trucks.With5trucks,therearemoretrucksthanneededandhencethe
productionrateisgovernedbythatoftheloader.
Productionrateofloader=95cy/hr
Timerequiredtotransport130cyofsand=130/95=1.4hrs

Cost:Loader=1.4hrsx$50=$470.00
Loaderoperator=1.4hrsx$21=29.40
Trucks=1.4hrsx5x$25=175.00
Truckdrivers=1.4hrsx5x$18=126.00
Totallaborandequipment=400.40
Transportingloader=400.00
Totalcost=$800.40
Cost/cy=800.40/130=$6.16
Comparingthetwoalternatives,alternative1,whichisusing4trucks,isbetterbecauseitcostlessfor
transportby$0.09/cy.

24


VI. EARTHWORKANDEXCAVATION

Mostprojectsinvolveexcavationtosomeextent.Usuallymachinery(excavatingequipment)is
employedinexcavation.Tocalculatethecostofexcavation,thetimetakenforexcavationmustbe
ascertained.Thetimetakenbyamachinedependsuponitsproductionratewhichdependsuponjob
factorssuchastypeofsoil,extentofwaterpresent,weatherconditions,freedomofworkersand
equipmenttooperateonthejob,sizeofjob,andlengthofhaulfordisposal.Managementfactorssuch
asorganizingthejob,maintaininggoodmoraleamongworkers,selectingandusingsuitableequipment
andconstructionmethods,exercisingcareinservicingequipment,establishinggoodfieldsupervisory
personneletc.alsoaffecttheproductionrate.
Methodsofexcavatingvaryfromhanddiggingandshovelingforsmalljobstothatdonebymachines
suchasbackhoe,frontshovel,dragline,clamshell,scraper,bulldozer,trenchingmachine,anddredge.
ThesizeofthehaulingunitmustbebalancedwiththeexcavatingequipmentasdescribedinSectionV.
Theearthmaterialcanbemeasuredasexcavated,orhauled,orcompacted.Earththatistobe
excavatediscalledbankmeasure.Earththatisplacedinahaulingunitfortransportationiscalledloose
measure.Earththatistobecompactediscalledcompactmeasure.
Earthafterbeingloosenedduringexcavationandplacedinthehaulingunitwilloccupyalargervolume,
withacorrespondingreductioninweight/unitvolume.Thisincreaseinvolumeiscalledswell.The
amountofswelldependsuponthetypeofsoilandtheamountoflooseningduringexcavation.When
theearthisplacedinafillareaandcompactedwithcompactionequipment,itoccupiesasmaller
volumethaninitsnaturalstateinthebankmeasure.Thisdecreaseinvolumeiscalledshrinkage.The
amountofshrinkagedependsuponthetypeofsoil,moisturecontentofsoil,typeofthecompaction
equipment,andthenumberofpassesofthecompactionequipment.Thecorrelationbetweenunit
weights,volume,swell,andshrinkageareshowninthefollowingequations:
L={1+Sw//100}B..Eq.(VI.1)andC={1Sh/100}B..Eq.(VI.2)
whereL=volumeofloosesoil
B=volumeofundisturbedsoil
C=volumeofcompactedsoil
Sw=percentageofswell
Sh=percentageofshrinkage
EquationsVI.1andVI.2givetherelationshipbetweenthevolumesofdifferentmeasures.EquationsVI.3
andVI.4givetherelationshipbetweentheunitweightofthedifferentmeasures.

25

L1=B1/(1+Sw/100)..Eq.(VI.3)andC1=B1/(1Sh/100)..Eq.(VI.4)
whereL1=unitweightofloosesoil
B1=unitweightofundisturbedsoil
C1=unitweightofcompactedsoil
Sw=percentageofswell
Sh=percentageofshrinkage
Inestimation,itisimportanttoconvertonemeasureintoanotherandtheaboveequationsare
importantforthispurpose.
TableVI.1givestherangeofswellfactorsforsomematerials:
TableVI.1Rangeofswellfactors

MaterialSwell,%
Sandorgravel1015
Loam1520
Commonearth2030
Hardclay2540
Blastedrock5060

TableVI.2belowgivestheapproximateunitweightofsomematerials:
TableVI.2Approximateunitweightofmaterials

MaterialBankweight,lb/cf

Loam80
Sand,dry95
Sand,wet100
Clay,dry100
Clay,wet110
Earth,dry105
Earth,wet115
Earthandgravel120
Gravel,dry105
Gravel,wet125
Limestone160
Rock,wellblasted155
Shale130

