Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TURBIDITES
EDITED BY
A.H. BOUMA
Geological Institute
State University, Utrecht
The Netherlands
and
A. B R O U W E R
Geolagical Institute
State University, Leyden
The Netherlands
LONDON
1964
N E W YORK
INTRODUCTION
AART BROUWER
Few terms recently introduced into the geologistsjargon seem to have been so easily
and so generally incorporated as the term turbidite. This is certainly a remarkable
phenomenon since many geologists are usually reluctant to denote sedimentary rocks
by names that are so obviously related to origin. One possible explanation is that
rocks with turbidite characteristics are of widespread occurrence, and can easily be
recognized in the field once attention has been directed towards their diagnostic features. Still, notwithstanding the genetical significance of the term, many problems
related to both the mode of origin and to the environmental conditions favourable to
their formation, remain unsolved.
The problem of turbidite sedimentation has been approached from two different
sides, firstly by students of modern deep-sea deposits, and secondly by students of
flysch and flysch-like deposits.
The concept of turbidity currents was first suggested by DALYin 1936 in connection
with research on the mode of origin of submarine canyons. This suggestion seemed a
fruitful one, and the idea of mass movements by currents of high density was soon
adopted by other geologists. Among them Ph. H. Kuenen should be noted in particular. Via both field studies and ingenious laboratory experiments he made invaluable
contributions towards a better understanding of this fascinating type of sediment. It
soon became clear that many flysch and flysch-like sediments show the same characteristics as those laid down by turbidity currents, even to such a degree that turbidites
and flysch sometimes give the impression of being two names for one kind of deposit.
There can be no doubt that both originate from the same mechanism, as has repeatedly been pointed out. Recently NESTEROFF
and HEEZEN
(1963) made a careful pointfor-point comparison of these deposits. Their conclusion seems inescapable: Toute
une skrie de caracthres pktrographiques similaires nous permet daffirmer que les turbidites sont les dkpdts modernes correspondants aw flyschs des skries gkologiques.
Kuenen reaches the same conclusion in his contribution to the present volume. Nevertheless, few seem alarmed by the conclusion that two types of sediments, originating
under different environmental conditions, exhibit the same set of characteristics.
The termflyschwas introduced by the Swiss geologist B. Studer using adistinct stratigraphical meaning as early as 1827, although the word itself seems to be much older
(STUDER,1827). The sediments thus denoted were so clearly related to the oncoming
Alpine movements that the meaning of the term has gradually been broadened to
INDRODUCTION
include all similar kinds of sediments connected with strong geosynclinal instability,
without any references to place or time. Much to the distress of several Swiss geologists the term flysch has thus become a member of the family of tecto-facies terms
rather than a distinct element in the Alpine stratigraphical succession. Perhaps the
Lower Carboniferous Culm facies, with its remarkable distribution amidst a predominantly calcareous facies, was one of the first to which the term flysch was applied
outside the Alpine orogene. Afterwards certain members of the Caledonian geosynclinal succession have also been referred to as flysch, or more precisely, as flysch-like
sediments. It is certainly somewhat distressing to encounter the same characteristic
lithological features and comparable palaeontological characteristics in many modern
deep-sea sands. Perhaps Dietzs recent suggestion that eugeosynclines are developed
on the oceanic crust marginal to the continents offers a way out of this dilemma
(DJETZ,1963).
The papers of the present volume were originally gathered in order to be published
in a special issue of the International Association of Sedimentologists quarterly
Sediinentology, but the response was such that it soon became obvious that the undertaking went beyond the possibilities of Sedimentology. Publication of the papers in
more than one issue would certainly have lessened their value. Therefore an offer
made by the Elsevier Publishing Company to publish the papers together in a special
volume was gratefully accepted.
The authors of the papers in this volume do not claim that they present a complete
and final answer to the many problems connected with the origin of turbidites both in
modern seas and in successions of the geological past. They do, however, represent
many aspects, and certainly all of the more important ones, of these puzzling rocks.
Looking at the bibliography on turbidites, which we are pleased to include, the reader
may receive the impression that turbidites have been studied from every possible point
of view and in the remotest corners of our planet. It may thus seem that an explanation of these rocks, if not yet arrived at, is at least quite nearby. This, however, is
completely erroneous. Large as our knowledge may appear, still more is to be learned.
The main function of the present volume is to stimulate discussion and research.
REFERENCES
DALY,
R. A., 1936. Origin of submarine canyons. Am. J . Sci., 31 :401-420.
DIETZ,
R. S., 1963. Alpine serpentines as oceanic rind fragments. Bull. Geol. SOC.Am., 74 :947-952.
NESTERHOFF,
W. D. et HEEZEN,
R. C., 1963. Essais de comparaison entre les turbidites rnodernes et le
flysch. Rev. Gdograph.Phys. Gkol. Dyn., Sdr. 2,1962,5 (2) : 115-127.
STUDER,
B., 1827. Geognostische Fkmcrkungen uber einige Theile der nordlichen Alpenkette.
Z . Mineral.. 1 : 1-52.
SUMMARY
It is shown that deep-sea sands have been emplaced by turbidity currents except for a
few slumped beds near slopes. The evidence from deep-sea topography and bottom
sampling allows no other interpretation. The known depth range is from many
thousands to one thousand metres and a doubtful case in 20 metres. Single beds may
extend hundreds of kilometres. The vast scale on which these currents can act is thus
established beyond doubt. The structural features of these unquestionable turbidites
are closely matched in a number of ancient flysch-like sequences of the alternating
type. More or less complete paleontological evidence for depths of the latter greater
than neritic is obtained here and there, and the total lack of shallow-water features
(littoral, paralic, and shallow-neritic) in many such formations confirms the conclusion
that they are of deep-water origin. Sole markings and other sedimentological features
add their testimony. Some alternative explanations have been proposed for deep-sea
sands (slumping, creep, liquefaction, normal currents), or for flysch-like rocks (creep,
normal marine currents, tectonic or climatic rhythms, coastal or deltaic environments,
etc.), but all these suggestions are opposed by clear evidence in the majority of flyschlike sequences, or there are serious theoretical objections.
However, there are also certain differences between normal deep-sea sands and the
most typical of flysch formations in the Alps and elsewhere. These dissimilarities in
sorting, grain size, organic remains, etc. are not indicative of a different mechanism of
transportation, but of a different geographical setting of the geosynclinal trenches
compared to present-day marine basins. There are also turbidite formations which are
not classifiableas flysch, and there are pelagic formations which contain a few turbidites.
Between obvious turbiditic flysch beds there are individual beds emplaced by
slumping or precipitation; there are also flysch-like formations that originated in
insignificant depths, which follows from paleontological and sedimentological
evidence. Whether turbidity currents can be invoked in shallow water is less certain perhaps sheet floods were active. Where, in ancient rocks, only a few of the typical
turbidite features are present, or where exposure is poor, the environment of deposition and mechanism of transportation must remain in doubt. The divergent features
of sediments formed in several other environments are briefly indicated.
PH. H. KUENEN
INTRODUCTION
In the deep sea beyond the edge of the shelf, numerous sand beds have been discovered
that are neither of volcanic, nor of eolian or organic origin. They are usually referred
to as deepsea sands, although gravels and silts are included. Their origin was long
sought in subsidence or sliding, but interstratification with normal pelagic deep-sea
sediment rules out the first suggestion, and the great distance to steep slopes in many
cases argues against the second surmise. Hence, they were tentatively attributed by
KUENEN(1950) to turbidity currents. Since then, many marine geologists have collected data on this question. The accumulated evidence showing that the great majority
of deep-sea sands outside canyons have been deposited by turbidity currents is now
overwhelming. The location and topographic conditions give highly valuable information on the mechanism of flow, and on the gigantic scale at which it can act. Study
of cores shows which sedimentary features to expect in the deposits of such currents.
All this information can be applied by hard-rock geologists confronted with the problem of explaining the origin of marine formations with graded g b a c k e s alternating with shale beds. But many field-workers appear to be unfamiliar with the
findings of marine geologists and vice versa. The present paper aims at bringing
together the widely scattered results of work at sea and showing the surprising extent
to which the features of deep-sea sands and certain ancient arenites tally with each
other. In fact, for many flysch-like sequences the origin in bathyal depths by turbidity
currents can hardly be doubted.
There is no need to trace here the stages by which the concept of turbidity flow
developed from DALYS
first rough sketch, in 1936, to our present much more detailed
understanding a quarter of a century later. The first problem to be formulated was that
of explaining the origin of submarine canyons. It is still controversial, because the
degree to which turbidity currents can erode is an open question. Experimental work
on turbidity flow by the present author ( KUENEN, 1937) showed the suggested mechanism to be a reality. More detailed experiments (KUENEN, 1950; KUENENand MIGLIORINI, 1950) were undertaken largely in an attempt to explain the origin of ancient
graded graywackes. When the results were applied to certain rock formations the line
of thought proved encouraging from the very start. Soon, the findings in the deep sea
were bringing even fuller and more precise evidence in favour of the importance of this
newly discovered mode of transport. One of the more spectacular results was to show
that the activity of this mechanism extends out from the continents to many hundreds
of kilometres across the deep ocean floor. The ability to measure depths and slopes
and to locate source areas are among the most useful advantages the marine geologist
has over his hard-rock colleague.
In later years wider application of the concept of turbidity currents to ancient
deposits has supplied fruitful results, not only in understanding the emplacement of
the beds themselves, but also in smoothing out paleontological difficulties. Paleogeography and even structural geology have benefited by the new light supplied by the
study of turbidite formations. However, although few geologists deny the action of
turbidity currents in general, there are a number of colleagues who have strong doubts
whether the notion can be used for the cases they happen to be familiar with, or they
have suggested alternative mechanisms. In geology, snags are bound to be revealed
as soon as any general concept is applied to a specific case, but some of the fancied
objections can be disposed of by referring to the deep-sea floor for evidence. For
example, several authors have denied that turbidity currents can be responsible for
depositing laminated beds, although deep-sea turbidites are usually laminated. In
contrast when extravagant claims have been made for turbidity currents, a better
understanding of the phenomena in the oceans would have led to a more cautious
approach. Marine geologists unfamiliar with ancient rocks have suggested creep or
slumping to explain flysch rocks, because they have not taken the evidence for current
action into account. It is obvious that the results of work at sea, in the field, and in the
laboratory should be interrelated. A study of ancient and recent basins off southern
and EMERY
(1959) shows how fruitful such a double approach
California by GORSLINE
can be.
There are several independent sources of evidence for the action of turbidity flow in
the present oceans and marine basins.
Ocean-joor topography
The topography of the ocean floor provides some of the strongest evidence for turbidity currents. At the mouths of submarine canyons, such as the Hudson, Monterey,
Mediterranean, and Mississippi canyons, great, low-angle fans have been built. These
are incised radially by one or more leveed channels. At their outer limits these sub-sea
fans merge gradually into adjoining abyssal plains. Although this means that the slope
\has,therdsunk below the value of 1 in 1,OOO or at least 1 in 500, the featureless expanses beyond continue to drop away from the fans. It is obviously impossible to ascribe
such shapes to tectonic forces, so that a depositional morphology has to be assumed.
The features can only be attributed to a bottom-hugging, gravity-driven, depositing
current. No other type of ocean current could be bound to plains sloping in a constant
direction and away from the source of supply, and it can hardly be doubted that the
canyons are the source channels along which the sediment has arrived. In inland seas
and in the Atlantic, the abyssal plains occupy the entire expanse of the deepest areas,
leaving no rough topography except that which rises above them. Many deep-sea trenches throughout the oceans are floored by a narrow abyssal plain with a longitudinal
slope, but in the Pacific most of the deep-sea floor is rough with a relief of several
hundreds of metres. The abyssal plains are restricted to broad fringes along the North
American continent about 2,000 kilometres across, and to narrower archipelagicaprons
around volcanic islands; elsewhere, the plains are missing. Significantly, this is where
PH. H. KUENEN
deep-sea troughs, basins, ridges, or great distances intervene between land areas and
the abyssal floor, and these topographic features must be responsible for excluding
the smoothing mechanism. The only manner in which this obstruction can act is by
barring transport over the bottom. This surmise is confirmed by the situation off British
Columbia, where a patch of rough topography occurs in the middle of the abyssal plain
directly behind a short ridge parallel with the continental terrace (MENARD,1955).
Two or three cases are known in which basins have become filled with sediment to
the lowest point in the rim. Here the surplus spills over into the neighbouring basin
that has thus acquired an abyssal plain of its own. In one case, the Biscay and Iberia
plains (LAUGHTON,
1960), the connection is a short meandering channel with a subsea fan at its lower end1.
It is worth noting that beyond the leveed channel on the subaqueous slope of the
RhBne delta in Lake Geneva, a perfect example of an abyssal plain is found.
Coarse strata ubiquitous on abyssalplains
Every single long core taken by the Lamont Observatory piston sampler on abyssal
plains or sub-sea fans - and there are many - contains at least one deep-sea gravel-,
sand- or silt-bed, and in many samples there are several such beds always separated by
normal pelagic sediment.According to NESTEROFF
(1961) each abyssal-plain core of 10m
length has 10-30 sand or silt layers. Such beds have never been encountered on isolated
hills or ridges, not even on those rising no more than a hundred metres from the middle
of abyssal plains, as, for instance, in the Gulf of Mexico (EWING
et al., 1958). Neither
do they occur on steeper continental or insular slopes, or on irregular topography
beyond abyssal plains or archipelagic aprons. This distribution is only compatible with
a supply along the bottom under the influence of gravity. The mechanism carrying the
coarse sediment on its long journey out from the continent or island is unable to raise it
up off an abyssal plain. The only condition under which deep-sea sand is lifted above the
sea floor, is along the edge of those channels which are bordered by levees. The conditions just described are duplicated in the Mediterranean (BOURCART~~
al., 1960,1961;
BOURCART
and Ross, 1962; GENNESSEAUX,
1962) and Adriatic (VANSTRAATEN,
1964).
The pelagic beds between the sands are significant because they are known to accumulate slowly, and each of them represents several to many thousands of years. The
normal condition on the deep-sea floor is, therefore, one of only slight bottom currents,
so weak as to allow clay to settle out. During deposition of a deep-sea sand a powerful
current is obviously active to ensure the supply, but the crucial point is that no such
current occurs when there is no coarse sediment available. This means that current
and coarse sediment are parts of one and the same phenomenon.
The relation is actually so close that, as the grain size of the deposits diminished
upwards during deposition of a graded bed, the current must have slackened concomitantly to allow settling out, with no fluctuation sufficient to cause erosion during
One feature of several abyssal plains is admittedly. still obscure: that of the occurrence of single
deep-sea channels crossing them.
this gradual slackening. This is in sharp contrast with tidal and wind-driven currents
or rivers, because all these flow irrespectively of whether there is sediment available or
not. The result is that with these currents local temporary erosion is a universal
phenomenon.
Two independent features prove that a bed of deepsea sand is deposited in a very
short time. Several cases have been noted (ERICSON
et al., 1952; EWINGet al., 1958,
p.1046) that burrowing organisms have reworked the upper few centimetres of such
beds, but have left the remainder undisturbed. Obviously sedimentation was so swift
that no reworking could take place, but later, during the slow accumulation of the
covering deep-sea deposit, the bottom fauna was again active. The other indication of
swift sedimentation is the absence of features pointing to fluctuations in the supplying
current due to external variations. Evidently the bed was produced by a current too
powerful or too short-lived to be affected by tides or climatic fluctuations. In cases
where the pelagic deposit, like red clay, is a solution residue of carbonate-rich sediment, the presence of lime in the deepsea sands also proves swift accumulation of the
bed preventing extraction of CaCO,.
Highly significant data confirming the origin of abyssal plains by turbidity currents,
the continuation of single beds over distances of 100 km, and the accumulation of
sediment in basins and trenches up to thicknesses of one or more kilometres has been
obtained by J. Ewing and others of the Lamont Observatory using the new reflection
profiler. (J. EWINGet al., 1960, 1962; J. EWINGand M. EWING,1962; M. EWINGand
J. EWING,1963).
Deep-sea sands are foreign to environment
The distances to which oceanic turbidity currents apparently spread out over the
abyssal plains range up to 2,000 km. Obviously, this implies a huge volume for such
flows, and it is born out because some idea of the great size can be obtained from the
height of channel levees over the channel floor on sub-sea fans. The flows must have
topped these natural dikes to build them up. Depths of 100-150m at the very least are
found, coupled with a breadth of several kilometres. SHEPARD
(1962b) has suggested
PH. H. KUENEN
that the channels may have been deepened after the build-up of the levees. But as the
concave walls of winding channels are steeper than the convex walls active erosion
along the outer side of the bends must have accompanied any such deepening. The
levees would then have been eaten away if they were merely left over from an earlier
period with shallow channels. Evidently the levees are as youthful as any deepening of
the channels and form trustworthy high water marks for the currents. For evidence
concerning the large volumes of the resulting deposits see p.12, point 17. Obviously
the amount of water involved was at least 10 times that of the sediment.
Turbidity current caused by an earthquake
The Grand Banks earthquake of 1929 caused the rupture, contortion, transportation,
and burial of a number of submarine cables on the continental slope and deep ocean
floor. Over a large area of the abyssal plain in the neighbourhood, a thick graded bed
of silt was found 20 years later (HEEZEN
and EWING,1952,1955; HEEZEN,
1959). It was
not covered by later pelagic sediment, and hence it had been emplaced a short time
before. There can be no reasonable doubt that this bed was formed in consequence of
the earthquake. As the material had travelled for great distances over slopes of less
than l/l,OOO a slump is excluded. On the other hand a turbidity current triggered by
the earthquake can explain all the observed phenomena satisfactorily.
