Professional Documents
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METHODS OF NAVIGATION
1. NAVIGATION BY PILOTAGE
2. CELESTIAL NAVIGATION
METHODS OF NAVIGATION
3. NAVIGATION BY DEAD
RECKONING (DEDUCED
CALCULATIONS)
4. INERTIAL NAVIGATION
METHODS OF NAVIGATION
5. RADIO NAVIGATION
NAVIGATION PARAMETERS
1. POSITION
2. DIRECTION
3. DISTANCE
4. SPEED
5. TIME
NAVIGATION PARAMETERS
NAVIGATION PARAMETERS
1. GMT
Greenwich MeanTime
0 degree (Zulu Time)
UTC Universal Time Coordinate
2. PST
3. MST
4. CST
5. EST
POINTS OF BEARING
POINTS OF BEARING
1. 90 degrees
Dead Ahead
2. 0 degree
On Starboard Beam
3. 180 degrees
On Port Beam
4. 270 degrees
Dead Astern
RELATIVE BEARING
Axes of rotation
1. Lateral Axis
Pitch (Elevator)
2. Longitudinal
Axis
Roll (Aileron)
3. Vertical Axis
RADAR
>Radio Detection and Ranging
TYPES OF RADAR
A. According to the Location of Transmitter and Receiver
1. Monostatic
2. Bistatic
3. Multistatic
TYPES OF RADAR
B. According to the Form of Transmitted Signal
1. Pulsed
2. Continuous Wave
TYPES OF RADAR
C. According to the Information Given
1. Primary
2. Secondary
DOPPLER EFFECT
> the apparent frequency of electromagnetic or sound waves depends on
the relative radial motion of the source and the observer
> if the source and observer are moving away from each other, the
apparent frequency will decrease, while if they are moving toward each
other, the apparent frequency will increase
DOPPLER EFFECT
> postulated by Christian Doppler in 1842
> was given a firm mathematical basis by Armand Fizeau
RADAR range
NOTE: the transmitted signal takes 6.16 sec to travel one radar mile
Therefore,
Round Trip = 12.36sec
Maximum unambiguous
range
> range beyond which objects appear as second return echoes
Duty cycle
> Duty Cycle = Average Power / Peak Power
examples
1. What is the duty cycle of radar with a PW of
3sec and a PRT of 6msec?
examples
2. Calculate the average power when peak power
is 1kW, PW is 3sec and rest time of 1997sec.
Since
Pmin = kTB(F-1)
Then,
examples
1. Calculate the minimum receivable signal in a
radar receiver which has an IF BW of 1.5 MHz
and a 9dB noise figure.
examples
2. Calculate the maximum range of a radar
system which operates at 3cm with a peak pulse
power of 500kW, if its minimum receivable power
is 10-13 watts, the capture area of its antenna is 5
sq. m. and the radar cross sectional area of the
target is 20 sq. m.
TARGET PROPERTIES
> the radar cross section or effective area of the target
depends on the frequency used
RAYLEIGH REGION
> the target is small compared to a wavelength, its cross
sectional area for radar appears much smaller than its
real cross section
RESONANCE REGION
> when the circumference of a spherical target is between
1 and 10 wavelengths, the radar cross section oscillates
about the real one
OPTICAL REGION
> for shorter wavelengths, the radar and true cross
sections are equal
PULSE CHARACTERISTICS
> flat topped rectangular pulse
> leading
must be vertical to ensure that the leading
edge of the received pulse is also close to vertical for the
exact measurement of the target range.
> steep trailing
is needed for the transmitted pulse
so that the duplexer can switch the receiver over the
antenna as soon as the body of the pulse has passed
RADAR ANTENNAS
> use dipole or horn fed paraboloid reflectors or at least
reflectors which is basically paraboloid shape
SCANNING PATTERNS
1. Horizontal
2. Nodding
SCANNING PATTERNS
3. Helical
4. Spiral
ANTENNA TRACKING
1. Lobe Switching
Technique
2. Conical scanning
3. Monopulse tracking
2. Tracking in range
range information is
continuously obtained
Radar beacons
> small radar sets consisting of a receiver, a separate
transmitter and an antenna which is often
omnidirectional
> when radar transmits a coded set of pulses at the
beacon, the beacon responds by sending back its
specific pulse code, thereby earning its name
transponder
example
Calculate the maximum active tracking range of a
deep space radar operating at 2.5 GHz using a peak
pulse power of 0.5 MW, with an antenna diameter of
64m, a noise figure of 1.1 and a 5 kHz BW, if the
beacon antenna diameter is 1m, its noise figure is
13dB and it transmits a peak pulse power of 50 W.
DIRECTION FINDERS
Radio Direction Finders are
devices capable of determining the
direction of approaching radio
waves.