26

TherelationshipbetweenthedifferentvolumeandunitweightusingEquationsVI.1toVI.4isillustrated
inExampleVI.
ExampleVI.1:
Claysoilwithabankunitweightof105lb/cfisexcavated,hauledby22cy(loosemeasure)trucks,and
placedinafillandcompacted.Theemptyweightofthetruckis67,500lb.Theswellfactorand
shrinkagefactorrespectivelyare30and15percent.Calculatethefollowing:
1. Equivalentbankmeasurevolumeandcompactedmeasurevolumeforthe22cytruckloadof
soil,and
2. Thetotalverticalweightofthehaulingunitwiththepayloadofthesoil.
Solution:
Equivalentloosemeasurevolume:ByEq.(VI.1),L=(1+Sw/100)B
22cy=(1+30/100)B
B=22/(1+0.30)=22/1.3=16.9cybankvolume.
BYEq.(VI.2),C=(1Sh/100)B={1(15/100)}16.9=0.85x16.9
=14.4cycompactedvolume
Weightofsoilpayload,byEq.(VI.3),L1={B1/1+(Sw/100)}
=105/{1+(30/100)}
=105/1.3=80.8lb/cylooseweightofsoil
Soilpayload=80.8x27x22=47,995lb
Emptyweightoftruck=67,500lb
Totalweightwithpayload=67,500+47,995=115,495lbs

VI.1.ExcavatingbyhandNumeroustypesandsizesofexcavatingequipmentisgenerallyusedin
constructionexceptinverysmallprojectswhereusingequipmentwillbemoreexpensiveasshownin
SectionV.Evenifthejobisbig,sometimestheremaynotbesufficientroomtooperatetheequipment
suchasforamotorpumpfoundationforaunitlocatedinaconfinedspaceinarefinery.Also,if
numerousundergroundutilitiesexist,itmaybedifficulttouseequipmentandso,underthese
circumstances,manualexcavationhastoberesortedto.
Therateofexcavationbyalaborervarieswiththetypeofmaterial,extentofdiggingrequired,heightto
whichthematerialmustbelifted,andclimaticconditions.TableVI.3givestherepresentativeratesof
earthexcavationbyhand.

27

TableVI.3Ratesofhandlingearthbyhand

ExampleVI.2illustratesestimatingthecostofearthexcavationbyhand.
ExampleVI.2:
Atrenchinaconfinedareainarefineryhastobeexcavatedbyhand.Thetrenchis15ftlong,3ftwide
and4ftdeepandthesoilissandyloam.Calculatethecostofexcavation.Costoflaboris$15.56/hr.
Solution:
Quantityofwork:
Volumeofearth=(3x4x15)/27=6.7cy
Productionrate:
UsingdatafromTableVI.1,Looseningearth=6.7x2hrs=13.4hrs
Shovelinglooseearthfromtrench=6.7x1hr=6.7hrs
Shovelingbacktothetrench=6.7x0.5hr=3.4hrs
Backfillingtrench=6.7x0.5hr=3.4hrs
Totallaborhours=26.9hrs
Cost:
Totalcost=26.9hrsx$15.56=$418.56
Cost/cy=$418.56/6.7=$62.47
Cost/ft=$418.56/15=$27.90
VI.2.ExcavatingbymachineForlargerjobs,thecostofexcavationbymachineisconsiderablyless
thanthecostbyhandoncethemachineistransportedtothejobsite.Thesavingsinexcavatingcost
mustbesufficienttooffsetthecostoftransportingthemachinetothejobandbacktostorageafterthe
jobiscompleted.Otherwise,handlaborismoreeconomical.
VI.2.1.TrenchingmachinesTherearetwotypesoftrenchingmachines:(1)Wheeltypeand(2)Ladder
type.
Wheeltypemachineisfrequentlyusedforwatermains,gaslines,andoilpipelines.Thewheelrotates
attherearofthemachine,whichismountedoncrawlertracks.Acombinationofteethandbuckets
attachedtothewheelloosensandremovestheearthfromthetrenchasthemachineadvances.The
28

earthiscastintoawindrowalongthetrench.Themachinecanbeusedtoexcavatetrenches16to20
in.wideanddepthsupto6ft.TableVI.4providesdataonthistypeofmachines.
TableVI.4Dataonwheeltypetrenchingmachines

Laddertypemachineisusedfordeepertrenchessuchasthoserequiredforsewerpipesandother
utilities.Inclinedorverticalboomsaremountedattherearofthemachine.Cutterteethandbuckets
areattachedtoendlesschainsthattravelalongtheboom.Thedepthofcutisadjustedbyraisingor
loweringtheboom.Byaddingsidecutters,thewidthofthetrenchcanbeincreased.Thismachineis
usedtoexcavatetrenchesfrom16to36in.wideanddepthsupto12ft.TableVI.5providesdataon
thistypeofmachines.
TableVI.5Dataonladdertypetrenchingmachines