Summary
From the foregoing list of arguments it follows that: vast amounts of sediment including coarse sand, pebbles, shallow-benthonicorganisms and plant remains are carried
off the shelf and are spread out extremely evenly over large areas of the deep-sea floor;
that the grain size tends to decrease as the distance of travel increases; that existing
normal bottom currents are not responsible for the emplacement; that the transportation is along the bottom and follows the direction of maximum slope available, even
when it is less than 1 in 1,OOO, which is as much as to say that gravity provides the
motive force; that the deposit shows graded bedding and lamination indicative of the
action of a true, watery current; that the grading proves the velocity of the current is
tied to the grain size of the load, load and current forming two features of the same
phenomenon; that deposition is sudden, alternating with long intervals of normal
pelagic accumulation; that the same action takes place in the Adriatic at one quarter
the depth of the ocean, and, judging by the topography, also in Lake Geneva at 300 m;
that sequences hundreds of metres thick are built up, levelling off the deepest parts of
the basins reached by the currents.
Hence a series of short-lived,powerful currents carrying huge amounts of coarse sediment, travel spasmodically down the submarine slopes by gravity pull. This means no
less than that the mechanism is that of turbidity current Jow, and that practically aN
deep-sea sands are turbidites, apart from some slumps or winnowed sands of organic
origin, and easily distinguishable eolian or volcanic sands.
ALTERNATIVE MECHANISMS
Various alternative mechanisms have been invoked to account for the emplacement
of deep-sea sands: slumping, creep, liquefaction and normal currents. The main
objections to these suggestions will be briefly mentioned.
Slumping
Various sources of information indicate that sandy deposits are stable on subaqueous
slopes of a few degrees, and that clay-rich sediment can slide on slight slopes, but
comes to rest where the declivity is less than 1 %. This means that deep-sea sands, with
their coarse grains in mutual contact and lying in positions where the materials must
have been carried hundreds of kilometres across plains sloping less than 1 in l,OOO,
cannot be attributed to slumping but must be accounted for by a far more mobile
mechanism. The absence of distortions typical for slumping in deep-sea sands also
militates against sliding.
This reasoning is strengthened by the observation already referred to, that deep-sea
Jands tend to show graded bedding. The majority also show lamination and some even
ripple lamination. These structures require settling from a passing flow and are incompatible with the fixation of a moving mass, that is with the manner in which a
slump produces a slump sheet (KUENEN,1956). (See Appendix, Note 3 and 4.)
Normal currents
Although no serious attempts have been made to explain deep-sea sands as the product of normal marine currents, there have been some passing suggestions to this
effectand it is useful to realize what the objections are.
It should be recognized that currents in the deep-sea do not come and go like winds
or wind-driven currents at the surface. There may be secular changes in velocity, but
the volume of water involved is so great and the driving mechanism is of such a permanent character that deep-sea circulation is more constant even than the trade winds.
Swinging currents (seiches) in basins are more spasmodic but cannot result in transportation in one direction. Bearing this in mind, it is obvious that the deep-sea sands
of the oceans cannot be attributed to normal currents, because the sands form strata
between clay-rich pelagic sediment. The sudden onset of sedimentation, the mixing of
clay in the sand, the absence from slight elevations where currents should be concentrated, these are characteristicsof deep-sea sands, which show they are not the products
of normal currents. It is likewise obvious that the origin of sub-sea fans and abyssal
plains requires a mechanism driven by bottom slope, and hence not normal marine
currents. (See Appendix, Note 5.)
PROPERTIES OF DEEP-SEA TURBIDITES
If the validity of the foregoing deductions is conceded, study of deep-sea sands should
10
PH. H. KUENEN
Fig.1. Five averages of samples taken at 2 cm intervals from a deep-sea sand cored by the Lamont
Observatory in 4,810 m depth on the Hudson sub-sea fan. Depth in core: 1 = 0-4 cm,2 = 4-18 m,
3 = 18-24 cm, 4 = 24-48 cm, 5 = 48-72 cm. The grading is well developed.
(2) Grading is visible in only half of the beds, but careful mechanical analysis
shows at least a slight tendency to grading in the majority of occurrences. (In a wet
sample the grading probably does not show up as well as in a consolidated rock.)
NESTEROFF
(1961) even claims that all turbidites of abyssal plains are graded, rendered
more obvious by colour change, due to lime. Repeated grading has also been noted,
where deposition evidently came from a few flows at short' intervals or pulses of a
composite flow. In the coarser beds grading tends to be very obvious. Forams of about
500 p tend to be concentrated in thin zones where the quartz grains are 250 p.
The writer is able to add an analysis made by D. J. Doeglas on a deep-sea sand
obtained from the Lamont Observatory (core number A 164-14; 36'6' N, 67'19'W;
4,810 m on the Hudson sub-sea fan). The result is shown in Fig.1 (about 6Xfiner than
16 p and 3.5 % below 2 p).
(3) At any level in a bed the sorting tends to be moderate to good and it improves
with decrease in grain size. The great majority of deep-sea sands, although well sorted
to look at, are found on analysis to contain a considerable proportion of silt and clay
11
(SHEPARD,1961; BOURCART
and Ros, 1962). Many layers consist almost entirely of
silt and clay with a small admixture of sand-sized grains at the bottom. SHEPARD
and
EINSELE
(1962) point to the similarity between sands of adjacent beaches and deep-sea
sands but for higher lutite content of the latter.
(4) Most beds consist of inorganic matter, but some are rich in remains of Foraminifera, molluscs, Halimeda, echinoid spines, or other calcareous particles. Much or
nearly all of this material is easily shown to belong originally in neritic depths, and
reworked older fossils have also been identified. The sand may be rich in feldspar and
mica; glauconite can be plentiful and pyrite also occurs. The quartz is mostly angular.
(5) Several beds contain twigs in the sandy parts and fine plant remains interspersed
between the fine sand and silt particles at higher levels in the beds. They may occur in
such profusion as to produce a dark lignitic stratum.
(6) In most beds the fine sand or silt shows lamination. If the lower part of the
turbidite is medium or coarse sand, then lamination is absent in that part1.
(7) Current ripple lamination occurs quite commonly, and in most cases is found
lying on and covered by horizontal lamination.
(8) Contorted lamination strongly recalling so-called convolute lamination has
been found, but the possibility could not be excluded that one was dealing with
distortions due to faulty sampling. Now, however, VAN STRAATEN
(1964) has found
absolutely typical convolute lamination in the upper, silty part of a sandy turbidite
17 cm thick. This bed was cored at 1,200m depth in the Adriatic.
(9) Lumps of mud occur in some deep-sea sands.
(10) The thickness of the beds varies between a few millimetres and at least 6 m.
(ZZ) The lower margin is abrupt and clean-cut; the upper margin may be sharply
drawn, but in other cases the top merges imperceptibly into the covering normal
pelagic deposit.
(22) Deposition of some turbidites is shown to have been instantaneous, because
only the upper part is reworked by burrowing.
(13) Irregularities at the bottom of some beds could be erosional sole markings but
might stem from distortion of the core in question. However, slight erosion can be
deduced from the common presence of a thin film of forams and pteropods at the base.
According to the present author this is a winnowed residue of the underlying pelagic
clay with shells (occasionally heaped up to 10 mm thickness, but usually one or two
shells thick). NESTEROFF
(1961) believed this film denoted the upper end of the turbidite and hence that no pelagic sediment is present between the turbidites. He pointed
out that the more powerful currents, that deposited coarser beds, had wafted away the
shells. But this explanation holds as well if the shell film is held to represent a lag
deposit. The latter view is preferable because pelagic sedimentation cannot be absent
on abyssal plains (see also point 24) and because the film thickness is not correlated
with the size of the underlying bed.
SHEPARD
and EINSELE
(1962, p.121) are wrong when implying that lamination in ancient turbidites
is found only above an unlaminated base, for many flysch beds are laminated throughout.
12
PH. H. KUENEN
Neither is it logical that all currents first deposited forams with medium sand, then
- after an interval of silt followed by clay - forams with clay and finally forams
without any inorganic admixture. The three foram layers are here explained as: (a)
current deposited, (6) pelagically settled, (c) winnowed.
If this view is accepted the interesting corollary follows that even at great distances
across the abyssal plains the nose of the current exerts a slight erosion of the soft
pelagic clay.
(14) The beds are divided from each other by normal (hemi-)pelagic clay or ooze
(so-called blue mud, red clay, globigerina ooze) lacking all elements indicative of
shallow water. This means that the organic remains of the alternating layers are
strongly contrasted.
(15) Where several beds above each other show current lamination the indicated
directions of flow tend to be parallel to one another (observed by Van Straaten on
cores of the Lamont Observatory).
(16) Deep-sea turbidites occur in thick extensive formations. This follows both
from the seismically ascertained thickness of soft fill with internal reflections and from
the burial of irregular topography. That the bedding must be of great regularity can be
deduced, among others, from the extreme flatness of abyssal plains.
(17) Individual deep-sea turbidites are known to cover enormous areas. EMERY
(1960) mentions two basins off California, in which presumably sandy beds just below
the sea floor have been traced for 16 km by echo-sounder. ERICSON
et al. (1952) traced
three beds for 45 km in the Puerto Rico Trough (see also VANSTRAATEN,
1964).
Excellent examples are known from the Sigsbee abyssal plain in the Gulf of Mexico
(EWINGet al., 1958). A graded calcareous layer has been cored there over an area of
at least 6,000 km2and another bed over 10,000 km2; the most widely separated occurrences of the latter are 220 km apart. The known thickness of the former ranges from
8-80 cm; this should be reduced to half in the compacted state, and it is not, therefore, a thick layer. Its present volume is of the order of 3 km3. Oceanic beds several
times as thick should have volumes of dozens of cubic kilometres. The Grand Banks
earthquake resulted in a turbidite covering 100,000 km2 and a volume of at least
100 km3.
(28) The wide variety of recent deep-sea sands is not distributed arbitrarily. In the
first place there are the differences resulting from available source materials. All variations between calcareous and lime-free turbidites have been found. The presence or
absence of feldspar, gIauconite, plant remains, shell fragments, and shallow-water
benthonic organisms depends on the nature of the source area; likewise the degree of
abrasion and weathering of the grains and also to someextent the clay content. Winnowed coastal sands will produce a cleaner turbidite than poorly sorted material, or
cases in which interbedded sands and muds have been set in motion together by a
slide. These obvious conclusions are amply confirmed by data, e.g., for the basins off
southern California.
(19) In the second place the location of the sample has a great influence. Beds tend
to become thinner and finer grained and better sorted away from the source. At a
13
given locality the coarser beds usually belong to the thicker ones. GORSLINE
and
EMERY
(1959) have shown that in submarine canyons the top, fine part of turbidites
tends to be missing, so that they end upwards abruptly. The canyon sands probably
contain less lutite than the sands deposited on abyssal plains. In canyons there are also
slumped beds and non-graded beds (fluxo-turbidites?). On the sub-sea fans at the
canyon mouths finer grain and lamination are encountered. Out beyond on the basin
floor lamination is the main structure somewhat masking the grading, but sand is
limited to lower parts of such beds so that there is still some grading. Gradational tops
are more common at great distances from the source.
(20) The fine-grained beds between the recent turbidites show a wide variety in
composition, but in each area they are uniform. Some basins have a rich autochthonous benthonic or pelagic fauna, others are practically devoid of bottom or pelagic
life.
(21) Slopes of the ocean floor exceeding 5 or 10" are generally found to be free of
deposit, or at least to carry only a thin cover. Nearly all deep-sea sands are found on
bottom slopes of one degree or less. Some coarse sand has been transported for distances of 1,000 km or more on slopes of one in a thousand.
(22) Intervals between currents have been measured by radiocarbon dating on calcareous turbidites on the floor of the Tongue of the Ocean (BUSBY,1962; RUSNAK
et
al., 1963). Frequencies range from one per 460 years to one per 10,000 years. Both the
coarse and the fine material in the turbidites are older than the pelagic sediment upon
which they rest. The turbidites are graded and range in thickness from a thin lamina
to 20 cm. In some localities they form over 50 % of the deposit.
The first rocks that were attributed to the action of turbidity currents were the
Oligocene graywackes of thi northern Apennines (KUENEN
and MIGLIORINI,
1950).
At that time and for the next few years, when some other sequences were identified
as turbidite formations and their features described, little was then known concerning
the deep-sea turbidites. Now that the mechanism by which the latter were deposited is
no longer in doubt and so much has become known about their sedimentological
features, the time has come for them to be used as criteria for the identification of
ancient turbidites. However, it is important to place the main emphasis on recent turbidites from abyssal plains and sub-sea fans not in channels, for the ancient rocks are
predominantly from flat featureless basin floors.
The most convincing case can be made out for the Plio-Pleistocene sequence of the
Ventura Basin in southern California. The basin fill is 6,000 m thick and consists of a
regular alternation of sandstones and shales. The top parts of the latter are very
uniform and contain a rich fauna of benthonic Foraminifera. Thanks to the youth of
these deposits, several species amongst the latter are still living in the adjacant Pacific.
Natland (NATLAND
and KUENEN,
1951) showed long ago that several of these species
14
PH. H. KUENEN
are restricted to great depth in the present ocean, whereas others are limited to somewhat smaller depths. By this means he was able to show that the depth of deposition
low down in the succession was of the order of 1,500-2,OOOm, gradually decreasing
upwards. Where extrapolation would indicate zero depth one actually encounters
typical beach deposits covered by a terrestrial sequence.
In a recent paper NATLAND
(1963)has amplified this picture and emphasized the
faunal contrast between hemi-pelagic beds and turbidites. He has also shown convincingly that the current picks up forams all along its course and distributes them as
clastics in its graded deposit.
Comparison of the sandy beds between these deep-water shales with deep-sea sands
shows complete similarity. These beds are graded, slightly muddy sandstones, some
with pebble sizes at the base, and usually with lamination in fine sand and silt sizes,
ending with shale. Other features are mud pebbles, current ripple lamination,
shallow-water fossils and re-worked older Foraminifera, plant remains from sticks to
fine hashygreathorizontal extent of the beds, regular alternation of the sand beds with
the shales, directional features indicating rather uniform directions of flow for the
supplying currents, and finally complete absence of all features that indicate shallow
water.
Inspection has also brought out some additional sedimentological properties of the
Ventura sand beds, that fit in well with an origin by turbidity currents, but which have
not yet been ascertained unequivocally in recent deposits on the actual deep-sea floor.
These are: load casting at the base, slight current scour, pull-aparts, sand dikes, occasional slump structures and slump conglomerates,the latter restricted to local fans on
the ancient sea floor. Then there is gradual disappearance of all typical properties as
the beach deposits are approached going upwards in the sedimentary column. Finally,
gradual decrease in grain size has been ascertained when tracing a bed in the direction
of flow.
It is worth special attention that convolute lamination, one of the most ubiquitous
features of the silty tops of ancient turbidites and also common in the Ventura Basin
has now been discovered in the upper part of a deep-sea sand from the Adriatic by
VANSTRAATEN
(1964).The remarkable similarity between deep-sea sands and ancient
turbidites is thereby rendered even closer.
The close analogy between these beds and both experimental and deep-sea turbidites, and the good match between the present offshore basins and the reconstructed
former Ventura Basin, together help to establish the nature of the Ventura sequence
beyond any reasonable doubt as resulting from turbidity currents flowing into a deep
marine basin (see also WINTERER
and DURHAM,
1962).
Later studies by EMERY(1960), EMERYand RITTENBERG
(1952), CROUCH(1952),
GORSLINE
and EMERY
(1959) have brought greater precision to this comparison between the present-day off-shore basins off southern California and the Pliocene Los
Angeles Basin. Temperature was shown to be more important than pressure in limiting the occurrence of certain recent benthonic Foraminifera. Seven biozones were
ascertained, the four deeper ones occurring in basins with sill depths of about 400,
15
1,OOO, 1,800, and nearly 3,000 m. Additional depths in the basin below the sill has no
influence on the composition of the fauna. This means that the fauna gives a minimum
value for the depths of the basin floor. The shales between the turbidites of the Los
Angeles Oil Basin contain Foraminifera, proving for the Lower Pliocene a temperature
of 3C, equivalent to 1,200 m for the sill; in the Middle Pliocene 3-3.5C indicating
1,100 m; and 3.5-8.5C giving 1,O00400 m for the Upper Pliocene. The sandy
beds of the same basin contain organisms that normally lived in water depths of
20-30 m and others that lived deeper. This contrast is of great significance because it
establishes the juxtaposition of beds with animal remains from two environments of
different depths, and also proves the occurrence in Pliocene times of warm shallow
surface waters in the area. The possibility is thus excluded that the present deep-water
fauna lived in those days in small depths because there happened to be cold water
near the surface. (See Appendix, Note 6.)
Continuing the search for ancient turbidites one has to turn to older, pre-Pliocene
sequences. In these the fossils cannot give quite such pertinent evidence because the
depth of habitat is less certain for extinct species than for the Ventura and Los Angeles
species that are still living in the ocean. It is, therefore, more satisfactory to use the
sedimentological features for identifying such ancient turbidites. It turns out that
there are many Tertiary formations that resemble deepsea turbidites and those of the
Ventura Basin very closely. All the properties enumerated above are well developed
and it is then found that the benthonic Foraminifera, if present, form what is held to
be a deep-water assemblage. (For a recent example see GOHRBANDT
et al., 1962.)
Moreover, there is the same total lack of features that indicate shallow water. Examples are the macigno, marnoso arenacea and Picene flysch of the northern
Apennines, the Krosno Beds of Poland, most of the Gr6s dAnnot in the
French Alps, and countless other flysch formations. Because of the lithification of the
sandy beds (graywackes), the soles are exposed in most outcrops and these add some
significant features to those already enumerated. Flute casts, groove casts, prod casts,
etc., are all indicative of powerful current action preceded by a long period of quiet
allowing the accumulation of a clay deposit and immediately followed by deposition
of the sandstone itself. Measurement of current directions on these features brings out
a remarkable uniformity, a result fitting the action of turbidity currents.