RDF manual (uses loop
antennas)
ADF automatic
employs 2 loop antennas in 90
degrees (uses goniometer to
terminate loop antennas with coil)
DISTRESS FREQUENCIES
> Radio Telephony
500 kHz
Code Light
Blue
Distance to
Threshold
4 to 7 nm
Modulated
Frequency
400 Hz
Middle
Amber
3500 ft
1300 Hz
Inner
White
1000 ft
3000 Hz
>runway edge
lights (amber)
provide sufficient
guidance to the pilot
during landing and take
off especially at night or
zero visibility
>threshold lights
(green)
provides information on
the extremely runway
where landing aircraft is
intended to land
GROUND-CONTROLLED
APPROACH (GCA)
> an airplane is talked down to a blind landing by means
of ground-based search and precision radars
GROUND-CONTROLLED
APPROACH (GCA)
> an airplane is talked down to a blind landing by means
of ground-based search and precision radars
GROUND-CONTROLLED
APPROACH (GCA)
basically the ground equipment at the airport consists of two
microwave radar sets, which are usually installed in a single trainer
placed adjacent to the runway.
One of the radars, known as the search system, locates all aircraft
within 30 miles or so of the airport and thus provides a radar map of
the vicinity.
GROUND-CONTROLLED
APPROACH (GCA)
on the final approach leg, the controller, using precision scopes,
takes control.
He also broadcasts verbal instructions, principally concerning
attitude and lateral deviation from the desired glide path, and guides
the pilot virtually to the end of the runway
> on the final approach, the GCA operator uses precision approach
radar (PAR), a short-range precision radar that indicates the proper
glide path for descent
NONDIRECTIONAL BEACONS
(NDB)
are low-frequency transmitters operating into an omnidirectional
vertically polarized antenna.
Usually placed at the ILS outer and middle marker beacon sites
where it is known as compass locator
NONDIRECTIONAL BEACONS
(NDB)
are beacons sending its signal equally well in all directions. It is a
low-frequency beacon with a frequency range of 200 kHz to 415 kHz.
The reception range of the radio beacon is at least 15 nautical miles
and it transmits 2 to 3 letters of identification signal from the Morse
code 8 times per minute.
NDB provides a radio station for use by aircraft. The equipment in
the aircraft consists of an ADF.
NONDIRECTIONAL BEACONS
BEARINGS
Magnetic Bearing = Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing
Example:
An aircraft has a magnetic heading of 150 degrees and a relative
bearing to an NDB station of 75 degrees. Determine the magnetic
bearing of the station in degrees.
DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME)
> an equipment that provides information of the distance between an
aircraft and the VOR station
> together with VOR, they provide the information necessary for
reroute navigation
DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME)
1. Transceiver
> sends out signals to
the ground station
DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME)
2. Internal computer
> built within the
transceiver that measures
the time interval that
elapsed until the
response
DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME)
3. Antenna
> used for both
transmission and
reception
DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME)
3. DME controls
> incorporate digital
readouts of frequency,
DME and ground speed
information
DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT (DME)
DME displays information
expressed in
nautical miles
expressed in knots
c. time to station
expressed in minutes
a. Track / Omnibearing
selector
VORTAC
> a facility consisting of two components or is referred to
as a combination of a VOR and a TACAN therefore
deriving the name VORTAC
VORTAC
> this system is an ICAO (International Civil Aviation
Organization) Rho-Theta system implemented by colocating VOR and TACAN azimuth and TACAN distance
measuring capability at one sight
HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION
SYSTEM
> produces hyperbolic lines of position through the measurement of
the difference in times of transmission of radio signals from two or
more synchronized transmitters at fixed points
HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION
SYSTEM
> when synchronized signals are received from two transmitting
stations, the difference in the times of arrival is constant on a
hyperbola having the two transmitting stations as foci
HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION
SYSTEM
LORAN
> an electronic method of determining ship position by the
reception of signals from transmitting stations of known
locations
LORAN
radio signals consisting of short pulses are continually transmitted
from a pair of shore-based stations.
These signals are received aboard the ship by means of a specially
designed receiver.
The difference in time of arrival of the two signals is measured by
means of an indicator associated with the receiver.
The measured time difference is used together with special tables or
charts to determine line of position on the surface on the earths
surface.
Two lines of position obtained from two pairs of transmitting stations
intersects at a given LORAN fix.
LORAN A
> the ground waves of a LORAN A transmitter with a peak
power of 100 kW can be received over sea at a distance of
500 to 700 n.mi. and a distance of up to 1100 n.mi. with
ground and sky waves. Over land these distances are
considerably shorter.
LORAN C
> LORAN C transmitters operate at lower frequencies of
100 kHz. At this frequency, ground waves of a 300 kW
transmitter can be received up to 1200 n.mi.