ExampleVI.3illustratesearthexcavationusingawheeltypetrenchingmachine.
ExampleVI.3:
Estimatethetotalcostandcost/linearfootforexcavating2,940ftoftrenchincommonearthusinga
laddertypetrenchingmachine.Thetrenchwillbe30in.wideandtheaveragedepthwillbe7ft.The
machinewillworkfor45min.inanhour.Amachineoperator,alaborerandaforemanwillbe
employedonthejobwithapickuptruck.Theratefortrenchingmachineis$87.50/hr.Themachine
operatorispaidat$21.67/hr,thelaborerispaidat$25.56/hrandtheforemanispaidat$25.00/hr.The
rateforpickuptruckis$12.00/hr.Inaddition,transportingthemachinetoandfromthejobcostalump
sumof$1,500.00

29

Solution:
FromTableVI.5,thediggingspeedisfoundtovarybetween25and50ft/hrforawidthof30inand
depthof7ft.Usetheaveragediggingspeedof37.5ft/hr.
Timefordiggingtrench=2,940/37.5=78.4hrs
Adjustingfor45min/hr,timerequired=78.4x(60/45)=104.5hrs
Cost:
Trenchingmachine:104.5hrs@$87.50/hr=$9,143.75
Machineoperator104.5hrs@$21.67=2,264.50
Laborer104.5hrs@$15.56=1,626.02
Foreman104.5hrs@$25.00=2,612.50
Pickuptruck104.5hrs@$12.00=1,254.00
Transportingmachinetoandfromjob=1,500.00
Totalcost=$18,400.77
Cost/linearfoot=$18,400.77/2,940=$6.26

VI.2.2DraglineDraglinesareusedforexcavatingearthfordrainagechannelsandbuildinglevees
wherewaterispresent.Itcanoperateonwetgroundandcandigearthoutofwaterloggedpits
becausetheydonothavegointopitsorholetoexcavate.Theycannotexcavaterock.Frequentlythey
areusedwithalongboomtodisposeofthematerialalongthecanalornearthepit.Thiseliminatesthe
needforhaulingunits.Thesizeofthedraglineisindicatedbythesizeofthebucketexpressedincubic
yards.Mostdraglinescanhandlemorethanonesizebucketdependingonthelengthoftheboomand
classandweightofthematerialexcavated.Greatestoutputcanbeachievedifthejobisplannedto
permitexcavationattheoptimumdepthofcut.TableVI.6givesidealoutput,inbankmeasure,
TableVI.6Idealoutputofdraglines,bankmeasure,cy/hr

30

forshortboomdraglineswhenexcavatingatoptimumdepthofcutwithanangleofswingof900,based
ona60minhour.Theupperfigureistheoptimumdepthinfeetandthelowernumberistheideal
outputincubicyards.Adjustmentshavetobemadeforoutputsatotherdepthsandangleofswing.
TableVI.7providestheadjustmentfactors.
TableVI.7Adjustmentfactorsforangleofswingandotherthanidealdepthofcutfor
Draglines

ExampleVI.4illustratescalculationofexcavationcostusingadragline.
ExampleVI.4:
Adrainageditch10ftwideatthebottom,36ftwideatthetop,12ftdeep,and15,100ftlongistobe
excavatedusingadragline.Thesoilisgoodcommonearthandtheexcavatedearthcanbedepositedon
oneorbothsidesoftheditch.A1.5cydraglinewithanaverageangleofswingof1200willbeused.It
willrequire2daystosetupandremovethedragline.Twolaborerswillassisttheoperationwhichwill
besupervisedbyaforeman.Thedraglinewilloperateanaverageof45min/hr.Thefollowingcostdata
willapply:dragline$87.69/hr.,machineoperator$21.67/hr.,laborer$15.56/hr.Inaddition,itwillcost
$2,500tomovethedraglinetoandfromthejob.Estimatethetotalcostandcost/cyforexcavatingthe
ditch.
Solution:
Quantityofmaterial:
Volumeofearth=(10+36)/2x12x15,110=4,170,360cf=4,170,360/27=154,458cy
Productionrate:
FromTableVI.6,theidealoutput=190cy/hr,bankmeasure,andtheoptimumdepthofcut=9.0ft
Percentofoptimumdepth=12/9=1.33or133%
FromTableVI.7,for133%optimumdepthand1200angleofswing,thedepthswing
adjustmentfactor=0.89
Fora60min/hroperation,productionrate=0.89x190=169.1cy/hr
31