Against the weakened paleontological evidence for bathyal depth can be placed a
rich collection of highly typical burrowings. Although the nature of the animals
responsible can only be guessed at, the fact remains that the great majority of these
so-called organic hieroglyphs have never been encountered in rocks of evident shallowwater origin. Burrows are lacking internally in the majority of the turbidites or
restricted to the upper parts, just as in the deep-sea sands (SEILACHER,
1959); they may
occur as casts on the soles, evidently re-excavated by the current prior to load dumping.
The Paleozoic and Precambrian also contain many turbidite formations, e.g., the
Silurian and Ordovician of the Southern Uplands of Scotland, the Silurian around
Aberystwyth in Wales, the Cambrian of the Harlech Dome, the Cambrian Bray Series
south of Dublin, and parts of the Lower Carboniferous and Devonian in Germany.
16
PH. H. KUENEN
The burrowings in these formations closely resemble those in the Mesozoic and
Tertiary turbidites. The Figtree Series invaded by the Archean granite of Natal and
the Pretoria Series contain what are almost certainly turbidite formations. With their
presumable ages of 3,000 million years and 2,000 million years respectively they are
the oldest of such rocks known (KUENEN,
in preparation). Some formations of fine
pelagic material contain just a few coarser turbidites that were deposited at long
intervals. An example has been described by Cmozzi (1957). TRUMPY
(1960) claims
that in the earlier stages of the Alpine geosyncline similar conditions were usual
(Biindnerschiefer). There are also formations with many coarse slumps and turbidites of calcareous material that are not classified as flysch, but are nevertheless
turbidite formations (KUENEN
and CAROZZI,
1953).
An inventory of the features one can expect to find in ancient turbidite formations is
almost identical with the list given above for recent deep-sea turbidites. A few comments can be made: (2) Grading may either be found in almost all beds of a formation,
or less regularly, and there are cases in which it is even rare. (3) The admixture of
lutite tends to produce dark sands (graywackes). According to CUMMINS
(1962) the
clay is partly secondary. (8) Convolute lamination is usually found combined with
current ripple lamination and is a very common feature in most turbidite formations.
(10) The maximum thickness can be at least 10 m. (11) Current rippled upper margins
are found occasionally. (13) Sole markings are extremely frequent and vary from flute
casts, groove casts, prod casts to bounce casts, typical burrowings, and less common
kinds. However, ripple-mark does not occur as sole marking. (14) Shale or marl,
poor in fossils, end the turbidites, capped with a hemi-pelagic stratum. The latter is not
always present, because the time interval may have been too short or because the next
current swept it away. This matter needs further study. (15) Current directions are
normally sub-parallel over wide areas and through thick sequences. (1 7) Ancient
turbidites have very seldom been traced beyond a single exposure, but their general
appearance indicates that they must extend over wide areas, possibly with variable
thickness. CAROZZI
(1957) presented strong evidence for the tracing of individual beds
over a distance of 3 0 4 km. (22) Estimated intervals for ancient turbidites range from
one hundred to one million years, but centres around one thousand years. This is the
same order of magnitude as measured for recent deposits.
For the identification of turbidites in ancient rocks considerable weight must be
given to a number of negative features, namely, absence of winnowed sands, symmetrical sharp-crested wave ripple-mark of variable directions, reversing currents, beach
structures, dune structures, swamps, river deposits, foreset beds, coarsely currentbedded laminations, megaripples, sun cracks, rain pits, tracks of land animals, salt
pseudomorphs, reefs, biostromes, roots in situ, exclusively shallow neritic fauna in
the fine grained beds, lack of lutites between the sandy beds, ripples in negative on the
soles of the sand beds, etc. In fact, lack of all features indicative of proximity to sea
level is typical of the great majority of well documented turbidite sequences. The possibility of shallow-water turbidites is dealt with on a later page (p. 18).
The present author has insisted throughout that no single feature is diagnostic of
17
turbidites, for each one can be encountered in deposits of quite different nature. It
follows that it is seldom possible to be entirely sure whether a separate bed is a turbidite or not. There are few formations in which all the characteristics are present, let
alone in which they have all been observed. But a geologist, who is all the time dealing
with convictions or reasonable certainties of a lesser degree than possible in
mathematics, can convince himself in many cases that he is examining the deposits of
turbidity currents.
The present writer claims to have proved in the foregoing pages, that there are a
number of cases in which the emplacement of a flysch-like formation by turbidity currents cannot be doubted. But for each separate formation, the field-worker must assemble all evidence he can find to decide whether the rocks he is investigating may be or
must be turbidites.
As it turns out that most formations containing turbidites are much like typical
Alpine flysch - of the alternating type - as far as sedimentological features are concerned, in the sequel of this paper, where a non-committal term is preferable to turbidite formation the term flysch-like formations will be used. (Flysch of the kind
consisting of shale or marl only, is not considered in this paper.)
The question arises what the deprhs were in which ancient turbidites were deposited.
In the present seas, they have been found at all depths greater than 1,OOO m and on
slopes of a few degrees to a few minutes. Obviously, no maximum can be given for the
ancient formations, except for very small basins. Several lines of evidence indicate
depths of the order of one or two thousand metres at the deepest end of ancient basins
(KUENEN,1959).
It is generally agreed that the accumulation of these formations was swift, and took
place in unstable basins. In spite of this, a typical characteristic of most flysch-like
formations is the uniformity in composition and stratification over wide areas and
through thick sequences. The failure to build up above sea level, or to be replaced
locally by a different facies, can be accounted for by assuming a deep environment in
which a few dozen metres increase or decrease of depth made no radical difference in
conditions on the bottom.
On the other hand, it is hard to imagine circumstances in a shallow, marine environment in which tectonic mobility of the floor and swift accumulation, held each other
in such perfect balance that a uniform formation resulted.
The writer has pointed to the remarkable property of some flysch formations to thin
away from the source, which feature is incompatible with the view that flysch-like
formations of great thickness originated in shallow water (KUENEN,1959; STANLEY,
1961). This remark finds support in the recently found thinning of the sediment away
from land on the abyssal plain to the west of Canada (SHOR,1962).
Taking all the sedimentological, paleontological and recent marine evidence into
This he can indicate briefly by using the term turbidite, in the same manner he uses diagnostic
terms like lava, tillite, and coprolite, in contrast to descriptive terms like andesite, loam
with scratched boulders, rounded pellet, and for the present problem graded dark sandstone
with laminated top.
18
PH. H. KUENEN
account, the general conclusion is warranted that flysch-like formations have developed in bathyal (or abyssal) depths. They have evidently originated from slides on
relatively steep slopes reaching to bathyal depths and these slides have been triggered
by earthquakes, by oversteepening of depositional slopes, by storm surges, or by
tectonic slope steepening. Liquefaction may have played a part.
However, although deep-water features are good additional evidence for the action
of turbidity currents, and although the great majority of turbidite formations developed in bathyal depths, this does not exclude the possibility of turbidity currents acting
in shallow water.
Dalys original suggestion was that turbidity currents originated by storm-wave
action on shallow shelves. Recently, PASSEGA
(1962) has invoked the same mechanism.
HEEZEN(1959, and earlier papers) has shown convincingly that rivers in spate
(Magdalena and Congo Rivers) can produce turbitity currents flowing down into submarine canyons. VANSTRAATEN
(1959) has presented good evidence for the deposition
of sandy turbidites in a channel sloping 2 down the front of the RhBne delta in depths
from 20-50 m. If such fluvio-marine turbidites occur in ancient formations, they
should be found in channels and would not resemble flysch.
CUMMINS
(1958) has suggested that certain continental sandstones can have been
deposited by sheet floods, and that many of their features resemble those of turbidites.
This is understandable because sheet flood and turbidity current are both highly
charged flows of wide extent, appearing suddenly as foreign to the environment and
dying out gradually. But it should be realized that a turbid sheet flood (or river in
spate) is not a turbidity current because it is not flowing under stagnant water. But if
such a flood were to cross a beach it would dive below the surface and become a
turbidity current. A turbidite could then be formed at zero depth, in the manner that
experimental turbidites are formed in tanks.
MANGIN(1962a) has recently discovered bird tracks in a Pyrenean flysch-like
sequence. This remarkable finding is of great significance because it shows that some
flysch-like sequences are of shallow-water origin, perhaps even continental. But
according to DE RAAF(1964) there are half a dozen other exceptional features observable in this exposure, even rendering the term flysch open to question. (See Appendix, Note 7.)
Several authors have offered other explanations for the origin of flysch-like sequences.
It has been suggested for instance that vertical oscillations from below to above wave
base took place for each graywacke bed, or that each bed has been attributed to a
tectonic uplift. Slow creep on the sea floor in bathyal depths is another suggestion.
Invasion of oceanic currents over an oscillating bar into a shallow lagoon is yet
another explanation, and tsunamis have also been held responsible (KUENEN,
1960b).
An endeavour to confront these hypotheses with the many sedimentary and paleon-
19
tological features usual in flysch-like rocks has not been made by the authors suggesting them. Any such attempt encounters many insurmountable difficulties. The analogy
with deep-sea sands has been simply ignored. (See Appendix, Note 8.)
There is a strong link between the concepts of flysch and turbidites, but the terms
are by no means synonymous. Much confusion has been caused by the many different
meanings given to the term flysch. Most authors attach a certain orogenic connotation
to it (pre-paroxismal), while others restrict the term to certain geological ages, or
require certain petrographic features such as angular grains, unweathered minerals
etc. Hence, the term turbidite formation, which is purely sedimentological and
invokes a specific mechanism, cannot be equated with any definition of flysch.
However, it can be stated that the great majority of ancient turbidites have been
encountered in formations that have previously been dubbed flysch (of the alternating
type) or flysch-like Paleozoic and Precambrian formations. Besides, a large number,
probably the great majority, of flysch formations are built up entirely or for the major
part by turbidite sequences.
In seeking the mode of origin of flysch-type sediments, that is the mechanism of
transportation and the environment, it is evident that the stratigraphic age, the subsequent tectonic history and the mineralogy of the grains are of no importance. The
arguments based on such matters against the contention that turbidity currents have
played a part can therefore bear no weight.
Furthermore, it is obvious that the known modern deep-sea sands differ from most
of the typical flysch rocks in mor ethan one way. But these differences can be attributed to geographical setting because the present-day ocean basins in which nearly all
deep-sea sands have been found are obviously very different from the geosynclinal
basins of alpine orogenes. In general, slopes were steeper, shelfs narrower, supply more
plentiful and of coarser grain, basins narrower and tectonically more active and waves
slighter during periods of flysch sedimentation. Some graded deep-sea sands on flat
floors contain gravel at their base, proving that turbidity currents are able to deposit
such coarse material on basin floors. The fact that most flysch is on the average
coarser grained than the average of deep-sea sands in no way militates against turbidity
currents as the main factor in flysch deposition, but it does indicate a different supply
and geographic setting.
Several authors have emphasized differences between samples taken in submarine
canyons and flysch sandstones. Others have pointed out that the sea floor topography
on the continental slopes is quite alien to the environment of flysch basins. However,
it is much more pertinent to draw a comparison between the ancient rocks and the
floors of present sea basins, and the similarity is then obvious. (See Appendix, Note 9.)
The claim that deep-sea sands are much cleaner than flysch sandstones may hold
for the average calculated for many samples, but there are muddy deep-sea sands (see
20
PH. H. KUENEN
In cases where all or most of the typical features, both positive and negative, listed
above (pp.9,16) are found, it is safe to ascribe the sandy beds to the action of turbidity
currents. However, there are also formations in which only part of the typical combination of features is encountered. The cause may be small size, small depth, or
slight slope of the basin. Likewise, the nature of the available sediment may have been
unfavourable or proximity to some source such as a delta may have been too close.
The fewer typical features one encounters the less confidently can turbidity flow be
invoked. But it is usually found that a well exposed, non-metamorphosed formation
either obviously belongs to the category of turbidite sequence, or it is quite obviously
of entirely different origin.
This statement requires amplification. In the first place there is one fundamental
difference between normal turbidite formations and the great majority of other types
of deposit. In the former there is a monotonous alternation of two kinds of beds: ( I )
the turbidites, in some cases with plenty of variation in grain size or in thickness, but
always coarser than (2) the interstratified fine (hemi-)pelagicsediment of constant composition but variable thickness. In other types of deposit there may be either one, two,
or more kinds of sediment, but if there are two or more, then the beds, as a rule,
follow each other in arbitrary succession, or else cyclothems are developed with three
or more types in a given sequence.
In the second place, in some turbidite formations beds may be intercalated that are
obviously of quite different origin, such as aphanitic (precipitated?) limestones.
Moreover, most turbidite formations contain occasional beds that differ from the
usual run and are of uncertain origin. In some formations there are two source areas
that produce different turbidites.
In addition, there are a few rhythmic successions of non-turbidite nature, especially
limestone-marl and shale-chert sequences, presumably both of bathyal depths. They
are readily distinguishable from turbidites by the lack of graded bedding and of terrigenous or shallow-water material coarser than clay.
A major difficulty is caused by the occurrence of beds that appear to have been
21
formed by a mechanism related both to turbidity flow and to sliding. These beds are
called fluxo-turbidites(DZULYNSKI
et al., 1959). The characteristics usually shown are
the absence of clear sole markings and of grading; greater and less regular thickness,
and also coarser grain than neighbouring beds; and many shale pebbles. All transitions exist towards normal turbidites on the one hand, and towards obvious slumps on
the other. Some instances are also known of normal graded beds containing a central
part that is a pure slump with contorted slump balls and large boulders (see KUENEN
et al., 1957). It is not improbable that certain graywacke formations lacking sole
markings and grading but otherwise flysch-like, belong entirely in this category.
Now that field geologists, in recent years have become aware of the significance of
sedimentary structures, more and more attention is being given to these features. What
was first considered to be more or less typical of turbidite formations is now known to
be less distinctive. In fact, shallow-water and continental deposits can show practically all the features that are typical of turbidites. Drag marks, flute casts, convolute
lamination, graded bedding, current ripple mark, smooth stratification, alternation of
shales and muddy sandstones, have all been observed separately or combined in red
beds, shallow-water limestones, and other types of deposit (see e.g., DOEGLAS,
1962).
This renders the recognition of true turbidites more difficult. However, in the
majority of cases showing some feature indicative of shallow water or emergence,
there is more evidence pointing in the same direction. Then one is obviously
dealing with a very shallow environment and it is unlikely that turbidites can have
formed in these circumstances (except by diving flash floods). Convincing evidence
for turbidites is only obtained if a sufficient number of positive structures is combined
with the absence of the shallow-water features.
Turning next to deposits of a few specific types of environment, the obvious differences with turbidite formations can be emphasized. River-channel deposits, apart
from lacking marine organisms, tend to be irregularly bedded, with channel scour and
conspicuous cross-bedding. Flood plain deposits can contain plant remains in situ,
desiccation cracks, weathered surfaces, blown sand, etc. and they lack marine fossils,
while delicate lamination is destroyed by roots and burrowers.
Although there are apparently molasse formations with turbidites (KUENEN,
1959),
the vast bulk consists of shallow water deposits, fresh brackish or marine, full of
coarse current bedding, channel scour, wave ripple-mark etc. and lacking the regular
alternation of coarse and fine typical of flysch. More obvious still is the contrast
between flysch and coal formations, although the inorganic components are again
sand and clay as in molasse and flysch.
Tidal flat and lagoon deposits usually show some of the following features: they are
furrowed by channels, may show plenty of wave ripple-marks and megaripples. One
encounters regularly alternating tidal current structures with opposing current directions, shell beds, conspicuous cross-bedding, well sorted sands. There is a lack of
graded bedding and any coarse particles are restricted to channel bottoms. Fresh- and
brackish-water organisms can be expected.
Delta deposits are stratified irregularly with a mixture of fresh, brackish and marine
22
PH. H. KUENEN
elements in arbitrary sequence as to grain size. They tend to contain well sorted beach
or dune deposits, wave ripple-marks, swamp lignites, channel fills, strata with primary
dip, and variable current directions. The foreset beds can resemble turbidites and
may gradually merge into basin-floor turbidites.
Shelf deposits have several features in common with turbidite formations, such as a
wide range in grain size and great horizontal extent. But on the shelf there is absence
of vertical alternation of two contrasting sediment types, and there can be winnowed
coarse beds, current indications of variable direction, ripple-marks of dune size,
bioherms and biostromes, plenty of neritic and no bathyal organisms, and conspicuous
cross bedding.
This brief review is not an exhaustive comparison between turbidites and other
types of deposits. But the examples given show that after careful examination there
can usually be little doubt whether a well-exposed formation belongs in the category
of turbidites or not.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank B. C. Heezen for advice and J. F. M. de Raaf for information concerning the Pyrenean flysch in which Mangin discovered bird tracks. L. M.
J. U. van Straaten kindly provided information on a turbidite from the Adriatic.
D. J. Doeglas made the mechanical analyses on which is based Fig.1 from material
furnished by D. B. Ericson.
APPENDJX
A few side-lines and special aspects are treated in the following notes. The pages of
the text to which they refer are indicated.
1 (p.7). Pelagic sediments do not smooth topography
There is a slight tendency for pelagic sediments to be winnowed and thinned on elevations and to thicken in depressions, but in general, an even blanket is being spread
over the deep-sea floor. As the smooth plains are due to drowning of rough topography
in sediment and not to blanketing, this levelling must be attributed to the emplacement
of deep-sea sands and not to the rain of pelagic matter from above onto a mountainous
topography.
The combined thickness of the sands must add to several hundreds of metres at the
least. Seismic prospecting indicates much thicker deposits in some basins and
trenches. It should also be noted that seismic methods have revealed marked stratification below abyssal plains, but an unstratified cover on slopes and hills.
23
2 ( p . 7 ) . Sedimentation balance
The continental shelf off southern California is narrow. A number of rivers carry out
t o sea large quantities of sandy sediment that is first dumped close inshore, and then
the dominantly southerly currents and southerly beach drift carry this material along
the coast. There is no direct loss off the shelf, no progressive up- or out-building of the
shore, no retreat of the coastline, and no significant volume increase of coastal dunes.