LORAN D
the advantage of LORAN D over LORAN A is that ground stations
are transportable and can therefore be quickly deployed.
DECCA
> a continuous wave hyperbolic system operating in the 70
to 130 kHz band
> a hyperbolic navigation system which establishes a line
of position from measurement of the phase difference
between two continuous-wave signals
OMEGA
a navigation system developed by US Navy in 1957.
It is a hyperbolic system which works in the VLF region
and has a very long base line of the order of 7000 km
> a global radio navigation system that provides position
information by measuring the phase difference between
signals radiated by a network of transmitting stations
SONAR
> sound navigation and ranging
TCAS
> Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System
TCAS
> traffic alert and collision avoidance system
> TCAS tracks these other airplanes or intruders, if
equipped with an ATCRBS (air traffic control radar beacon
system)
TCAS
Two types of collision avoidance alerts
2. resolution advisory
(RA)
GPS
> Global Positioning System
GPS
> NAVSTAR GPS
GPS
> GLONASS GPS
GPS
> provides specially coded satellite signals that can be
processed in a GPS receiver, enabling the receiver to
compute position, velocity and time
> four GPS satellite signals are used to compute positions
in three dimensions and the time offset in the receiver
clock
> navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of
GPS
GPS
1. Space segment
> composed of a constellation of 24 satellites arranged in
six separate orbital planes of four satellites each on a
circular orbit and have the following characteristics:
a. 550 inclination to the equator
b. an altitude of approximately 20,200 km with an orbital
period of 12 sidereal hours
c. 11 hrs, 58 min orbital period
GPS
Satellites give:
a. satellite position
b. constellation data
c. atmospheric corrections
GPS
2. Control segment
Monitor stations locations
> Kwajalein
> Hawaii
> Ascension Island
> Diego Garcia
> Colorado Springs (master control station)
GPS
3. User segment
Main advantages
-anytime, anywhere, and in any weather
-highly accurate measurements
-GPS has almost endless applications
Q&a
An area directly above a radio range station where
practically no signal is heard.
a) radio range
b) cone of silence
c) coverage area
d) RDF area
Q&a
A shipboard equipment which measures the distance
between the ships bottom and the ocean floor by sending
the ultrasonic pulses via a transducer which are reflected
at the sea bottom and received with the same transducer.
a) echosounder
b) SONAR
c) compandor
d) hydrophone
Q&a
The ratio of the pulse width to the time
between the beginning of 2 pulses.
a) duty cycle
b) Doppler shift
c) blind speed
d) tracking error
Q&a
A navigation system from which hyperbolic lines of position
are determined by measuring the difference in the times of
arrival of pulses from widely spaced, synchronized
transmitting stations.
a) LORAN
b) TACAN
c) DME
d) VOR
Q&a
A measure of the ability of the receiver to
detect transmission.
a) selectivity
b) sensitivity
c) detector
d) demodulator
Q&a
Radio range stations in LFR operate on
frequencies between
a) 20 kHz & 40 kHz
b) 200 kHz & 400 kHz
c) 30 kHz & 300 kHz
d) 2 MHz & 4 MHz
Q&a
The fifth center tower in an LFR is used for
transmitting _____ reports
a) hazard
b) range
c) weather
d) direction
Q&a
The direction of one terrestrial point from another,
expressed as angular distance from a reference
direction.
a) heading
b) bearing
c) relative bearing
d) true bearing
Q&a
DME operates in the ________ frequency
band.
a) LF
b) HF
c) VHF
d) UHF
Q&a
SONAR equipment feature which enlarges
all echoes on the screen.
a) grayline
b) zoom
c) sensitivity
d) ASP
Q&a
A major obstacle in achieving high speed
operation in a SONAR manifested by turbulent
water flow.
a) transom
b) cavitation
c) thru-hull
d) shoot thru
Q&a
Considered to be the SONAR units antenna
a) crystal
b) transducer
c) localizer
d) transceiver
Q&a
The speed of sound through water
a) 4800 m/sec
b) 1463 m/sec
c) 4800 miles/sec
d) 5000 ft/sec
Q&a
What is an electronic measuring equipment used
in navigation operating in 1 GHz band which
provides bearing and distance indication?
a) TACAN
b) VOR
c) ILS
d) DME
Q&a
An instrument used to measure one location
in terms of coordinates.
a) global positioning system
b) hydrometer
c) altimeter
d) increductometer
Q&a
The distance in angular degrees in a
clockwise direction from magnetic north.
a) phase difference
b) azimuth
c) latitude
d) longitude
Q&a
_______ is used with a localizer station to indicate
the desired approach path of an aircraft.