Fora45min/hroperation,productionrate=169.1x(45/60)=126.8cy/hrbankmeasure.
Timerequiredforfullexcavation=154,458/126.8=1,218hrs
Cost:
Dragline1,218hrs@$87.69/hr=$106,806.42
Operator1,218hrs@$21.67/hr=26,394.06
Laborers1,218hrsx2@$15.56/hr=37,904.16
Foreman1,218hrs@$25.00/hr=30,450.00
Costtosetupandremovethedragline:
Operator16hrs@$21.67/hr=346.72
Laborers16hrsx2@$15.56/hr=497.92
Costtomovethedraglinetoandfromthejob=2,500.00
Totalcost=$204,999.28
Cost/cy=$204,999.28/154,458=$1.33
VI.2.3.ShovelAshovelisahydraulicexcavator.Therearetwokindsofshovels:onehavingthe
diggingactioninanupwarddirectionandtheotherhavingthediggingactioninadownwarddirection.
Theformeriscalledfrontshovelorsimplyshovelandthelatteriscalledhoeorbackhoeortrackhoe.
Shovelsaremostlyusedforpitexcavationwherethebucketloadisobtainedfromtheverticalfaceof
theexcavationpitaboveandinfrontoftheexcavator.Thesemachinescanhandleallclassesofearth
withoutloosening.Theoutputofashoveldependsupontheclassofearthtobeexcavated,theheight
ofthecut,theeasewithwhichhaulingequipmentcanapproachtheshovel,theangleofswingfrom
diggingtoemptyingthebucket,andthesizeofthebucket.Thesizeoftheshovelisdesignatedbythe
sizeofthebucket,expressedincubicyards,loosemeasure.
Abucketcanberatedasstruckcapacityorheapedcapacity.Thestruckcapacityisdefinedasthe
volumeinthebucketwhenitisfilledevenwith,butnotabove,thesides.Theheapedcapacityis
definedasthevolumethatabucketwillholdwhentheearthispiledabovethesides.Theheaped
capacitywilldependuponthedepthoftheearthabovethesidesandthebaseareaofthebucket.The
heapedslopeusuallyis1:1or2:1abovethesidesofthebucket.Theequipmenthasafillfactorwhichis
apercentagetobeusedtomultiplytheheapedcapacitytoobtaintheaveragepayloadofthebucket.
TableVI.8providesfillfactorsforshovels.
TableVI.8Fillfactorsforfrontshovelbuckets

32


Therearefourelementsintheproductioncycleofashovel:loadbucket,swingwithload,dumpload,
andreturnswingempty.Addingtimesfortheseelementsprovidesthecycletimefortheshovel.Table
VI.9providestherangeofelementtimesforshovelswithbucketsizesrangingfrom3to5cy.
TableVI.9Timeforelementsinashovelproductioncycle

Theoptimumheightofcutforashovelisthatdepthatwhichthebucketcomestothesurfaceofthe
groundwithafullloadwithoutovercrowdingorundercrowdingthebucket.Theoptimumdepthvaries
withtheclassofsoilandthesizeofthebucketandvariesfrom30to50percentofthemaximumdigging
height.Theoutputhastobeadjustedforthepercentageofoptimumheightsofcutandanglesof
swing.TableVI.10providestheadjustmentfactors.
TableVI.10Adjustmentfactorsfordepthofcutandangleofswingforashovel

ExampleVI.5illustratesthecalculationofcostofexcavationusingashovel.
ExampleVI.5:

A4cyshovelwillbeusedtoexcavateandhaul58,640cy,bankmeasure,ofcommonearthwithaswell
factorof0.25.Themaximumdiggingheightfortheshovelis34ftandtheaverageheightofcutis15ft.
Theshovelswings1200toloadthehaulunits.Theearthwillbehauled4miby20cy,loosemeasure
trucks,atanaveragespeedof30mph.Theexpectedtimeatthedumpis4min.Thetrucktimewaiting
attheshoveltomoveintoloadingpositionwillaverage3minandthetruckswillwork45mininanhr.
Inadditiontotheshoveloperatorandtruckdrivers,2laborersandaforemanwillbeemployedonthe
job.Therateofrentingashovelwillbe$135.00/hrandthatforthetruckis$55.00/hr.Thewagerates
fortheworkerswillbeasfollows:shoveloperator@$21.67/hr,truckdriver@$18.17/hr,laborer@
$15.56/hr,andforeman@$25.00.Calculatethetotalcostandcost/cybasedonusingsufficienttrucks
tobalancetheproductionrateoftheshovel.
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Solution:
Volumeofearth=58,640cy,bankmeasure
Volumeoftruck=20/(1+0.25)=16cy,bankmeasure
Cycletimeofshovel:
FromTableVI.9usingaveragevalues,Loadbucket=8sec
Swingwithload=5sec
Dumpbucket=3sec
Returnswing=4sec
Totaltime=20sec
Cycles/min=60/20=3
Productionrateofshovel:
BucketfillfactorforcommonearthfromTableVI.7=105%
Averagebucketpayload=4x105%=4.2cy
Idealproductionrate=4.2x3=12.6cy/min
Optimumheightofcut=40%x34=13.6ft
Averageheightofcut=15ft
Percentoptimumheightofcut=15/13.6=1.1or110%
Adjustmentfactorfor110%optimumdepthofcutand1200angleofswingfromTableVI.9=0.87
Probableoutput=12.6x0.87x45=493cy/hr,loosemeasure
Swellfactorforcommonearthis25%
Probableproductionrate=493/(1+0.25)=395cy/hr,bankmeasure
Cycletimefortrucks:
Loadingtruck:16/395=0.04hr
Traveling:8/30=0.26hr
Dumptime:4/60=0.07hr
Waitingtoload:3/60=0.05hr
Totalcycletime=0.42hr/trip
Productionrateoftrucks:
Numberoftrips/hr=1/0.42=2.4
Numberoftripsin45min=2.4x45/60=1.8trips/hr
Volumehauled/trip=1.8x16=28.8cy/hr,bankmeasure