In other words, the supply is accurately balanced by yet some other kind of loss
(INMAN and CHAMBERLAIN,
1960).
The nature of this drain was established several years ago by Shepard (see SHEPARD
and EMERY,1941). Accurate surveys of a few canyon heads that approach the beach
to within a stone's throw were repeated at short intervals. This method revealed that
rapid but gradual accumulation of sediment tends to be followed by sudden deepenings
of the canyon heads. The intervals between losses vary but may be less than a year, in
some cases several years. These data are amplified by observations and soundings at
jetties reaching the heads of canyons; here, also, sudden deepenings have been observed. Calculation shows that in a very short time the canyons would be entirely choked
if the contents were not passed on regularly right out into the basin beyond.
The nature of the transporting mechanism is not directly obvious, and might be
slumping or creep alone. Sampling in these canyons shows sandy or even gravelly
beds, some with grading, also in places where the slope is only a few per cent.
This favours the surmise that turbidity currents have been involved, because experimental turbidity currents produce graded beds of similar, slightly muddy sands and
because no case is known of a slide having produced a bed of such nature without the
intervention of a turbidity current.
In contrast, the bottom of canyons heading far out from the beach, where there is at
present no supply of sand, are covered with fine sediment. For the sand carried out
beyond the canyon on the flat basin floor, sliding is obviously not possible.
3 (p.9). Creep
DILL
(1961) has made the interesting discovery that the sediment in some, shallow submarine canyon heads is undergoing a slow, steady creep. The sudden deepening, found
by Shepard, is proof that a much more catastrophic mechanism is also at work on the
fill of canyon heads. On slopes of over 25" the sand can flow like a trickle of water.
The longitudinal slope in the localities of creep is considerable, 10" or more (Dill,
personal communication, 1963) and it cannot be likened to the slope of sub-sea fans or
abyssal plains. Hence, these findings cannot be applied directly to the problem of
deep-sea sands on basin floors. Most deep-sea sands are laminated and have current
ripple structures, which obviously cannot be explained by creep any more than by
slump.
Recently, OULIANOFF
(1960a, 1960b) has called attention to the constant vibration
of the sea floor by microseisms. He claims that this should cause sandy deposits to
24
PH. H. KUENEN
creep down-slope and spread out on the deep-sea floor, thus producing the deep-sea
sands. Creep by experimentalvibration of a sedimentation tank is invoked as supporting evidence. Several objections can be brought forward: (I) The artificial vibration
is much too powerful to simulate natural microseisms. That the latter are insufficient
to cause creep is abundantly proved by the steep fronts of lake deltas and smaller
marine deltas. (2) If the sands could creep across abyssal plains they should not be
found buried long ago on the sub-sea fans with a slope ten times as great. (3) Globigerina ooze and other pelagic sediments are not subject to transportation down slopes
less than 5 and no reason can be given why the deep-sea sands should be so much more
mobile. (4) The upper part of a pelagic ooze is in a semi-liquid condition. It is entirely
inconceivable that a layer of sand could creep across such a foundation without
getting bogged down and without even showing any mixing. (5) The lamination of
deep-sea sands disproves a creeping displacement.
4 (p.9). Liquefaction
There is a close correlation between a number of submarine cable breaks on the one
hand, and earth-quakes or river floods on the other (HEEZEN,
1959). Liquefaction
1956) in the case of earthquakes
followed by sliding have been invoked (TERZAGHI,
accompanied by delayed breaks (up to 14 hours later), but cables far out on the abyssal
plain have been broken where sliding is impossible. The sudden softening of the sediment assumed to occur when liquefaction is thought to have taken place, would not
be able to cause sufficient tension in a cable for it to snap, because cables are laid
down with slack. In the case of a river flood leading to a cable break in the submarine
canyon or beyond, liquefaction cannot be involved. (For further arguments see
KUENEN,
1960, p.8). It is obvious that liquefaction cannot produce a deep-sea sand
without the intervention of a transporting mechanism, because of the material in these
sands that is foreign to the environment. Hence, liquefaction does not appear to give
a satisfactory explanation for submarine cable breaks or deep-sea sands. On the other
hand this mechanism could constitute a plausible cause for the take-off of those turbidity currents that are linked with an earthquake. Other mechanisms can also be
invoked to start a slide, such as oversteepening (tectonic or depositional), quicksand
formation, wave action, and river floods.
5 (p.9). Bufingtons experiments
In a recent paper, BUFFINGTON
(1961) has challenged the reality of high-density,
high-velocity turbidity currents and has remarked in passing that normal marine
currents are competent to carry sand across the deep-sea floor.
It is not the authors intention to treat at length the velocities and densities of oceanic turbidity currents (the interested reader is referred to HEEZEN,
1959). However, a
few remarks on Buffingtons paper are needed, because acceptance of his conclusions
might cause doubts as to the importance of turbidity flow in the present oceans.
25
26
PH. H. KUENEN
Grand Banks turbidity current is possibly too high. However, the absence of bedding
in the silty stratum found in the bottom cores taken later in this area, precludes the
possibility of successive flows, and the grading is another powerful argument that all
the sediment was carried and sorted in one vast body of water. The proven minimum
volume of 100 km3 for the resulting turbidite, cannot reasonably be imagined as
having moved down the continental slope otherwise than in a current that anyone
would describs as of high density (that is, above the normal range in rivers), and of
high velocity (that is, above the normal range in marine currents).
27
rivers with marked fluctuations, there is still some mechanism needed to carry and
deposit the material in the marine environment. Because of the absence of reversing
tidal-current bedding, wave ripple-marks, channels, coarse-current bedding, etc., it
is hard to name a possible means of marine transportation in shallow water. Mangin
does not explain why the impressive sole markings below the first coarse supply are
absent below the subsequent laminae. Is there any mechanism active in shallow water
that is able to spread sand in a sheet only a few millimetres thick with perfect uniformity over areas of many square kilometres? On these and many other problems (uniform
direction of supply, convolute lamination, absence in flysch of build-up above the sea
surface, unique types of burrowing, absence of beach features, etc.) the author of the
climatic interpretation has not offered an explanation.
The chief reasons for challenging the climatic nature of the sequence in flysch-like
rocks are the following:
( I ) The lamination so common in deep-sea sands cannot be attributed to a yearly
rhythm, and must result from uninterrupted but short-lived flow. Hence, similar lamination in flysch is also attributable to current action.
(2) The flat laminations of flysch-sandstones are in many cases seen to pass locally
into obliquely fore-set laminae of the current ripple type (Fig.2). In other words, here
and there a lamina is locally split up into a dozen or more alternations that then come
together again further along. Moreover, the majority of laminae are not continuous
over distances of more than a few dozen centimetres or at most metres (Fig.2). Only
the more conspicuous sudden changes in grain size or composition run the length of a
normal exposure. In the theory of turbidity currents these major lamination planes
can be attributed to more pronounced fluctuations in the current, for instance a few
separate slides triggered by the same earthquake.
These characteristics of laminae form ample evidence that their development is the
result of current action under more or less steady conditions of flow by local sorting in
bottom traction. Variations in supply at the coast cannot be invoked to explain them.
It is important to note that there is a fundamental difference with varves, which are
continuous for dozens of kilometres and never split into oblique laminae.
(3) The explanation of the grading in a flysch sandstone by a climatic rhythm is
based on a very unstable foundation. Hardly any meteorologists still acknowledge the
existence of distinct and persistent climatic rhythms of less than a century. Neither
the sun-spot cycle, Bruckners period or other suggested short periods have been
convincingly documented. Although several authors have claimed rhythms in glacial
varves (amongst others 2, 3, 6, 10, 11, and 90 years have been suggested) these are so
indistinct that their existence is still a matter of doubt.
(4) If a rhythm has developed in the past, one would expect it to show a gradual
increase and decrease, not a sudden maximum declining then through the years of the
rhythm, such as is required to explain a graded bed. In any case, the random variations from year to year must always have been much more in evidence than the trend
during a cycle. But with few exceptions the grain size within a graded bed declines
regularly upwards, so that in Mangins explanation the yearly fluctuations are quite
28
PH. H. KUENEN
Fig.2. Two drawings from sections of turbidites illustrating the wedging shape of the laminae, as
contrasted to the truly parallel laminae of glacial varves. The former are due to currents, the latter to
climatic variations. A and B: Lower Ecca Sandstones, Permian; Laingsburg, South Africa. C: Marnoso arenacea, Miocene; F. Reno, Apennines.
subordinate to the trend over the years of a cycle. In this respect also the contrast with
varves is most striking.
(5) A complete cycle must run from the base of a coarse bed through the covering
shale to the base of the next coarse bed. If the sun-spot cycle were responsible there
29
should be 11 laminae in the sandstone plus shale. Actually Mangin finds about 10 or
20 in the sandstone so that during the following sun-spot cycle only fine shale has
been deposited. In fact the rhythm, if it existed, would have to be much longer than
the sun-spot cycle.
(6) If it is granted for the sake of argument that the supply from land showed a
rhythm, why is it that the marine currents that carried and deposited the sediment
showed an equivalent gradual decrease in efficiency? For the current that was strong
enough to carry the coarse sand, deposited at the base of a bed, must have weakened so
as to be able to drop the gradually decreasing sand sizes of a graded bed, and finally to
deposit the silt at the top. A way out of this difficulty cannot be found by presuming
direct deposition from the flood waters, because normal flysch is purely marine.
Spreading fresh water on sea water does not carry medium or coarse sand. Abnormal flysch, however, may have originated from flood waters (see p. 18).
(7) Planar lamination in a graded bed can be produced experimentally by settling of
a mixed load from an originally swift current set up in a circular moat and then left to
die out gradually.
The other recent explanation for flysch is due to RECH-FROLLO
(1962) who attributes flysch-like rocks to shallow-water sedimentation because of the muddy nature
of the sandstones. She claims that muddy sandstones are produced by mixing between
sandy and muddy areas on the shelf. If this suggestion is accepted, the typical flysch
alternations of clay and sand must be attributed to the shifting back and forth of the
zone of mixing over the place of the exposure. But only one of the two elements which
are believed to mix is present, namely the mud; the other, the clean sand, has never
been observed in flysch-like rocks, which rules out the hypothesis of mixing. The
alternative suggestion, proposed by the same writer, that we are dealing with deltaic
deposits, also meets insuperable difficulties. All shallow-water features and the wide
variety of deposits and structures typical of deltas, are conspicuous by their absence
from flysch-like rocks (see p.16).
30
PH. H. KUENEN
evidence against a deep environment for flysch that is often rich in this mineral, but
both Emery and Ericson have found deep-sea sands with plenty of glauconite.
Shepard also mentions in this paper that most of his samples were coarser at the
bottom than at the top, and yet he says the description as graded sands is not accurate
because of some alternations between coarse and fine or because of little change. This
remark has also been used as evidence for a different origin of flysch sandstones.
However, there are plenty of deep-sea sands with very marked grading, and conversely there are innumerable flysch beds with repeated or indistinct grading. Shepards
description happens to be exactly what M I D D L ~ O(1962)
N
has found for the quartz
grain of two ancient turbidites. There is grading of size within each bed, in so far as
the maximum size decreases regularly from the base to the top of the bed: the average
size cannot be shown to vary regularly within beds. Obviously, in this respect also,
deepsea sands and ancient turbidites are the same.
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and
ARNOLD H. BOUMA
SUMMARY
Reconstructingthe paleogeography of flysch basins necessitates well-planned data collection programs from the start. It is recommended that information, collected conjointly in field and laboratory investigations, be recorded in a systematic manner with
an eventual electronic computer program in view. Data should be easily translated into
machine code for rapid selection, sequencing, grouping, calculation, and even automatic plotting on base maps. The recognition and delimitation of lateral facies variability patterns, more readily visualized when the processed data are presented in the
form of isopachous, paleocurrent, and lithofacies maps, are the essential steps in interpreting conditions under which flysch sediments accumulated in basins. The results
of megascopic and microscopic investigations of the Annot Sandstone flysch in the
French and Italian Maritime Alps are highlighted, and solutions to both general and
specific paleogeographic problems are illustrated.
METHODOLOGY
35
carried out in different portions of the geologic record has increased notably. Each of
these studies was conducted in a somewhat different manner depending upon the purpose of the study, the particular characteristics of the flysch deposit in question, and
the general geologic background and interest of the geologist carrying out the study.
One of the purposes of this paper is to review some of the more basic lithologic parameters which should be taken into consideration during the investigation of any
Fig.1. Outcrop of typical flysch, the Annot Sandstone formation in the Tete de Gorgias-Vallon de
1Estrop region above the village of Esteng in the French Maritime Alps. The photograph illustrates
the thick (over 600m in this particular locality) and monotonousnature of the formation as well as the
regular alternation of distincly stratified, graded sandstone and silty shale beds which commonly
comprise flysch basin deposits.
36
D. J. STANLEY A N D A. H. BOUMA
methods should also assure that the geologist obtains data which can be compared
statistically from section to section or from core to core (BOUMA,1959).
Furthermore, data collection should be planned with an eventual computer program in mind. The advent of high-speed digital computers and other electronic processing equipment now available to the geologic profession means that a whole new
field of data processing must be considered. Data collected in an organized manner
can be readily transferable onto punch cards for permanent filing, rapid retrieval, and
machine processing.
One of the primary reasons for collecting all of this information in the first place is
to select or sort out the important mappable variables and plot them on isopachous,
isolith, lithofacies (usually in the form of percentage and ratio maps), and paleocurrent maps. Maps such as these are essential tools used not only in defining lithofacies
and recognizing their position in the paleobasin but also in predicting lithologic
trends and variations within these same basins. It is believed that paleogeographic
interpretations of flysch deposits should be attempted only after these lithofacies have
been rigorously delimited laterally and vertically.
Fig.2. Schematized drawing to show the difference between the terms bed and layer, as used by
the authors in their field work.
In this paper, the term bed is differentiated from the term Iuyer for practical purposes only. A layer is
a stratified sedimentary unit in which the maximum grain size decreases from the bottom to the top of
the unit. The layer theoretical shown in Fig.2 includes sediments grading upward from coarse sand to
silt and mud. Beds are recognized within the thicker layer as units which have distinct or nearly
distinct stratification limits or breaks, usually due to a change in grain size and differential weathering
of the layer. In the example above, both the sand and silt-mud strata making up the layer are designated as beds.
37
examined during the limited time available to the geologist; and, furthermore, a notebook assures that a sytematic check of all variables will be carried out. In a quantitative or semiquantitative study such as proposed here, it is as important to record the
absence of a particular character as it is to record its presence.
To facilitate the selection of data obtained from the field or the subsurface, collected
information can be grouped under organized headings or fields for rapid retrieval. One
suggestion would be to use as a field book a hard-covered ledger with pages divided
into numerous columns and square spaces so that as one proceeds upward through the
section it becomes possible to record the specific characteristics of each individual bed
examined. Headings for each variable to be studied may be simplified to reduce space
by assigning a code designation. In this fashion data may be recorded by means of a
simple check, number, letter, or symbol code, or by graphic presentation in the field
1961; BOUMA,1962).
book (BOUMAand NOTA,
A field-book log sheet actually compiled directly in the field is illustrated in Fig.3.
Both graphic and symbol methods of recording data were utilized in this example. An
explanatory symbol legend for this particular log sheet has been compiled in Fig.4.
The simplicity of coded or graphic symbols enables them to be translated rapidly
into machine computer code. This is of major significance since there are, in the case
of most electronic data cards, a total of 960 possible punching positions. Such cards,
usually divided into 80 columns under which are 12 possible punching positions, are of
tremendous advantage in quantitative studies where so much data are recorded from
every bed examined. Information can be transferred from the field book onto these
small permanent records in an orderly and meaningful fashion. Automatic processing
procedures such as duplicating, machine verifying, sequencing, grouping, selecting,
group printing, calculating, gang punching, etc., are momentous time savers. A codesystem legend book in which all symbols used are illustrated and precisely defined, is
essential. It has to be kept up-to-date.
Observations made in the field can be grouped into several suggested categories;
these are briefly described below and are outlined in Tables I, 11, and 111. It should be
stressed, however, that the tables included here are by no means complete nor are they
intended to be. They are simply proposed as illustrations of the type of data to be
considered in flysch studies. As every geologist knows, no two identical lithostratigraphic problems are expected to be encountered and each worker will find a system
most practical for his own specific purposes.
General information grouping
Digital data can be recorded on cards, tape, or on magnetic recording media. For
convenience, primarily easier visual presentation, the following discussion will be
limited to the punch-card method of data processing.
Several data-processing cards may be prepared for every bed examined in the field.
The minimum information of a general and diverse nature required for the permanent
record is punched on a master card. The reader is referred to Table I and F i g 5
Each card must have an identification field for rapid retrieval. On the master card
SIfRVEVOII'
A. H. Souma
DATE:
6-/'-6U
STRATIGRAPHIC U N I T W
Pe/h-&H&dd
(A-MJ
COD1
7
OF SECTION:
6 (FJ
Fig.3. Exampleof a field-booklog sheet on which both graphic and symbol methods of data recording have been utilized (modified after BQIJMA
and NOTA,
1961; BOUMA,
1962).
39
shown, each bed examined receives a double number designation comprising a section
or boring log code followed by a bed number. The numbering of beds would customFIELD-BOOK LOG COLUMN HEADING
EXPLANATORY S Y M B O L C O D E L E G E N D
THICKNESS
NUMBEROFBED
LITHOLOGY
1..7..1
11-.. .
SANDSTONE
SANDY T O S I L T Y SHALE
L.
SHALE
STRATI F l C A T l O N
VERY SHARP, F L A T CONTACT
BEDDING P L A N E CONTACT
DISTINCT, . F L A T CONTACT
GRADUAL TRANSITION (RANGE O F TRANSITION (0.1 CM)
GRADUAL TRANSITION (RANGE OF TRANSITION 0.5-1.0 CM)
GRADUAL TRANSITION, B A R E L Y VISIBLE
IRREGULAR CONTACT
UPPER BEDDING P L A N E NOT EXPOSED
CASTS
CURRENT DIRECTION
INDURATION
~~~~
REMARKS
7205L
PH. 2-15
40
TABLE I
INFORMATION OF A GENERAL NATURE TO BE PUNCHED ON THE MASTER DATA
CARD^
.