Q&a
_______ is a 30 Hz signal which has a constant
phase at all points around the VOR station.
a) reference signal
b) variable signal
c) ID signal
d) voice modulation
Q&a
If the peak transmitted power in a radar system is
increased by a factor of 16, the maximum range
will be increased by a factor of
a) 2
b) 4
c) 8
d) 16
Q&a
After a target has been acquired, the best
scanning system for tracking is
a) nodding
b) spiral
c) conical
d) helical
Q&a
The coho in MTI radar operates at the
a) intermediate frequency
b) transmitted frequency
c) received frequency
d) pulse repetition frequency
Q&a
If the target cross section is changing , the
best system for accurate tracking is
a) lobe switching
b) sequential lobing
c) conical scanning
d) monopulse
Q&a
The number of pulses that occur per second
in a radar is called
a) PRR
b) pulse train
c) pulse width
d) duty cycle
Q&a
The phenomenon evidenced by the change in the observed frequency
of a sound or a radio wave caused by the time rate of change in the
magnitude of the radial component of relative velocity between the
source and the point of observation.
a) tunnel effect
b) Doppler effect
c) Gunn effect
d) end effect
Q&a
_______ are non-directional transmitters that
operate in the LF and MF bands.
a) radio beacons
b) DME
c) ILS
d) LORAN
Q&a
When a single antenna is intended to be used for
transmitting and receiving , it is necessary to use
a
a) duplexer
b) diplexer
c) combiner
d) translator
Q&a
The most commonly used component in a RADAR
transmitter is the _______ tube.
a) dynatron
b) twystron
c) magnetron
d) cyclotron
Q&a
A radar display that sweeps outward of the center
of the screen while rotating is known as
a) CRT
b) PPI
c) D-scope
d) periscope
Q&a
The time from the transmission of a radar pulse to
its reception is 0.12 msec. The distance to the
target is _________ nautical miles.
a) 4.85
b) 11.2
c) 9.7
d) 7.9
Q&a
The pulse duration of a radar signal is 600
nanoseconds. The PRF is 185 pulses per second.
The duty cycle is
a) 0.01%
b) 5.5%
c) 31%
d) 97%
Q&a
Doppler effect allows which characteristic of a
RADAR target to be measured?
a) distance
b) speed
c) size of target
d) azimuth
Q&a
Most radar antennas use
a) dipoles
b) broadside array
c) horn and parabolic antenna
d) discone
Q&a
The following are the components of an ILS
except:
a) localizer
b) glide slope
c) markers
d) goniometer
Q&a
The following are hyperbolic systems
except:
a) LORAN
b) DECCA
c) OMEGA
d) TACAN
Q&a
What do you call an electronic measuring equipment used
in navigation which provides runway direction, distance
and height guidance to permit blind landing?
a) DME
b) VOR
c) TACAN
d) ILS
Q&a
A radio aid to navigation that uses a rotatable loop
or other highly directional antenna arrangement to
determine the direction of a radio signal.
a) DME
b) RDF
c) TACAN
d) VOR
Q&a
An agency of the United Nations, that formulates
standards and recommended practices for all civil
aviation.
a) ICAO
b) CAA
c) IATA
d) ATO
Q&a
LORAN is a navigation system used
primarily for
a) obtaining fixes over large distances
b) approach control
c) blind landing
d) IFF surveillance operation
Q&a
TACAN is a navigational aid providing
Q&a
Otherwise known as Coastline refraction or
the refraction of waves towards the
coastline.
a) Polarization effect
b) Land effect
c) Skin effect
d) Luxembourg effect
Q&a
Low-power radar uses
a) RIMPATT
b) TRAPATT
c) magnetron
d) IMPATT
Q&a
RADAR means:
Q&a
A long range navigation system in which two pairs of
ground stations transmit pulsed signal, which are used by
aircraft or ships to determine their position.
a) LORAN
b) SHORAN
c) GEE
d) TCAS
Q&a
LORAN stands for
Q&a
LORAN was developed in the United States during WWII.
What system equivalent to LORAN, which was developed
in England and is used for guiding high-flying bombers
over Germany during WWII?
a) SHORAN
b) DECCA
c) OMEGA
d) GEE
Q&a
What navigational system that uses the principle
known as hyperbolic navigation?
a) GEE
b) LORAN
c) OMEGA
d) All of the above
Q&a
Navigation principle that depends on the measurement of
the difference in distance to two fixed stations whose
separation distance is accurately known.
a) triangulation
b) hyperbolic
c) elliptic
d) pilotage
Q&a
In hyperbolic navigation, how many sets of
hyperbolas are needed before a position (fix) is
obtained?
a) 2
b) 4
c) 6
d) 8
Q&a
In LORAN system, at least how many ground
stations are needed before a position (fix) is
obtained?
a) 2
b) 4
c) 6
d) 8
Q&a
In GEE system, at least how many ground
stations are needed before a position or fix is
determined?
a) 2
b) 3
c) 5
d) 7