Timetocompletethejob:
34

Numberoftrucksrequired=395/28.8=13.7
Use14truckstherewillbemoretrucksthanrequiredandhencetheshovelproductionrateof395
cy/hrwillgovernthetimerequired=58,640/395=148.5hrs
Cost:
Shovel148.5hrs@$135.00/hr=$20,047.50
Trucks145.5hrsx14x$55.00/hr=112,035.00
Shoveloperator145.5hrs@$21.67/hr=3,152.99
Truckdrivers145.5hrsx14x$18.17/hr=37,012.29
Laborers145.5hrsx2x$15.56/hr=4,527.96
Foreman145.5hrs@$25.00/hr=3,637.50
Transportingtheshoveltoandfromthejob=2,850.00
Totalcost=$183,263.24
Cost/cy=$183,263.24/58,640=$3.13/cybankmeasure

VI.2.4.BackhoeBackhoesareusedbelownaturalsurfacesuchasfortrenchesandbasementsrequiring
precisecontrolofdepths.Itmaybeawheeltypeortracktype.Thelatteriscalledtrackhoe.Abackhoe
issuperiortothemachinesalreadydescribedduetoitsconvenientloadingintodumptrucks,itsgreater
toothpressureanditscapacityfordiggingutilitytrenchesrequiringnoshoring.Theproductionrate
dependsuponbucketpayload,averagecycletime,andjobefficiency.Thecycletimedependsuponthe
difficultyinlooseningthesoil,theangleofswing,thesizeofthetruckthebackhoemustload,andthe
skilloftheoperator.TableVI.11providesrepresentativecycletimeforbackhoesunderaverage
conditionsandTableVI.12providesrepresentativevaluesofthebucketfillfactorforbackhoes.
TableVI.11Representativecycletimeforbackhoes

35


TableVI.12Representativevaluesofbucketfillfactors

36


VII. FOUNDATIONS

Foundationsthatsupportstructuresincludefootings,piles,anddrilledshafts.Footingsareshallow
whilepilesanddrilledshaftsaredeep.
Footingsareplacedatshallowdepths,usuallylessthan5ft.Footingsmaybeisolatedorcontinuous.
Isolatedfootingsareplacedatonelocationtosupportacolumn.Continuousfootingprovidessupport
forawallofabuilding.Constructionofafootingincludesexcavatingthesoiltotherequireddepth,
erectingformwork,settingreinforcingsteel,placingconcrete,removingformwork,andbackfillingsoil
abovethefootingtothesurfaceoftheground.Atrenchisexcavatedintothesoiltoconstructa
continuousfooting.Ifthesidesoftheexcavatedsoilarestableenoughtosupportitselfwithoutcaving
in,thereisnoneedforprovidingformwork.Ifthesoilisunstable,itwillbenecessarytoinstallasystem
ofshores,braces,andsolidsheetingalongtheexcavatedwallstoholdtheearthinposition.The
sheetingistypicallyconstructedwith2,3or4inthicklumber,placedsidebysideoroverlappingalong
thewholelengthofthetrench.Walesconsistingof4x6inthicklumbercanbeplacedinahorizontal
directiontoprovideadditionalsupportforthesheeting.Dependinguponthestabilityoftheearth,it
maybenecessarytoinstallbracesatsuitableintervals.FigureVII.1showsacrosssectionofatrench
withsheeting,walesandbraces.