~~~~~
Card column
(1-9)
1-4
5-8
9
(10-23)
10-15
16-19
20-23
(24-29)
24-25
26-27
28-29
(30-37)
30-33
34-37
(38)
(39)
(40-43)
40-41
42-43
(44-48)
44
45
46
47
48
(49-53)
49
50
51
52
53
(54-56)
54
55
56
(57-61)
57
58-61
(62-66)
62
63-66
(67-80)
-
arily start from the base of the section. As an example, let us assume that a card
bearing the number 12-42 under card column heading 1-9 in the identification field
had dropped out of the file accidently. These numbers indicate that this card represents
41
the forty-second bed observed above the base of section bearing code number 12. It can
be replaced either mechanically or automatically in the correct stratigraphic sequence
between cards 1 2 4 1 and 1243. A numbering system must be flexible enough to take
into account the portions of the section covered by debris or vegetation or portions
missing or repeated because of structural displacement.
A sequence number column added to the identification field permits the machines to
recognize the type of data punched on any card. Position 1 under column 9, for instance, could represent the master card containing information of a general nature
(see Fig.5). Other punch positions under column 9 are reserved for other types of data
pertaining to the same bed (position 2 representing detailed megascopic observations
collected in the field, position 3 representing microscopic data obtained in the laboratory, etc.).
The date and geographic location data on the master card are also available for
identification purposes.
The strike and dip of a bed are essential information for general mapping as well as
for determining the original direction of paleoccurrents. Vectorial information obtained from sedimentary structures, when measured on a tilted bed, must be corrected by
rotating the bedding plane back to its original near-horizontal position.
A problem as yet unsolved is whether the shale sediments lying above a graded
sandstone were deposited from the "tail" of a turbidity current or were deposited independently from the normal pelagic rain of sediments after deposition of the turbidite. For this reason, data referring to the type and form of bedding plane and contact
between beds may be of importance in genetic interpretations. Punched codes under
this column could designate sharp contact, rapid transition, gradual transition,
irregular contact, etc. (see Fig.3,4).
For most statistical computations it is necessary to select information which has
been recorded most reliably. This could imply, for instance, data extracted from those
beds in a section which are most completely exposed. For this reason, a column
should be reserved for coding the degree of bed exposure.
The bed thickness field is broken down into meter and centimeter columns for
greater manipulation.
The degree of bed deformation is the type of megascopic information which can be
related with microscopic analysis of samples (degree of metasomatism, presence of
certain authigenic minerals and cements, etc.).
Statistical studies of bed shape variability are basic to any regional lithofacies analysis and must also be included in this category. Special columns should also be
reserved for sample, photographic, and field sketch records for they have a tendency to
accumulate rapidly and become confused. Coded information concerning the stratigraphic interval sampled or photographed should also be punched under these
columns. Samples should be oriented when at all possible.
43
flysch formations have been recognized and defined. Although the geologist may be on
speaking terms with flysch terminology and associated structures, he is faced with
the problem of recording the wealth of data that can be extracted from each bed. Since
a great deal of paleogeographic interpretation is to be made from such megascopic
data, it is necessary to prepare sufficient columns both in the field book and on data
cards (Table 11, Fig.3, 6).
The information collected in this category is too extensive to be reproduced in toto
on the master card; additional punched cards are required. The identification field of
every card pertaining to the same bed will be identical for rapid retrieval. Only the
punched sequence number of the additional detailed cards (2, 3, 4, . . . n) will vary
from the master card sequence number (punched in the 1 key punch zone, as described
earlier).
Readily observable factors, such as the degree of weathering, color, and structures,
may be recorded without difficulty. On the other hand, data pertaining to grain size
or mineralogical composition are at best tenuous in cursory field work. However it i s
still recommended that such data be recorded as the collecting samples from every
bed is virtually impossible. Because of the difficulties involved in describing and
quantifying grain size and composition in the field, each term employed must be
carefully defined and utilized consistently from the start.
It is possible to anticipate certain structures almost always invariably associated
with flysch and provide column headings for them on the retrieval forms (see Fig.6).
This does not imply, however, that every flysch facies is characterized by identical
sedimentary properties. Each flysch deposit is distinguished by a distinct association of sedimentary characteristics. Nor should it be assumed that these sedimentary
structures are limited to flysch deposits. They are not, for the most part.
Additional punching positions should be provided on the data cards for the numberous other structures not listed here but which have been recognized in various paleocurrent investigations. The reader is referred to a more complete list of symbols for
sedimentary properties, including structures, compiled by BOUMA
(1962, pp.5-22).
Directional properties from sedimentary structures
Linear and planar sedimentary structures, easily measured by compass, are among
the best tools for reconstructing the historical events of a basin. If time allowed for
only one method of determining the direction of sediment transport and of predicting
the size, shape, and location of beds within a basin, the authors would unhesitatingly
choose the numerous linear primary directional structures found at the base, at the
top, and within individual stratum.
Numerous structures associated with flysch units have been described within the
last decade (KUENEN,1953, 1957; CROWELL,1955; BIRKENMAJER,
1958; DZULYNSKI
and SLACZKA,
1958; TEN HAAF,1959; DZULYNSKI
and SANDERS,
1962; DZULYNSKI,
1963). The majority of structures described in these and other papers are associated
with flysch regardless of age or geographic location. The linear and planar tendency of
many such structures records the orientation of paleocurrents as well as the orientation
44
TABLE I1
EXAMPLES OF DATA COLLECTED IN THE FIELD OR FROM BORINGS WHICH COULD BE PUNCHED ON
ADDITIONAL DATA CARDS]
Card column
(1-9)
1-4
5-8
9
(1 0)
(1 1)
(12-19)
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
(20-21)
20
21
(22-30)
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
(31-43)
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
of the paleoslope or basin floor at a specific geographic location. When possible, both
symmetric and asymmetric sedimentarystructures should be measured conjointly. The
general orientation of slides, suspension flows, or traction currents may be determined
Fig.6. Example of a layout for a detailed data card to accompany the master card (see Fig.5).
46
D. J. STANLEY A N D A. H. BOUMA
47
Card column
(44-58)
44-46
47-49
50-52
53-55
56-58
(59-70)
59-61
62-64
65-67
68-70
(71-79)
71-73
7476
77-79
These groupings are based upon the position of the structures in the beds and are
listed in the respective order: those on the base of beds (known as sole markings in
flysch literature), those within beds, and those on top of beds. Recording the direction
of the structures on data cards Sould be handled as shown in Fig.6. Three columns
have been allotted for the azimhh direction. under every sedimentary structul;e field.
Every time a direction is recorded, either the number 11 or the number 12 positions
in the zone punch area must also be perforated. When the orientation given represents
the downcurrent direction (on the basis of foreset lamination, flute casts, or other asymmetric structure), the number 11 punch position could be perforated. Punching position number 12 could, in turn, represent a general orientation direction which must be
Fig.7. Groove casts on the sole of a broken Annot Sandstone block. The general orientation of paleocurrents can be obtained from this type of linear structure (the direction must be extended in opposite
compass quadrants).
Fig. 8.Linear asymmetric structures, such as flute casts on soles of graded beds, are useful paleocurrent indicators. The flutings in this photograph indicate that clastic materials were transported from
the lower left t o the upper right of the broken Annot Sandstone block.
48
D. J. STANLEY A N D A. H. BOUMA
extended in opposite compass quadrants (on the basis of elongate pebbles, groove
casts, etc.).
Additional punching positions on data cards would most likely be required to
record the range of direction variation obtained on any one bed, the total number of
markings observed, the dimension of the structures, the degree of visibility, and the
like.
Laboratory and microfacies investigations
Sampling and recording procedures
Laboratory sample analyses should, whenever possible, supplement data collected
in the field or in subsurface work. Critical lithologic changes along the depositional
strike and dip are often missed when laboratory observations are neglected. Microlithologic studies are used to interpret more precisely the source areas and associated
parent rocks which gave rise to the sediments transported into a flysch basin. Investigations of this kind are used to obtain a better understanding of the transport mechanisms as well as to determine the physiochemical conditions which affected the
depositional environment during and after sediment accumulation. Microscopic
studies become particularly invaluable in subsurface work where fewer parameters are
available for lithofacies mapping.
Important microscopic variability is to be expected within most graded beds regardless of thickness. There is a direct relationship between position of the sample in the
bed, grain size, sorting, and mineralogy (GUBLER,
1959; STANLEY,
1963,1964). Random
sampling must therefore be avoided if coherent results are to be obtained. Samples
should be oriented and collected in a consistent manner (such as from the base, midportion, and top of the bed). The position of the bed from which the sample is collected
should be recorded on the data card (see Table I, Fig.3 and 5).
The authors have found it useful to subdivide the laboratory schedule into four major
categories: granulometry, fabric, mineralogical composition, and fossil determination.
Variables most commonly examined are listed in Table IV. In most cases, samples can
ordinarily be examined with standard laboratory equipment and techniques. More
specialized procedures, including X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, and chemical
analysis, are at times necessary to supplement petrographic examinations of critical
samples or cores.
The relztive importance of each parameter is again dependent upon the scope of
the problem, nature of the flysch, and availability of time and equipment. Data collection in the laboratory should again be planned systematically so that the information
recorded can eventually be electronically processed. The identification fields of laboratory data cards must be identical to the master punched data card so that all of the
information pertaining to one bed can be selected, sequenced, and grouped.
49
TABLE IV
SCHEDULE OF LABORATORY SAMPLE ANALYSIS
Granulometry
Grain size distribution
maximum grain sue
weighed mean, median, modal grain size
first and third quartile, percentiles
other size parameters
Grain shape
roundness index
sphericity index
Surface texture
Fabric
Orientation of elongate grains
Grain imbrication
Grain-to-grain relationship
Mineralogical composition
Light mineral identification
Heavy mineral identification
Cement (or matrix)
Disseminated organic matter
Chemical analysis
X-ray diffraction
Microfossils and other organic remains
Taxonomic determinations of microfossils
Degree of abrasive wear (or other indications of reworking)
Age determination (if not reworked)
Palynological examination
encountered in graded and slumped beds. Fossils found in the sandstone or conglomeratic layers, never common, generally show some degree of wear and abrasion (see
Fig.9) and generally can be related either to shallow or nearshore environments or to
Fig.9. Poorly preserved Eocene Nummulites test reworked with other grains in a sample of coarse
h o t Sandstone, uppermost Eocene in age in the vicinity of Annot, Basses-Alp,France; thinsection magnification approximately x 8.
50
faunal associations in older underlying formations. There is much evidence that fossils
in coarse sandstone turbidites are accidental, that is to say, either displaced from
other depositional environments or reworked from older horizons (NATLAND
and
KUENEN,1951; FHLEGER, 1951; STANLEY,
1961a; BOUMA,1962; SHEPARD
and EINSELE,
1962). This is to be expected in a situation where shelf or nearshore clastic sediments
have been transferred toward the deeper portion of the trough by gravity transport
mechanisms such as suspension flows and slides.
The fossils found in the finer nongraded siltstones and shales are perhaps more significant indicators of time and depositional environment. Organisms present in the
finer-grained lithologies usually indicate more open and deeper marine environments
than do the fossils embedded in the coarser-graded horizons. It is believed that such
forms settle out of suspension along with other pelagic sediments as a continuous
rain over the basin floor. For this reason it is presently believed that more reliable
information is to be extracted from microfossils embedded in pelagic sediments than
from those found in the coarser graded beds. Furthermore, it is expected that detailed
palynological investigations of finer flysch sediments would also provide rewarding
results.
51
The following are typical examples of parameters which may be averaged: thickness
of sandstone or shale beds; mean paleocurrent direction from primary sedimentary
structures; mean orientation of elongate grain alignment; average size of pebbles in
conglomerate samples; mean or modal grain size in sandstone samples; values of
average grain shape or roundness.
Percentages, such as the following, are also easily plotted: graded beds; conglomerate-containing beds; channel-fill beds; slumped beds; sandstone beds exhibiting sole
markings; relative percentages of either light or heavy minerals; relative percentages
of matrix or cementing material; relative percentages of organic carbon and CaCO,.
Ratios can be handled in similar fashion. Ratio values commonly plotted are:
clastic ratio; sand/shale ratio; sandstone/conglomerate ratio; graded bed/nongraded
bed ratio; sedimentary pebbles/plutonic-metamorphic pebbles ratio; quartz/feldspar
ratio; resistant heavy minerals/nonresistant heavy minerals.
Computation of quartile and moment measures can also be handled automatically
using the grain size data collected in the laboratory and recorded on sample data
cards. This includes the solving of dispersion (or sorting), standard deviation, dissymmetry (or skewness), peakedness (or kurtosis), and similar formulae (INMAN,1952).
It is often necessary to determine the degree of relationship existing between different
parameters. Several examples may be cited: thickness of sandstone bed and degree of
graded bedding; thickness of sandstone bed and grain size; degree of coarseness and
type of sole markings; grain size distribution and mineralogical composition; grain
size distribution and carbonate cement content.
There is almost no limit to the work that can be programed to obtain data for contouring maps. Electronic plotting equipment can be used to interpolate points automatically and directly print contoured structural, isopachous, and lithofacies maps,
greatly reducing both error and time.l Fortunately the number of published articles
treating data processing, and the selection of mappable variables by regression procedures and factor analysis are rapidly increasing. Papers of direct application along
these lines are available (KRUMBEINand SLOSS,1958; FORGOTSON,
1960; AAPG
RESEARCH
COMMITTEE
SYMPOSIUM,
1962; KRUMBEIN,
1962a, b).
The Annot Sandstone: an example of paleogeographic reconstruction
The former geography of a basin becomes apparent when selected isopachous and
lithofacies maps, just described, are compared and superimposed on each other. Certain patterns and trends will appear to stand out clearly on many of these maps. It
becomes essential to critically evaluate these laterally varying lithological patterns
Computer-automatic plotter systems can accept locations and data values for large numbers of
points and produce contoured maps based on the input values.
For a map containing 1,ooO irregularly spaced data points, several months would be required to
perform the computations on a desk calculator to sepsrate the observed data into regional and local
components. These calculations are performed on the IBM 650 in one hour and on the IBM 704 in
two minutes. (FORGOTSON,
1962, p.42.)
52
when interpreting such factors as the direction of paleocurrents, the geographic positions of shorelines, paleoslopes, uplifted source areas, and depositional environments,
the bathymetry and topography of the basin, the mechanisms by which sediments are
transported, the zones where sediments of different provenance mix, and the like.
Two investigations of the Annot Sandstone flysch formation, Upper Eocenelowermost Oligocene in age, were conducted independently in adjoining regions of
the French and Italian Maritime A1ps.l One of these studies (STANLEY,1961a) dealt
with the regional lithostratigraphic characteristics and paleogeography of the formation in an area covering approximately 5,000 square kilometers in a region west, northwest, and north of the Argentera-Mercantour Massif on the Franco-Italian border
(area A, Fig.10). The Annot Sandstone east of the Tin& River and south of the
Fig.10. Map showing the location of the Annot Sandstone Formation (in stippled pattern) and
adjacent crystallinemassifs (delineated by hachures).
53
This sequence of alternating sandstones and shales lends itself particularly well to
paleogeographic studies: these rocks are unusually well exposed, thick (100-650 m),
quite continuous laterally, and less tectonically disturbed than most similar flysch units
in this part of the Alps (see Fig.1). Classic regional geologic studies (BOUSSAC,1912;
GOGUEL,1936; DE LAPPARENT,
1938; FAURE-MURET,
1955) established the stratigraphic and structural framework of the region in question. The availability of these
Fig.11. Highlights of results obtained from the megascopic field examination of t h e h o t Sandstone
Formation (modified after STANLEY,
1961a; Bourn, 1962).
Diagram 1. The Annot Sandstone outcrops are shown by stippling. The location of the ArgenteraMercantour Massif (A) the Barrot Dome (E), and the Esterel Massif (C), is shown by hachures.
Smaller structural domes, Remollon and Saint Etienne d'AvanWn (0)and Barles (E), were exposed
to the west and are represented by triangles.
Diagram 2. The arrows indicate the direction of sediment transport as inferred from sedimentary
structures. Three major directions are involved. Sediments were brought in from south to north, from
west and northwest to southeast, and from east toward the west and northwest, away from the Argentera Massif.
Diagram 3. This diagram shows thevariation of the sand-shale ratio. The arrows indicate that the
ratios decrease from south to north, from west-northwest to east, and from east to west and northwest.
Diagram 4. The arrows indicate the general directions in which sandstone beds thin.
Diagram 5. The arrows point in those directions where the number of conglomerates and conglomeratscontaining beds decreases.
Diagram 6. Dots represent the position of conglomeratescontainingpebbles with diametersexceeding 10 cm.
Diagram 7. Dots spot the locations of the slumped beds in the basin. These submarine slumped
layers, unlike turbidites, are poorly stratified, nongraded, contorted, dark argillaceous deposits which
often enclose large rounded pebbles and reworked sandstone and shale fragments.
Diagram 8. This sketch indicates the location of sandstones deposited by traction currents. These
sands exhibit prevalent cross- and forset bedding and lack the graded bedding, parallel stratification,
and other characteristicsof the typical flysch deposits to the north.
54
Fig.12. Highlights of results obtained from the microscopic investigation of Annot Sandstone samples
(modified after STANLEY,
1961a; FJOUMA, 1962).
Diagram 1. The Annot Sandstone outcrops are shown by stippling. The location of the ArgenteraMercantour Massif ( A ) , the Barrot Dome (B), and the Esterel Massif (C) are shown by hachures.
Smaller structural domes, Remollon and Saint Etienne dAvancon ( D ) and Barles (E), were exposed
to the west and are represented by triangles.