FigureVII.1Crosssectionofatrenchwithsheeting,walesandbraces
37


ExampleVII.1illustratesthecostestimationforatrenchwithsheeting,walesandbraces.
ExampleVII.1
Estimatethecostofinstallingandremovingsolidsheetingandbracingforatrench100ftlongand7ft
deep.Thesheetingwillbe2x12inlumber,8ftlong.Twohorizontalrowsof4x6inwaleswillbe
placedoneachsideofthetrenchforthefulllengthofthetrench.Trenchbraceswillbeplaced4ftapart
alongeachrowofwales.Thesheetingwillbedrivenoneplankatatimebyusinganaircompressorand
apneumatichammer.Twolaborerscombinedwillinstallthesheetingat4/hrandwalesandbracesat
3/hr.
Thefollowingmaterialcostwillapply:sheeting$0.73/bf,wales$0.92/bfandbraces$3.50each.The
followingequipmentcostwillapply:aircompressor$8.75/hrandairhammer$1.75/hr.Laborcostsare
$21.67/hrfordrivingsheetpilesand$18.17forinstallingwalesandbraces.
Solution:
Quantityofmaterials:
Sheeting,usingactualdimensionof2x12lumberas1.5inx11.25in
Numberofpiecesfortwosides=100/(11.25/12)x2=214pieces.=
Quantityofsheeting=214x2x(12/12)x8=3,424bf
Wales:Numberofpiecesforonerow=100/812.5.,use13pieces=
Quantityoflumber=13x2x2x4x(6/12)x8=832bf
Trenchbraces=(100/4)x2=50

Timetoperformthejob:
2laborersinstallingsheeting=214/4=53.5hrs
2laborersinstallingwalesandbraces=(50+13)/3=21hrs
Laborcost:
Laborersdrivingpiles53.5hrsx2x$21.67=$2,318.69
Laborersinstallingwalesandbraces=21hrsx2x$18.17=$763.14
Totallaborcost=$3,081.83
Materialcost:
Sheeting3,424bf@$0.73=$2,499.52
Wales832bf@$0.92=765.44
Braces50@$3.50=175.00
Totalmaterialcost=$3,439.96

38


Equipmentcost:
Aircompressor53.5hrsx$8.75=$468.13
Airhammer,hoseetc53.5hrsx$1.75=93.63
Totalequipmentcost=$561.76
Summaryofcosts:
Labor=$3,081.83
Material=3,439.96
Equipment=561.76
Totalcost=$7,083.55
Cost/linearfootoftrench=$7,083.55/100=$70.84
Cost/sfofsheeting=$7,083.55/(100x7x2)=$5.06
VII.1PilefoundationThefollowingtypeofpilesareinuse:
VII.1.1SheetpilesSheetpilesaremadeinZandflatsectionsandtheyaredriventwosimultaneously.
Theflatsectionisdesignedtointerlockwitheachothertoprovidestrength.Theyaresuitablefor
constructionofcellularstructures.TheZsectionisdesignedforbendingandhenceitismoresuitable
forconstructionofretainingwalls,bulkheads,cofferdams,andforsupportingexcavation.TableVII.1
givesrepresentativenumberofsheetpilesdrivenperhour.
TableVII.1Representativenumberofsheetpilesdrivenperhour

FromTableVII.1,knowingthelengthofpileandthetypeofsoil,thenumberofpilesthatcanbedriven
inanhourcanbecalculated.Fromthisinformation,thetotaltimerequiredforthejobcanbe

39

calculated.Oncethetotaltimeisdetermined,thetotalcostcanbecalculatedbymultiplyingthe
respectivelabor,materialandequipmentcostwiththenumberofhours.
VII.1.2WoodpilesWoodpilesareclassifiedasloadbearingandfrictionpiles.Ifthepileisdrivensuch
thatitrestsonthehardgroundandsupportsthesuperimposedload,itiscalledloadabearingpile.If
thesoilresistance(skinfrictionthefrictionbetweenthepileandtheadjoiningsoil)isadequateto
opposethesuperimposedloadonthepile,thepileneednotbedriventothehardstratum.Itcanbe
stoppedatsuchdepthwherethesoilresistancedevelopedismorethantheloadonthepile.Suchapile
iscalledafrictionpile.Woodpilesaretaperedfromanendpointdiameterof6to8intoabutt
diameterof12to14in.Lengthsvaryfrom30to50ft.Apreservativetreatmentofcreosoteor
pentachlorophenolisgenerallyapplied.Asteelbootisplacedonthepileendpoint(tip)toreducethe
tendencyofbreakageduringdrivingofthepile.Areasonableallowanceforextrapilesshouldbe
includedintheestimatesincethepilesmaybebrokenduringthedrivingprocess.Whilecostingthe
equipment,useofcrane,hammer,leadsforhammer,andaircompressormustbeconsidered.Table
VII.2givesapproximatenumberofwoodpilesthatcanbedriven/hourtofullpenetrationforvarious
lengthsintwodifferentsoilresistances.
TableVII.2Representativeofwoodpilesdrivenperhour,fullpenetration

FromtheinformationfromTableVII.2,foragivenlengthofthepileandthenatureofsoilfriction,the
numberofpilesthatcanbedrivenperhourcanbeobtained.Thenthetotaltimecanbecalculatedby
dividingthetotalnumberofpilesbythepiles/hrobtainedformTableVII.2.Oncethetotalhoursforthe
jobisknown,thetotalcostcanbecalculatedasexplainedunderSectionVII.1.1.ExampleVII.2
illustratesthemethodofestimatingthecostfordrivingwoodpiles.
ExampleVII.2:
Estimatethecostoffurnishinganddriving160woodpiles36ftlongintoasoilhavingnormalfrictional
resistance.Thepileswillbepurchasedin40ftlengthsandthetopswillbecuttotherequiredelevation
afterdriving.Thepileswillbeapproximately14in.indiameteratthebutt,and7in.atthetip.Thepiles
willbetreatedwithcreosotepreservativeatarateof2.5lb/cf,andbreakageshouldbeconsidered.The
averageweightofthepilewillbe37lb/ft.Onecraneoperator,3laborersandoneforemanwillbeon
thejob.Thefollowingcostinformationwillapply:piles=$10.85/ft.,pilepoints=$64.78.,

40

crane=$82.40/hr.,leadsforhammer=$14.63/hr.,hammer=$10.80/hr.,aircompressor=$14.65/hr.,
otherequipmentandsupplies=$9.35/hr.,foreman=$25.00/hr.,craneoperator=$21.67/hr.,and
generallaborers=$15.56/hr.

Solution:
Quantityofmaterials:
Numberofpilestobedriven=160
Add5%forbreakage=8
Total=168
Numberoflinearfeetofpilestobepurchased=168x40=6,720
Numberoflinearfeetofpilestobedriven=160x36=5,760
Numberofbootsrequired=168
Numberofpilesthatmustbecutattop=160
Timetodrivepiles:
FromTableVII.2,for36ftlongpiletobedriveninnormalfrictiontofullpenetration,therate
ofdrivingwillbe3piles/hrandtimetodrive168piles=168/3=56hrs.
Costofdriving:
Materialcost:
Treatedpiles=6,720ftx$10.85=$72,912.00
Pilepoints=168x$64.78=10,883.04
Totalmaterialcost=$83,795.04
Equipmentcost:

Crane=56hrsx$82.40=$4,614.40
Leadsforhammer=56hrsx$14.63=819.28
Hammer=56hrsx$10.80=604.80
Aircompressor=56hrsx$14.65=820.40
Otherequipmentandsupplies56hrsx$9.35=523.60
Totalequipmentcost=$7,382.48
Laborcost:(Add8hrsforthecrewtosetupandtakedownequipment)
Foreman(56+8)=64hrsx$25.00=$1,600.00
Craneoperator=64hrsx$21.67=1,386.88
Generallaborers=64hrsx3x$15.56=2,987.52
Totallaborcost=$5,974.40
41

Summaryofcosts:
Material=$83,795.04
Equipment=7,382.48
Labor=5,974.40
Totalcost=$97,152.92
Cost/drivenpile=$97,151.92/160=$607.20
Cost/linearfootofdrivenpile=$97,151.92/5,760=$16.86

VII.1.3CastinplaceconcretepilesThesepilesaresuitableforuseonprojectswherethesoil
conditionsaresuchthatthelengthofpenetrationisnotknowninadvanceandthedepthvariesamong
thepilesdriven.Taperedsteelshellsorsteelpipesaredriventotherequireddepthandlaterfilledwith
concrete.Theshellsareleftinplacebutthepipesarewithdrawnastheconcreteisdeposited.Any
lengthofpile,uptoapproximately125ft,canbeobtainedbyweldingextensionstotheshell.In
estimatingthecostofcastinplaceconcretepiles,itisnecessarytodeterminethecostoftheshells,the
costofequipmentandthecostoflabortodrivetheshells,andthecostofconcreteplacedintheshells.
Therateofdrivingvarieswiththelengthofthepiles,topographyofthesite,classofsoilintowhichthey
aredriven,typeofdrivingequipmentused,spacingofthepiles,andweatherconditions.
VII.1.4SteelpilesTheseareusedwhereitisnecessarytodrivepilesthroughconsiderabledepthsof
poorsoiltoreachsolidrockoranotherformationhavinghighloadbearingproperties.Standardrolled
steelHPsectionsorwideflangebeamsaremostfrequentlyused.Drivingoperationsaresimilartothose
ofotherpiles.Acapcanbeinstalledonthetopofpilestoreducethepotentialfordamageduringthe
drivingoperation.TableVII.3givesapproximatenumberofsteelpilesdriventofullpenetrationper
hour.
TableVII.3Approximatenumberofsteelpilesdriventofullpenetrationperhour