Diagram 2. Petrographic analyses of conglomerate pebbles reveal that three pebble associations
occupy different geographic positions in the basin. Type I is found only in the western part of the
basin, association 2 surrounds the northwestern half of the Argentera Massif (A), and association 3 is
restricted to the south. Association 3 contains rhyolite and mica schist pebbles similar to rock types
found only in the Esterel Massif (C) to the south.
Diagram 3. Heavy minerals, grouped into three major associations, have distribution patterns
similar to the conglomerate pebble associations in diagram 2. The S-K-G association is found only in
the south and includes staurolite, kyanite, and garnet in large proportions. The heavy minerals to the
north, the G-R-A and R-A associations, are primarily comprised of resistant mineral suites (zircon,
rutile, and tourmaline). These were derived by reworking of the partially exposed Permian and Lower
Triassic sandstones and quartzite cover of the Argentera and Pelvoux Massifs.
Diagram 4. The arrows indicate a decrease in relatibe percentage of stauiolite and kyanite toward
the north. Neither crystalline rocks of the m m i f basement nor sedimentary cover of the Argentera
(A) or Pelvoux Massifs contain significant quantities of staurolite and kyanite. These minerals, on the
other hand, are present in crystalline rocks and sedimentary cover of the Esterel Massif ( C ) to the
south. A southern origin is implied for Annot Sandstones containing these two critical minerals.
Diagram 5. Arrows show a general decrease in relative percentage of garnet away from the south,
west-northwest, and east.
Diagram 6. Dots represent the locations of the highest percentages of feldspar (in sandstone)
recorded in the formation.
Diagram 7. Dots indicate the geographic position of the sands containing the highest percentages of
CaCO,.
Diagram 8. The sands containing the highest percentages of glauconite and nonreworked microfossils are of the nonflysch type. These sands are the same as those shown in diagram 7.
55
works, as well as geologic and topographic maps, enabled the authors to select rapidly
the locations of the most complete stratigraphic sections and to concentrate their investigations on the lithologic aspects of the rock.
The lateral variability of lithology and sedimentary structures is illustrated in Fig. 1 1
and 12 and is explained in the accompanying legends. The data used in these diagrams
have been simplified and modified from contour and other detailed lithofacies maps
(STANLEY,
1961a; BOUMA,1962). The same general trends and patterns can be found
in most of these diagrams. Both field and laboratory investigations indicate that sediments were brought into the marine basin from the south, from the west-northwest,
and from what is now the northwest portion of the Argentera-Mercantour Massif.
The stratigraphic and structural framework of this same region at the end of the
Eocene and in earliest Oligocene time is generalized on four diagrams in Fig. 13. These
simplified interpretations are explained in the accompanying legend.
Paleogeographic conclusions, which are based partially upon combined stratigraphic, sedimentological and structural considerations, are illustrated on Fig. 14.
In diagram 1 of this last figure, the paleoslopes, represented by hairlines, are shown
dipping into the basin away from the south, east, and west. Relatively steep dips of
1"-3" were probable in these areas.
In diagram 2, the Annot Sandstones have been divided into two contrasting types:
those which show nonflysch characteristics and which were deposited on narrow,
shallow shelves are located in areas labeled Roman numeral 11; the sandstones which
show true flysch characteristics and which were deposited in the relatively deeper part
of the basin are found in the area labeled Roman numeral I. Detrital sediments were
brought onto the narrow shelves by fluviatile and shallow marine traction currents.
The rapidly accumulating sands were then periodically transferred and redeposited
by slides and suspension currents into the deeper parts of the basin. Numerous faults
which are known to have been active during accumulation of the formation (such as
faults a and b in diagram 3, Fig.13) could well have triggered such slides and turbidity
cur rents.
Diagram 3 shows hachures becoming progressively lighter toward the north. This is
to indicate that the graded sandstone beds in this region become thinner and less
coarse from south to north. Arrows, representing vectorial properties of linear
sedimentary structures, also indicate that sediments were transported northward.
Diagram 4 is a composite picture based upon all of the field and laboratory observations. Not one, as was originally proposed, but at least four major source areas gave
rise to the Annot Sandstone by the end of Eocene time. These are located in the northwestern half of the Argentera Massif (A), in the region east of the Argentera Massif
(D), in a region to the west-northwest (C), and in an area to the south (B). Sediments
from sources A and B mixed in the zone delineated by the hachures. Area D was
uplifted at the end of Eocene time, and the subsequent tectonic displacement of nappes
toward the west so completely covered this region that it is not possible at this time to
determine the history of the eastern portion of the basin with any certainty. Source area
B to the south was most likely the Esterel-Thyrrenide chain which extended eastward
56
D. J. STANLEY A N D A. H. BOUMA
Fig.13. Generalized stratigraphicand tectonic interpretations of the region covered by the sea at the
end of Eocene and earliest Oligocene time (modified after Bovss~c,1912; Gooun, 1936; DELAPPARENT, 1938; GUBLER, 1959; STANLEY, 1961a).
Diagram 1. Geographic position of the marine flysch formation (A) and the lateral interfingering
timeequivalent nearshore non-flysch facies (B, C,D). A = Annot Sandstone,sl., thick accumulations
of alternating sandstonesand shales in the restricted Nummulitic Sea;B = Grks en plaquettes, thin
marine sands at Senez-Clumanc; C = Calcareous sands of shallow marine origin at Faucon-Gigors;
D = Lagunal-lacustrian clastic facies at Taulanne-Castellane.
Diagram 2. Shallow-water mollassic conglomerates accumdated near Clumanc (E) and Saint
Antonin (F)after deposition of flysch in Early Oligocene time.
Diagram 3. The fold axes related to the Provencal tectonic phase are shown as solid lines; fold axes
57
of the Alpine tectonic phases are represented by small crosses. Northeast-southwest trending faults a
and b were active during deposition of the Annot flysch.
Diagram 4. During this period, the mobile pre-Triassic substratum was warped into a north-south
trending ridge (axis in hachured area) and somewhat uplifted zones (shown by the dotted patterns).
58
in an area now beneath the Mediterranean Sea south of Nice and Menton (KUENEN
et al., 1957; KUENEN,1958; STANLEY,
1961a,b; BOUMA,1962).
Solving spxific problems
Selective data collection can be used to solve paleogeographic problems of a more specific nature. One example of such problem solving in conjunction with flysch studies
can be demonstrated. An attempt was made by one of the authors (STANLEY,
1961b) to
explain the nonflysch nature and extremely rapid lateral facies variability of the Annot
Sandstones in the vicinity of Annot (Basses-Alpes, France).
As is often the case, the lithology of the formstion in its type locality is not truly
representative of the formation as a whole. If one stands at the southern end of the
Coulomp Valley and looks toward the north, one cannot be but amazed by the contrasting lithology of the formation on the opposite banks of the river (see Fig. 16). On
the west of the valley, in a locality known as Chambre du Roi, the formation is approximately 200 m thick and consists of very thick and poorly stratified nonflysch-like
sandstone beds lying above the underlying Eocene (Priabonian) Marnes bleues
Formation (see section 5 on cross, section A-B in Fig.16). As one looks to the east,
Fig.15. The Annot Sandstone in its type locality near Annot (Basses-Alps). This view toward the
north along the Coulomp River shows the thick, coarse, poorly stratified, and poorly graded beds of
sandstone lying upon the older PriabonianMarnes bleues formation. Not visible are the thin, wellstratified alternatinggraded sandstone and shale strata just to the right of the photograph.
59
Fig. 16. Geologic cross sections (vertical scale exaggerated) of the Annot Sandstone in the vicinity of
the type-locality in the Basses-Alps (seetext and Fig.17).
one sees that the formation, less than 100 m thick, also lies upon the older Marnes
bleues. But here the formation exhibits the typical flysch characteristics and is composed of much thinner, well stratified, regularly alternating graded sandstones and
shales (see section 6 on cross section A-B in Fig. 16). Since only about 500 m separates
these two outcrops, it was at first thought that a tectonic accident had displaced the
rocks on the opposite banks of the Coulomp River. Detailed field work, however,
revealed that no fault parallels the valley along this stretch of the river. It was then postu.latedthat variability of depositionalenvironmentsand of mechanismsof sediment transport was directly responsible for the rapid lithologic changes observed in this small area.
Stratigraphic sections were selected, and a critical examination was made of the
rocks both in the field and the laboratory. It was found that sandstone beds are
thickest in the vicinity of stratigraphic section 5 and thin rapidly east and west (cross
section A-B) and toward sections 7 and 9 in the north (cross section C-D). The relative
proportion of sandstones in each section, determined by means of the sand-shale
ratio, decreases in these same directions; the interbedded shales on the other hand not
only become more numerous but also are thicker away from section 5. Grain size
SEC
SEC
1
x
LEGEND
ANNOT SANDSTONE (UPPERMOST EOCENE-LOWER OLIGOCENE)
MARNES BLEUES (PRIABONIAN)
CALCAIRE MARNEUX INTERMEDIAIRE (PRIABONIAN)
CALCA I R E N UMMUL IT1QUE
CALCAI RE SENONI
EN
TURBl DI TES
FT
FLUXO~URBIDITES
TR
s$
61
decreases and graded bedding becomes more pronounced away from sections 5 and 7
toward sections 6 and 11. The coarsest conglomerate lenses are also concentrated in
the area between sections 1 and 7 along profile C-D. Petrographic analyses, however,
have revealed beyond a question of a doubt that the clastic materials in all of these
localities are related as far as source is concerned.
The geometry of the sandstone bodies indicates that a north-south trending depression must have acted as a sand trap in this locality at the end of Eocene time. This
depression, probably a downwarping within the underlying Marnes bleues Formation, had the form of a submarine valley or channel (the term canyon with its connotations of high steep sides, probably not the case here, is avoided). This depression
developed within the paleoslope as the land mass to the south became uplifted.
Tectonic movements, pronounced during this period of Alpine orogeny, could well
have triggered the movement of the rapidly accumulating sediments away from shore
into the deeper basin to the north.
The interaction of sediment transport processes, depositional environment, and
tectonic activity is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 17. In the block diagram the
basal sands are shown as wedge- and fan-shaped accumulations thinning laterally away
from the channel at the base of the paleoslope. All of the pre-requisites normally associated with flysch deposition are present: an abundant and readily available supply of
coarse to fine sediments rapidly accumulating nearshore, a paleoslope with sufficient
dip enabling gravity transported sediments to be shifted into the basin, and structural
instability.
Poorly sorted, lithic and feldspar-rich sands containing mineral suites of metamorphic origin accumulated onto the narrow and shallow shelf. Both fluviatile and shallow
marine traction currents shifted these sediments into littoral and neritic environments.
The sands were again transported, this time below wave-base, down the paleoslope
into the basin by suspension flows(turbidity currents), by traction, sliding, and slumping, and by mechanisms transitional between suspension and slumping (fluxoturbidite sediment transport described by DZULYNSKI
et al., 1959). The coarser sand
and pebble fractions which became entrapped and channelized in the submarine
depression were not able to develop the typical turbidite characteristics. These
deposits, wedge-shaped and poorly stratified, appear as coalescing cone- or fan-shaped
units at the base of the slope and mouth of the channel.
On the other hand, the sand and silt-sized sediments which were shifted down the
less deformed more regular slopes adjacent to the depression accumulated as thinner,
more distinctly stratified deposits on the basin floor. They were spread over a wider
area in sheet-like deposits and were able to develop characteristics typically associated
with flysch: marked graded bedding, numerous sole markings, parallel stratification
Fig.17. Interpretations of the depositional origin of the Annot Sandstone Formation in thevicinity of
Annot (Basses-Alp). The block diagram (vertical scale exaggerated) attempts to show the interrelation between lithologic variability, depositional environment, mechanisms of sediment transport, and
structural mobility.
62
between alternating sandstones and shales. The continuous rain of pelagic sediments
are believed to have given rise to most of the muds between the graded sand turbidites.
These shales and silty shales are evidently more numerous and continuous on the basin
floor than they are in the channel.
Petrographic examination of the formation in this area reveals the presence of light
and heavy minerals, pebbles, fossils, and other inclusions reworked from older underlying formations. Priabonian, Mesozoic, and even Paleozoic rocks were uplifted and
exposed to erosion and weathering south of the basin. Uplift and erosion also affected
the upper parts of the submarine slope during deposition of the Annot Sandstones,
which would help to explain the presence of Marnes bleues and basal Annot Sandstone fragments reworked in the younger sands deposited to the north in the deeper
basin.
CONCLUSIONS
There are several fundamental reasons why methodology and flysch paleogeography
are certain to interest a growing number of sedimentologists during the next few years
(PETTIJOHN,
1962).
In the first place, all of the answers pertaining to the mechanisms of sediment transport, depositional environments, and the role of related tectonism have not, as yet,
been provided from studies of the ancient record alone. Geologists, by necessity, are
actively seeking explanations of these problems in present-day marine basins where
sediments are accumulating under somewhat similar conditions. It is interesting to
note, for instance, the striking sedimentologicalanalogies between the once submerged
basin area adjacent to Annot, outlined in the preceding section, and certain presentday basins such as the San Diego Trough (described by SHEPARD
and EINSELE,
1962)off the coast of southern California. It is quite likely that flysch-like deposits are
even now being laid down. In comparing recent to ancient rocks, the manner in which
data are collected and processed becomes critical. In the case of flysch, therefore,
methodology has a role of primary importance in determining whether the present
can be used as a key to the past.
Methodology and paleogeography have also been given added impetus as more and
more rock units exhibiting typical flysch characteristics are recognized in the geologic
record. It is admitted that such sequences are not restricted to the Cretaceous and
Lower Tertiary basins of the Alps, and many portions of the geologic record are now
actually being rediscovered and reinterpreted as flysch-type deposits.
Furthermore, the fact that there exists an astonishingly large volume of basin rocks
comprising potential source and reservoir horizons should impress those in charge of
petroleum exploration programs. Flysch formations have already been described in
areas adjacent to and within prolific petroleum provinces such as the Los Angeles
Basin in California and the Delaware Mountain Group in Texas and New Mexico (in
SULLWOLD,
1961). Quantitative and semiquantitative results obtained from studies of
63
recent and ancient flysch formations are certain to become invaluable to those carrying out subsurface investigations. In working with flysch-type stratigraphic traps
where lateral observations are limited but where rapid lateral lithofacies variability
can be expected, a judicious choice of methods and a clear understanding of paleogeography are basic requisites.
In summary, the following fundamental points may be recommended:
( I ) Those who intend to carry out quantitative investigations must familiarize
themselves with the capabilities of electronic equipment and data processing so as to
be able to extract rapidly the maximum amount of usable information with the least
margin of error.
(2) Data collecting should be planned and information recorded with an eventual
computer program in mind.
(3) Abundant available data may be accumulated logically and systematicallyin the
field and in the laboratory.
(4) Selected data can then be processed for translation onto base maps in the form
of structural, isopachous, isolith, paleocurrent, and lithofacies maps.
(5) By comparing and superposing these maps it is possible, in most cases, to
observe significant lithologic variability and facies patterns within a mappable unit.
(6) The recognition of these time and geographically controlled variations is the
key step in understanding the over-all history of a flysch basin.
The multiple-parameter methods outlined above were tested with success in the
Maritime Alps, and it is expected that similar lines of reasoning employed with other
flysch-type formations will provide fruitful results.
REFERENCES
AAPG RESEARCH
COMMITTEE
SYMPOSIUM,
1962. Geology enters the computer age. In: Annual AAPGSEPM Meeting Program. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Tulsa, Okla., p.25.
BIRKENMAJER,
K., 1958. Oriented flowage casts and marks in the Carpathian flysch and their relation
to flute and groove casts. Acta Geol. Polon., 8 : 118-148.
BOUMA,
A. H., 1959. Some data on turbidites from Alpes Maritimes (France). Geol. Mijnbouw,
21 :223-227.
BOUMA,A. H., 1962. Sedimentology of Some Fljsch Deposits. A Graphic Approach to Facies Interpretation. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 168 pp.
BOUMA,
A. H. and NOTA,D. J. G., 1961. Detailed graphic logs of sedimentary formations. Intern.
Geol. Congr., 21st, Rep. Session, Norden, 23 : 52-14.
BOUSSAC,J., 1912. etudes stratigraphiques sur le Nummulitique alpin. MPm. Carte GPoI. France,
662 pp.
CROWELL,
J. C., 1955. Directionalcurrent structures from the Prealpine flysch, Switzerland. Bull.
Geol. SOC.,66 : 1351-1384.
DE LAPPARENT,
A. F., 1938. etudes gblogiques dans les dgions hovenqles et Alpines entre le Var
et la Durance.. Bull. Serv. Carte Gkol. France, 198 pp.
DZULYNSKI,
S., 1963. Directional structures in flysch. Studia Geol. Polon., 12 : 1-136.
DZULYNSKI,
S. and SANDERS,
J. E., 1962. Current marks on firm mud bottoms. Trans. Conn. Acad.
Arts Sci., 42 : 51-96.
DZULYNSKI,
S. and SLACZKA,
A, 1958. Direction structures and sedimentation of the Krosno Beds
(Carpathian flysch). Ann. Soc. GPoI. Pologne, 28 : 205-260.
64
DZULYNSKI,
S., KSIAZKIEWICZ,
M. and KUENEN,
PH. H., 1959.Turbidites in flysch of the Polish Carpathian Mountains. Bull. Geol. SOC.Am., 70 : 1089-1 118.
FAURE-MURET,
k , 1955. etudes gkologiques sur le massif de IArgentera-Mercantour. Mkm. Carte
Gkol. France, 336 pp.
FORGOTSON
JR., J. M., 1960. Review and classification of quantitative mapping techniques. Bull.
Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 44 : 83-100.
FORGOTSON
JR., 1. M., 1962. Application of digital computers to exploration operations (Abstract).
In: Annual AAPG-SEPM Meeting Program. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Tulsa, Okla., pp. 4142.