42

FromtheinformationfromTableVII.3,foragivenlengthofthepileandtheweight/linearfootofpile,
thenumberofpilesthatcanbedrivenperhourcanbeobtained.Thenthetotaltimecanbecalculated
bydividingthetotalnumberofpilesbythepiles/hrobtainedformTableVII.3.Oncethetotalhoursfor
thejobisknown,thetotalcostcanbecalculatedasexplainedunderSectionVII.1.1.
ExampleVII.3illustratesthemethodofestimatingthecostfordrivingsteelpiles.
ExampleVII.3:
Estimatethecostoffurnishinganddriving180steelpiles,40ftlong.Thepilesweigh73lbs/ftandare
driventofullpenetrationintosoilhavinghighfrictionalresistance.Aforemanwithonecraneoperator
andthreelaborerswillbeonthejob.Thefollowingcostinformationwillapply:piles=$0.32/lb.,pile
caps=$87.00.,crane=$82.40/hr.,leadsforhammer=$14.63/hr.,hammer=$10.80/hr.,aircompressor
=$14.65/hr.,otherequipmentandsupplies=$9.35/hr.,foreman=$25.00/hr.,craneoperator=
$21.67/hr.,andgenerallaborers=$15.56/hr.Actualworkingtimewillbe45mininonehour.
Solution:
Quantityofmaterials:
Linearfeetofpiles=180x40=7,200
Totalweightofpiles=7,200x73=525,600lbs
Timetodrivepiles:
FromTableVII.3fora75lb/ftpileand40ftlong,thedrivingrateis2.25piles/hr
Totaltimefordrivingpiles=180/2.25=80hrs
Withonly45minworkinginonehour,actualtime=80x(60/45)=107hrs
Roundingthistofull8hrday,thetotaltime=112hrs
Costtodrivepiles:
Materialcost:
Piles=525,600lbsx$0.32=$168,192.00
Pilecaps=180x$87.00=15,660.00
Totalmaterialcost=$183,852.00

Equipmentcost:
Crane=112hrsx$82.40=$9,928.80
Leadsforhammerhrs=112hrsx$14.63=1,638.56
Hammer=112hrsx$10.80=1,209.60
Aircompressor=112hrsx$14.65=1,640.80
Otherequipmentandsupplies112hrsx$9.35=1,047.20
Totalequipmentcost=$15,464.96
43


Laborcost:(Add8hrsforthecrewtosetupandtakedownequipment)
Foreman(112+8)=120hrsx$25.00=$3,000.00
Craneoperator=120hrsx$21.67=2,600.40
Generallaborers=120hrsx3x$15.56=5,601.60
Totallaborcost=$11,202.00
Summaryofcosts:
Material=$183,852.00
Equipment=15,464.96
Labor=11,202.00
Totalcost=$210,518.96
Cost/pile=$210,518.96/180=$607.20
Cost/linearfootofpile=$210,518.96/7,200=$29.24

VII.2ShaftfoundationShaftfoundationsareinstalledbyplacingreinforcedconcreteinholesthat
havebeendrilledintothesoil.Drillingrigsmountedontruckscandrillholesfrom12to96indiameter
anduptoapproximately100ftdepth.Thebottomofthedrilledholecanbeunderreamedwitha
bellingtooltoprovideanincreasedcapacityofthefoundation.Whendrillingintounstablesoilsor
wherewatermaybepresent,itisusuallynecessarytoinstallcylindricalsteelcasingtoholdthesidesof
theshaftuntilthereinforcingsteelandconcreteareplaced.Thecasingispulledfromtheholeduring
placementoftheconcrete.TableVII.4showsrepresentativeratesofdrillingvariousdiametersofshafts
intosoilsandTableVII.5givesapproximateratesfordrillingintosoftrock,suchasshales.
TableVII.4Representativeratesofdrillingshaftsinsoils

44

TableVII.5Representativeratesofdrillingshaftsinsoftrockmaterial

Verticalreinforcingsteelistiedtogetherbyhorizontaltiesorspiralhoops,andloweredintopositionin
thedrilledshaft.Lugsattachedtothereinforcingcageholdthemintopositionatthecenterofthehole
untilconcreteisplaced.Thecostofshaftfoundationswillincludemobilizationofequipment,drillingof
theshaft,casing(ifrequired),fabricationandplacementofthereinforcementsteel,anddepositing
concrete.

45