GOGUEL,
J., 1936. Description tectonique de la bordure des Apes de la Bleone au Var. Mkm. Carte
Gkol. France, 360 pp.
GUBLER,
Y., 1959.etude critique des sourcesdu materiel constituant certaines dries dttritiques dans le
Tertiaire des Alpes franeaises du Sud: formations detritiques de BarrSme, flysch Gr&sdAnnot.
Eclogue Geol. Helv., 51 : 942-977.
.
INMAN,
D. L., 1952. Measures for describing the size distribution of sediments. J. Sediment. Petrol.,
22 : 125-145.
KRUMBEIN, W. c., 1962a. Thecomputer in geology. Science, 136 : 1087-1092.
KRUMBEIN,
W. C., 1962b. Open and closed number systems in stratigraphic mapping. Bull. Am. Assoc.
Petrol. Geologists, 46 : 2229-2245.
KRUMBEIN,
W. C. and SLOW,L. L., 1958. High-speed digital computers in stratigraphic and facies
analysis. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 42 : 2650-2669.
KUENEN,
PH. H., 1953. Significant features of graded bedding. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists,
37 : 1044-1066.
KUENEN,
PH. H., 1957. Sole markings of graded graywacke beds. J. Geol., 65 : 231-258.
PH. H., 1958. Problems concerning source and transportation of flysch sediments. Geol.
KUENEN,
Mjnbouw, 20 : 329-339.
KUENEN,
PH. H.,FAURE-MURET,
A., LANTEAUME,
M.and FALLOT,
P., 1957. Observations sur les
flysch des Alpes maritimes franqises et italiennes. Bull. SOC.Gkol. France, 6e Skr., 7 : 11-26.
MOORE,
R.C., 1949. Meaning of facies. In: C. R. LONGWELL
(Editor), Sedimentary Facies in Geologic
History - Geol. SOC.Am., Mem., 39 : 1-34.
NATLAND,
M. L. and KUENEN,
PH. H., 1951. Sedimentary history of the Ventura Basin, California,
and the action of turbidity currents. In: J. L. HOUGH(Editor), Turbidity Currents - SOC.Econ.
Paleontologists Mineralogists, Spec. Publ., 2 : 76-107.
PEITUOHN,
F. J., 1962. Paleocurrents and paleogeography. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 46 :
1468-1493.
PHLEGER,
F. B., 1951. Displaced Foraminifera faunas. In: J. L. HOUGH
(Editor), Turbidity CurrentsSOC.Econ. Paleontologists Mineralogists, Spec. Publ., 2 : 66-75.
SHEPARD,
F. P. and EINSELE, G., 1962. Sedimentation in San Diego Trough and contributing submarine canyons. Sedimentolqy, 1 : 81-133.
STANLEY,
D. J., 1961a. Etudes skdirnentologiques des GrPs dAnnot et a2 Ieurs Equivalents Iatvraux.
Thesis, University of Grenoble, France, 158 pp. Also: Editions Technip, Paris, 158 pp.
STANLEY,
D. J., 1961b. etudes ddimentologiques des Grks dAnnot et de leurs Cquivalents lattraux
(summq). Rev. Inst. Franc. Pktrole Ann. Combust. Liquides, 16 : 1231-1254.
STANLEY,
D. J., 1963. Vertical petrographic variability in Annot Sandstone turbidites. J. Sediment.
Petrol., 33 : 783-788.
STANLEY,
D. J., 1964a. Distribution and lateral variability of heavy minerals in the Annot Sandstones.
In: L. M. J. U. VAN STRAATEN
(Editor), Deltaic and Shallow Marine Deposits. Elsevier, Amsterdam,
pp. 388-398.
STANLEY,
D. J., 1964b. Large mudstone-nucleus sandstone spheroids in submarine channel deposits.
J. Sediment. Petrol., in press.
SULLWOLD
JR., H. H., 1961. Turbidites in oil exploration. In: J. A. PETERSON
and J. C. OSMUND
(Editors), Geometry of Sandstone Bodies, a Symposium - Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 45 :
63-8 1.
TENHAAF,E., 1959. Graded Beds of the Northern Apennines. Thesis, State University, Groningen,
102 pp.
et R.
PASSEGA
SUMMARY
La mkthode granulomktriquedes diagrammes CM, ainsi que les techniques skdimentologiques habituelles, nous ont permis de reconstruire lkvolution de la sedimentation
de la formation Marnoso-Arenacea (Apennin septentrional, Italie).
INTRODUCTION
66
A. RIZZINI ET R. PASSEGA
DESCRIPTION DE LA SERIE
PATTERN CM
MEMBRE
FORMATION
AGE
ARGILES
zrF,
KS'NIEN
DE
$$
':&;:
TOSSIGNANO
(650rn)
M
l
3
A
T
A LT
(25om)
0 N I E N
R N A N C
D E
C A S T E L
D E L
(2250m)
A
R
N
E
-
N
L
A
A
R I O
C
E
H
A
E
68
A. RIZZINI ET R. PASSEGA
Les Sables de Fontanelice passent vers le haut presque brusquement a des nouvelles
alternances de turbidites et dargiles, qui forment le troisitme membre dont lkpaisseur
est de 650 m.
Les turbidites sont reprtsentkes par des sables faiblement cimentks avec gradedbedding parfois meme repktk.
Les turbidites se rarkfient peu ii peu vers la partie supkrieure du membre, qui
finalement devient entierement argileux. En meme temps lkpaisseur des couches gr6seuses et les dimensions des grains diminuent aussi.
Aucune empreinte napparait ii la base des bancs grkseux, peut-etre i cause de leur
faible cimentation. La portion silteuse des bancs grkseux montre par endroits des
convolute beds.
Dans la partie moyenne de ce membre se trouvent trois gros blocs exotiques t r h
rapprochks, formks par des bancs de Sable de Fontanelice, qui sktendent sur
quelque 0,5 km2, avec une puissance de 20 m, en position de nette discordance angulaire, sur les Argiles de Tossignano.
Le cycle de stdimentation miockne sachtve avec le dkpp8t de couches de gypse dune
Cpaisseur denviron 30 m.
VARIATION DES CARACTBRISTIQUES
~BDIMENTOLOGIQUES
Les flute casts ont une direction constante, E30S, dans tous les membres des Alternances tandis que les quelques empreintes de ce genre, quon trouve dans les Sables de
Fontanelice, sont dirigkes vers lest.
Les minkraux lourds des Alternances ont une composition uniforme et sont reprksentks presque exclusivement par des grenats et des kpidotes-zofsites. Cette association
change peu a peu au passage des Alternances aux Sables de Fontanelice. Ces deniers
ainsi que les Argiles de Tossignano sont caractkrisks par lapparition de disthtne,
glaucophane et hornblende verte.
LCtude des minkraux lourds a CtC exkutCe selon la mkthode adoptke par lInstitut
Francais du Pktrole (STANLEY,
1961, p.83).
Fig. 1 reprCsente les variations du rapport sable/argile dkfini, pour un intervalle,
comme le rapport entre lkpaisseur totale des couches de sable et de celles dargile.
Les autres caractkristiquessCdimentologiques seront discutks pour chaque membre
skparkment.
M~THODEGRANULOMBTRIQUE
69
CM
Cette mtthode met en tvidence les relations existant entre la texture des sediments
et lagent de dtp6t (PASSEGA,
1957).
Les Cchantillons dun skdiment donnt sont reprtsentts par deux paramktres: C,
une valeur approchte du grain maximum et M , le mtdian. Si un dtp6t est reprtsentt
par une trentaine dtkhantillons sur un diagrarnme CM, les points correspondants
forment un pattern dont la forme dtpend des caracttristiques de lagent de transport.
Le pattern typique des dtp6ts de courants tractifs (Fig.2), qui transportent une
partie du stdiment par roulement (partie N - 0 - P - Q) et une partie par suspension
(Q - R), a une forme arqute; celle des dip& des courants de turbiditt qui transportent tout le rnattriel en suspension, a une forme lintaire parallde la droite C = M
(Fig.3F).
INTERPR~TATIONDES CARACT~RISTIQUESS~DIMENTOLOGIQUES- RELATION
AVEC LA TECTONIQUE
Le pattern F de la Fig.3 est typique des Alternances de Caste1 del Rio, et a la forrne
70
A. RIZZINI ET R. PASSEGA
~BDIMENTATION
ET O R O G E N VALLBE
~ E , DU SANTERNO
71
lineaire caracteristique des turbidites. Deux autres patterns, de ce membre, qui ont BtC
construits, sont identiques au pattern F. La constance de la forme des patterns et de la
direction des flute casts dans les plus de 2.000 m depaisseur de ce membre, indiquent
que la sedimentation a eu lieu dans une pkriode de subsidence forte m a i s graduelle,
qui a maintenu la mCme topographie de fosse pendant toute la sedimentation de ce
membre. I1 sagit probablement dune periode prCorogCnique.
Le pattern E de la Fig.3 reprksente la zone inferieure des Sables de Fontanelice. Sa
forme fait penser a un dkp8t de courants tractifs. Cependant, on p u t faire valoir
quelques arguments qui sopposent 21 cette interpretation. Les bancs sablew sont
partiellement ?t graded-bedding, les flute casts, quoique rares, sont assez typiques,
les load casts et les convolute beds sont communs. Le diagramme CM indique
une forte turbulence, qui pour un dCpBt de courant tractif impliquerait une trks faible
profondeur deau (PASSEGA,
1960). Dautre part, tous les autres membres de la Marnoso-Arenacea etant constitues par des turbidites, il semble peu probable de trouver
au milieu deux un episode de sables de trks faible profondeur.
Les Sables de Fontanelice ont des caractkristiques trbs proches de celles des dCp8ts
que DZULYNSKI
et al. (1959) ont appelb fluxoturbidites. Selon ces auteurs des glissements sous-marins seraient B lorigine des courants de turbidit6 et les fluxoturbidites
seraient un dBp8t intermediaire entre le mud flow et la turbidite.
Comme les fluxoturbidites dkrites par Dzulynski et al., les Sables de Fontanelice,
forment, eux aussi, des bancs irrbguliers, separks par des niveaux dargile discontinus.
Les Sables sont moins argileux et plus grossiers que les turbidites des Alternances, et les
argiles sont plus silteuses que celles des Alternances. Le graded-bedding vertical est
assez rare, sauf vers la base du remplissage des chenaux &erosion. Les flutes casts sont
plus rares mais les load casts et les stratifications obliques sont plus abondants que
dans les turbidites. Ces caracteristiques sont citCes par Dzulynski et al. comme Ctant
typiques des fluxoturbidites.I1 semble donc que les Sables de Fontanelice puissent Stre
un d6p8t de ce genre. I1 faut, toutefois, faire une restriction.
Comme il semble que les courants de turbidit6 de la Marnoso-Arenacea naient pas
eu comme origine des glissements sous-marins comme ceux imaginCs par Dzulynski
et al., mais plut8t des suspensions formCes par de violentes tempCtes (PASSEGA,1962),
les Sables de Fontanelice seraient plut8t un dBp8t intermediaire entre les depbts de
vagues et les turbidites. Peut-&re vaudrait-il donc mieux parler, tout au moins pour
les skdiments des Sables de Fontanelice, dundaturbidites que de flwoturbidite.
Labsence absolue de glissements dans les Sables de Fontanelice vient A lappui de
cette hypothkse.
Fig.3. Diagrammes CM de la S r i e de la Vallk du Santerno. Patterns A, B, C: Membre Argiles de
Tossignano; patterns D, E: Membre Sables de Fontanelice; pattern F: Membre Alternances de
Castel del Rio.
CM patterns of the Santerno Valley Series. Patterns A, B, C are from the Argiles de Tossignano
Member; patterns D, E from the Sables de Fontanelice Member; pattern F from the Alternances
de Castel del Rio Member (see Fig.1).
72
A. RIZZlNl
ET R. PASSEGA
La ressemblance avec les Sables de Fontanelice fait penser quau moins une partie
des fluxoturbidites dkrites par Dzulynski et al. pourraient Stre des undaturbidites. Cette hypothbse expliquerait lobservation de ces auteurs, qui ont not6 que les
fluxoturbidites Ctaient moins argileuses que les vkritables turbidites. Ces sCdiments
moins argileux semblent peu compatibles avec une origine des courants de turbidit6
comme une coulCe vaseuse. I1 semble en tous cas que les Sables de Fontanelice se
soient form& dans un milieu assez semblable a celui suggCrC par Dzulynski et al.
pour les fluxoturbidites. Lapport du matCriel n6tait plus parallble a Iaxe du bassin,
comme il lktait pendant le dCpbt des Alternances, mais les flute casts indiquent quil
avait son origine ti louest. Le changement de la composition des mineraux lourds confirme le changement de la provenance des stdiments.
Ces skdiments ont dQ Ctre dCposCs assez prbs de leur lieu dorigine car vers louest
la cbte n6tait qua quelques kilomktres de la VallCe du Santerno.
La variation du rapport sable/argile (Figl), le changement dans la direction des
flute-casts, la variation des minCraux lourds et lapparition dundaturbidites correspondent probablement A une phase orogtnique qui a dB soulever considkrablementle
fond de la fosse et son bord sudoccidental.
La diminution de profondeur de la mer a probablement dCterminC sur ce bord la
formation des dipbts sableux de vagues. Ces dkpbts ont CtC resCdimentCs dans la
VallCe du Santerno sous forme dundaturbidites A une profondeur qui devait dkpasser
celle de laction des vagues vu labsence dans cette IocalitC de dtpbts attribuables
uniquement aux vagues.
Le pattern D de la zone sableuse superieure des Sables de Fontanelice ressemble a
un pattern de turbidite et marque probablement le passage entre les undaturbidites
des Sables de Fontanelice et les turbidites des Argiles de Tossignano.
Les patterns suivants, C - B - A (Fig.3), des bancs de sables qui font partie des
Argiles de Tossignano, sont des patterns de turbidite. A mesure que lon stlkve dans
ce membre, les turbidites deviennent de plus en plus rares, leur Cpaisseur diminue, et
leur texture devient plus fine.
Durant la pCriode de dtpbt des derniers courants de turbiditt le fond du bassin
recoit par glissement des blocs exotiquesformCs par des bancs de Sable de Fontanelice.
Labsence dkrosion au contact entre ces blocs et les Argiles de Tossignano, qui est
clairement marquCe par une discordance angulaire, montre que ce glissement a 6tC
trbs doux. La pente sur laquelle il sest produit Ctait presque horizontale puisquelle
recevait les dtpbts des courants de turbidit6 les plus faibles de la Marnoso-Arenacea.
Le fait que lon trouve ces blocs dans la partie moyenne des Argiles de Tossignano,
indique que la phase dorogtnbse sest peut-Stre prolongte pendant une partie de la
skdimentation de ce membre.
La sddimentation de la partie supdrieure des Argiles de Tossignano pourrait correspondre a une phase postoroginique durant laquelle, par suite dune faible subsidence,
la fosse se comblait. Les pentes devenaient de plus en plus faibles et rendaient 1Ccoulement possible seulement aux courants de turbidit6 qui transportaient des silts, quune
faible turbulence suffisait A maintenir en suspension.
S~DIMENTATIONET O R O G E N ~ E V
, A L L ~ EDU SANTERNO
13
Les dernikes couches de ce membre, entikrement argileuses, correspondent probablement a une profondeur du bassin encore trop forte pour le transport par vagues,
mais avec des pentes trop faibles pour l'koulement de courants de turbiditk.
Les Argdes de Tossignano sont recouvertes par des couches de gypse, qui indiquent
une restriction du bassin.
CONCLUSIONS
Nous adressons les remerciements les plus vifs a la Direction Gknkrale de la Societa
AGIP Mineraria, qui a bien voulu nous permettre la publication de ce rapport.
Nous devons remercier aussi M.G. Long pour la collaboration que les laboratoires
gkochimiques nous ont offerte dans l'exkution de ce travail; M. M. Pieri, qui nous a
guidks dans le choix des skries a ktudier; M. D. Tedeschi pour l'ktude palkontologique
et M. G. Livraga qui a fait la coupe de terrain.
74
A. RIZZINl ET R. PASSEGA
BIBLIOGRAPHIE
DZULYNSKI,
S., KSIAZKIEWICZ,
M. and KUENEN,
PH.H., 1959. Turbidites in flysch of the polishcarpathian Mountains. Bull. Geol. SOC.Am., 7.0 : 1089-1 118.
MERLA,G., 1951. Geologia dellAppenninoSettentrionale Bull. SOC.Geol. Ital., 70 : 95-382.
R., 1957. Texture as characteristic of clastic deposition. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists,
PASSEGA,
41 : 1952-1984.
PASSEGA,
R., 1960. Skdimentologieet recherche de p h o l e . Rev. Inst. Franc. Pitrole Ann. Combust.
Liquides, 15 : 1731-1740.
PASSEGA,
R., 1962. Problem of comparing ancientwith recent sedimentary deposit. Bull. Am. Assoc.
Petrol. Geologists, 46 : 114-124.
STANLEY,
D. Y . , 1961. Etuaks sidimentologiques des Gr&sdAnnot et de Ieurs Equivalents latiraux.
Thbe, Univ. de Grenoble, Grenoble, 158 pp.
TENHAAF,
E., 1959. GrudedBeAofthe Northern Apennines. Thesis, Univ. of Groningen, Groningen,
102 pp.
SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
The past decade has seen the concept of turbidity flow widely applied to British rocks
and the implications of the general theory with its corollary aspects have prompted
considerable reappraisal of existing interpretations of palaeogeography, sedimentary
and tectonic history in the British geosynclines.
The present account is concerned solely with some sedimentological attributes of
turbidites. It constitutes an attempt to summarise the main results which have accrued
through the application of the resedimentation hypothesis to British rocks and to
assess the possible future development of the turbidite concept in Britain..
STRATIGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
Table I and Fig.1 illustrate the distribution in time and space of those British forma-
76
G. KELLING
tions currently described as turbidites in published accounts. Only marine geosynclinal sediments have been considered here although several British formations display
turbidite characteristics combined with other features which indicate deposition in a
variety of marine and continental environments (CUMMINS,
1958; DINELEY
and ALLEN,
1960; CROWELL,
1960).
Most British turbidites occur in the Lower Palaeozoic formations within the Caledonian orogen or in the Upper Palaeozoic sediments of the Variscan fold-belt, but
Precambrian examples are also coming to light. Graded greywackes and slidebreccias of presumed Cambrian age occur in the Isle of Man but have not yet been
designated turbidites (GILLOTT,
1956; SIMPSON,
1962).
Well documented turbidite formations occur in the Cambrian and Silurian rocks of
Wales but as yet none have been described from the Ordovician. Widespread unconformities and thick volcanic successions may in part account for this absence and the
dearth of detailed sedimentological data from the Ordovician rocks is an important
contributory factor. Nevertheless available information suggests that, with the probable exception of the Bala greywackes, the Welsh Ordovician contains no thick,
widespread turbidite formations.
TABLE I'
TURBIDITE FORMATIONS RECOGNISED IN BRITAIN
Code n a 2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Reference
STEWART
(1 962a, 1962b)
KNILL(1959, 1960a)
S
~ and WATSON
N
(1954,1955)
STURT(1961)
B m m and WALTON
(1960)
KOPSTEIN
(1954)
DEWEY
(1962)
STANTON
(1960)
JACKSON
(1961)
WILLIAMS
(1962)
KELLING
(1 962)
WOOD and SMITH (1959)
CUMMINS (1957)
C W N S (1959a, 1959b)
HOLLAND
(1958,1959)
WALTON
(1955)
CRAIGand WALTON(1962)
ROLFE(1961)
MCKERROW
and CAMPBELL
(1960)
COPE(1959)
WEIR(1960,1962)
GILL(1961)
PRENTICE (1960,1962)
ALLEN(1960)
LocaIity
Formation
F
i
s
W
CI
er
8z
G
z
2
E
This table lists only those formations for which detailed published accounts are available and which are explicitly stated to be marine turbidites. More
78
G. KELLING
Fig.1. Index map of Britain to show location of formations described as turbidites in accounts published up to June, 1963. Code numbers refer t o formations listed in Table I. The associated current
directions have been obtained from the appropriate account except in the case of the open arrow near
Harlech which is based on KNILL(1959, p.318). For the present purpose depositional structures are
taken t o include crossbedding and ripple mark in addition to deformational features such as flow
marks, convolute and slump structures.
79
This use of the term axial to some extent conflicts with the usage of previous workers (e.g., JONES,
1938, p.lxvi). The axial black shales of Jones definition would form part of Knills marginal facie.
80
TOTAL KIRKCOLM
SOLE STRUCTURES
115 obsarvations of
currant sansa
G. KELLING
N
TOTAL KIRKCOLM
TRANSVERSE RIPPLE
56 obsarvations of
currant sense
*I. FREQUENCY
Fig.2. Directions of current derivation deduced from (A) sole structures (mainly flute and groove
casts), and ( E ) transverse ripple mark. From Kirkcolm Group turbidites (Ordovician), Rhinns of
Galloway, Scotland. Assigned to semi-octant classes.
derived from transverse ripple mark, the sole-structures indicating longitudinal transport (Fig.2; cf. KELLING, 1962, fig.17).
An analogous combination of longitudinal sole-structures and laterally derived
ripple mark may be inferred from the Lower Silurian turbidites of Peeblesshire
(WALTON,1955, pp.329-332) and inadequate data suggest a comparable relationship
in the Salopian rocks of central Ireland (COPE,1959, fig.4, p.229). In the Lower Cambrian turbidites of the Harlech Dome the principal current trend in the grits is almost
north-south but small-scale current bedding in the siltstones is derived from the southeast (KNILL,1960b, p.107).
Available evidence thus suggests that although in some sequences the trends of all
the directional structures are mutually compatible, near-perpendicular divergence of
erosional and depositional structures is of relatively widespread occurrence in
British turbidites. Moreover, a similar anomalous relationship may be seen within an
individual turbidite unit as PRENTICE
(1960, pp.220-221) has demonstrated. Personal
observations in the Ordovician rocks of southwestern Scotland and in the Valentian
turbidites of Wales (see below, p.82) bear out this conclusion. Sixteen silty greywacke
units in a randomly chosen 100 ft. sequence of the Aberystwyth Grits (cliff exposures a
quarter mile south of Aberayron, sixteen miles south of Aberystwyth, western Wales)
exhibit flute casts on the base and transverse ripple marks or measureable ripple
lamination on the upper surface. Of these, nine units show ripple crests approximately
parallel to the sole-structures, four have ripples trending at right angles to the flute
casts and the ripple marks in the remaining three are either complex or too indistinct
to relate accurately to the erosional features.
If we except cases of interbedding, such as DEWEY
(1962) describes, divergence in
the current directions given by erosional and depositional structures within individual
turbidite units or sequences may be explained in three main ways:
(a) Erosion and deposition were caused by successive turbidity currents of differing
source and character.
81
(b) Erosion and initial deposition were achieved by a single turbidity flow but the
fine-grained fraction of the resulting bed was subsequently reworked by transverse,
indigenous bottom currents.
(c) Erosional and depositional structures were both formed by the same turbidity
current but external factors influenced the formation of structures during the depositional phase of the current.
The possibility of erosion by one turbidity current and deposition from another,
later flow has been invoked from time to time (e.g., CROWELL,
1958, p.333; CUMMINS,
1959b, p.176) but it is unlikely to be of general significance since such a mechanism
implies not only that erosional hollows remain unfilled for some time but that the
depositional currents were derived consistently from the sides of the trough. In the
Upper Ordovician turbidites of southwestern Scotland some units bear depositional
structures compatible with the current-trend of associated erosional features whereas
other beds carry ripple mark of anomalous trend; yet the petrographic similarity of
these rocks is evidence that they shared the same source (KELLING,
1962, p.134).
Reworking of the silty upper part of the graded turbidite by weak bottom currents
flowing transverse to the length of the trough offers a feasible explanation in some
cases, especially where the silty interbeds reveal signs of weak current-action (CRAIG
and WALTON,1962, p. 118; KELLING,
1962, p.135). Such an explanation also accounts
for the common association of divergent depositional trends with fine-grained and
silty sediments. The existence of aligned graptolite stipes in mudstones from turbidite
sequences (WILLIAMS,1962, p.66) furnishes additional evidence for some current
movement in the intervals between turbidity flows. Moreover, the argument that
bottom currents of sufficientstrength to form ripple mark do not exist at the considerable depths usually implied for turbidite deposition has been invalidated by recent
work on the deep sea floor (SWALLOW
and WORTHINGTON,
1957, p.1183; HEEZEN,
1959, p.714). However, subsequent reworking cannot account for the frequent occurrence of ripple mark and convolute lamination of anomalous trend in the upper
portions of well-graded turbidites, with no internal sign of a break in deposition (see
Fig.3).
The third alternative is the most difficult to assess if only because the nature of the
(1962, p. 106)
external factors influencing deposition is virtually unknown. PRENTICE
contends that basal scour-structures in the Culm turbidites of Devon record the direction of turbidity flow during an early, high velocity stage whereas basal flow casts and
ripple marks of anomalous trend indicate adjustment to the slope of the seabed during
the depositional phase of the current (cf. BIRKENMAJER,
1958, p.146). The plausibility
of this hypothesis is somewhat impaired by the nearly perpendicular relation of the
two trends (erosional and depositional) which carries the implication that turbidity
currents initially flowed along rather than down the lateral slopes of the trough. It is
unlikely that such a situation could persist for long periods over a wide area.
The principal difficulty encountered in determining the trend and character of the
depositional current regime of turbidites is that normally the greater part of each
greywacke post. . . throws no light on the direction of the depositional currents
82
G . KELLING
ssw
NNE
MICROLAVER
0
4
2
WN
MICROLAYER
ESE
0 1 2 3 4 5
SCALE IN CM
Fig. 3. Left: Sketch, partly diagrammatic, of the base of a silty greywacke with flute casts, Valentian,
Afon Camddwr, Rhayader, Wales. Right: Internal structure of the greywacke revealed on two
mutually perpendicular faces to illustrate the method of sequential current analysis detailed in Table
11. Note overall grading upwards from microlayer 2. From specimen S/4/7200 in University College of
Swansea Geology Department Rock Collection.
(CRAIGand WALTON,
1962, p. 118). Occasionally, however, it is possible to decipher
the entire erosional and depositional history of a single, usually thin, turbidite unit.
An example of this type, illustrated in Fig.3, is a silty greywacke of Valentian age
from the river Camddwr, southwest of Rhayader, mid Wales. This thin (4.5 cm) bed
carries prominent flute casts on the base with parallel trending asymmetrical ripple
marks on the upper surface. The unit is graded overall, from fine sand within the
flutes to very fine silt at the top and ripple-lamination is present throughout. Seven
distinct microlayers may be distinguished within the turbidite, separated by junctions
which may be erosional or non-depositional. Three-dimensional analysis of the attitude of laminae within successive microlayers enables the sequence of events shown
in Table I1 to be constructed.
Consideration of the current-data in Table I1 shows that flute-erosion was accomplished by flow from south-southwest and the variation in thickness of individual
layers suggests that dominant supply was from the same direction. However, superimposed upon this main trend there was a complex and periodic interplay of transverse
depositional (tractional) currents which commenced at the base of microlayer 2.
Nevertheless the overall grading from microlayer 2 upwards shows that the bed represents essentially a single phase of deposition rather than a concatenation of distinct
depositional events. Clearly, too, a time-interval, probably of some duration, intervened between the two episodes of flute-erosion.
TABLE I1
SEQUENTIAL ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES WITHIN GREYWACKE SPECIMEN S/4/7200'
Level in
unit'
layer 7
layer 6
layer 5
? longitudinal dunes
h.=50+mm; h = ?
layer 4
layer 3
layer 2
layer 1
Remarks
black mudstone
layer 0
-
SeeFig.3.
QQ
84
G. KELLING
This example records the operation of some factor, other than the forward progression of the turbidity current, which influenced the deposition of materials of fine
sand and silt size from the flow. The absence of genuine slope-criteria (slump structures, flow casts, etc.) from this sequence is regarded as evidence that deposition did
not occur actually on the marginal slope of the Welsh trough. On the other hand the
periodicity of the transverse flow recorded in Table I1 suggests quasi-oscillatory currents while the principal direction of transverse currents (from between east and
southeast) may be related most plausibly to the west-facing slope which in Valentian
times may be assumed to have existed some distance to the east of Rhayader (cf.
KNILL,1959, Fig.4, 5).
Consideration of the hydraulic properties of turbidity currents suggests a possible
explanation of the facts outlined above.
The arrival of the dense, high velocity, wedgeshaped nose of a turbidity current produces nearly instantaneous displacement of a large body of water. Some of this displacement occurs upwards or in the direction of flow but most of the water must be
transferred laterally. The energy involved in this transference may be dissipated side-
I ,I1
Cd.
Ab
Ld.
- - _ _ . . . . . . .
Fig. 4. Approximately transverse (A-B) and longitudinal (C-D) sections of the main Welsh trough a t
the end of Valentian times t o illustrate postulated relationships of turbidite formations and adjacent
facies, on the assumption of longitudinal filling from the southwest. Only differential isostatic subsidence is allowed for. Vertical scale and slopes are greatly exaggerated. Inset shows outline map of
Wales with location of lines of section. Lithofacies: a = limestone, shelly sandstone, calcareous siltstone; 6 = barren blocky mudstone; c = conglomerate and pebbly greywacke; d = black shale;
e = greywacketurbidite. Localities: Fg. = Fishguard; Lp. = Lampeter; Lv. = Llandovery; Cd = Cardigan; s. F. = Strata Florida; A6. = Aberystwyth; Ld. = Llanidloes; Td. = Talerddig. Formations:
I = Caradocian; 2 = Ashgillian; 3 = Strata Florida Grits (Middle Valentian); 4 = Aberystwyth
Grits (UpEr Valentian).
85
ways in the form of surges comparable to the bow-waves of a fast ship. The existence
of sea-bed features of sufficient size, such as the marginal slopes of the trough, may
give rise to reflection and regeneration of the surge-waves which will return with
trends approximating to the strike of the feature or slope. The energy and velocity of
the reflected waves will be relatively small and will decrease with distance from the
reflecting feature.
For any point in the path of a turbidity current there occurs a time-lag between the
moment of displacement (the passage of the nose of the current) and the return of the
reflected surge-waves. During this time turbidity flow continues and the slower,
rearward portions of the current may have reached the point in question so that deposition may have commenced. While the turbidity current maintains velocities and turbulence sufficiently high to keep material finer than, say, medium sand in suspension
it is doubtful whether the weak transverse movements will be able to exert any
influence but during the later stages of deposition when fine sand and silt is being laid
down the velocity of the transverse flow may match or even exceed the forward
motion of the weakening turbidity current and transverse depositional structures may
be produced.
Whether any of the mechanisms postulated above is in fact responsible for the formation of transverse structures it is evident that in many cases it is no longer possible
to maintain the concept of a turbidite sequence as the product of spasmodic incursions
of unidirectional, high-energy, density currents into an otherwise stagnant environment (cf. Dorr, 1963, p.127).
FACIES RELATIONSHIPS
Lateral relationships
86
G. KELLING
87
represent a rudite apron formed at the base of the eastern slope of the Welsh trough.
SMITHand RAST (1958) describe an Upper Dalradian sequence of pebbly arenites,
limestones and pelites from Argyll, southwest Scottish Highlands, with features highly
reminiscent of the transition facies described above.
Stratigraphical relationships
The Ordovician turbidites of southern Scotland and western Ireland succeed thin
sequences of graptolitic black shales, radiolarian cherts and spilitic effusives. A
similar euxinic-volcanic suite characterises much of the Ordovician of central and
western Wales, preceding the main turbidite phase in the Welsh trough. In Devon and
Cornwall black shales and cherts precede the Namurian turbidite flood (GOLDRING,
1962, p.87).
Significantly, the marked lithological change from pelagic deposition to sedimentation of coarse clastics is seldom accompanied by a tectonic or faunal break. Moreover
pelagic sediments occur between individual turbidite units. However, black shales and
cherts often have wider lateral extent than associated turbidites presumably because
the former, as products of vertical settling from suspension, are not subject to the
restrictions imposed by bottom topography on gravity controlled turbidity flows.
The absolute bathymetric position of geosynclinal euxinic sequences is still in
dispute but the basin-wide extent of the precursor ewinic phase indicates that the
controlling factor was probably not depth per se but lack of coarse terrigenous detritus - a concept embodied in AUBOUINS
(1959) phrase pkriode de vacuitk but
without the connotation of initial deepening. Therefore the appearance of turbidites
need not imply drastic diastrophic changes within the basin but rather may reflect an
increase in the supply of coarse detritus at a particular point. Such an increase may be
controlled ultimately by tectonic events in the source area relative to the rate of basin
subsidence. This tectonism can produce widespread and important breaks in the shelfareas but effects may be muted or entirely suppressed in the deeper region of the trough
(CROOK,
1959, p.338). Where longitudinal transport is dominant the phase of vacuity
and the phase of filling may exist simultaneously, euxinic sediments accumulating in
distal parts of the trough beyond the reach of the coarse detritus which is being deposited in regions nearer to the source.
The Bala-Valentian rocks of central and western Wales furnish one example of this
mode of trough filling. Throughout Late Ordovician and Early Silurian times the zone
of transition marking the eastern limit of the trough was almost static along the line of
the mobile, northeast trending Towy anticline in east central Wales. To the west,
deposition of graptolitic black shale was virtually continuous but thick diachronous
greywackes of probable southwesterly source (WOODand SMITH,
1959)which appeared first in the Caradocian near Fishguard spread progressively north and eastwards
throughout the succeeding periods (JONES, 1938, fig.1; KNILL,1959, p.322). The later
Valentian greywackes thus appear to overlap the transition facies to the east (Fig.4) as
axially supplied turbidites began to fill the trough. There is virtually no evidence in
88
G. KELLING
On empirical grounds it is highly improbable that a geosynclinal basin can be filled entirely by
axial flow. The shallowing (and constriction) of the basin which must follow cessation of subsidence
or active elevation will eventually bring even the central parts of the trough within reach of normal
m-irine currents. In such an event currents generated on the relstively steeper lateral slopes will obviously be more effectivethan those travellingalong the axis of the trough.
89
(1961) has reinterpreted the Visean Rush conglomerates and graded calcarenites of
County Dublin in a similar manner. A more tenuous connection between faulting and
turbidites is provided by WHITAKER
(1962, pp.339, 350) who suggests that the site and
trend of submarine channels in Ludlovian shelf-edge sediments in the Welsh Borderland were controlled by contemporaneous movement along normal cross-faults. Such
channels may have provided routes of access enabling near-shore sediments to reach
deeper parts of the basin as turbidites. The diversity in thickness and lithology of the
shelf-edge sediments of Bala and Valentian age in the southern part of the Welsh
Borderland has been explained in terms of pre-Wenlock movements along caledonoid
structures such as the Towy anticline, and also on east-west cross-folds and faults
(JONES, 1925; DAVIES
and PLATT,1933; WILLIAMS,
1953).
Tectonic events controlling geosynclinal sedimentation may be of two orders of
magnitude. First there are basin-wide events which may be tensional or compressional. Compression may produce constriction and perhaps separation of troughs and
concurrent elevation of borderlands or even portions of the existing basin (MACGILLAVRY,
1961, pp.144145) and thus may provide conditions leading to sedimentation of turbidites. Such constriction is reflected in the common occurrence in the
turbidites of fragments derived from older geosynclinal sediments and volcanics,
while basin-wide submergence resulting in transgression across the shelf-areasappears
to be correlated with the initiation of turbidite phases (see CUMMINS,
1961, p.77).
Second order events are of relatively local importance and comprise the contemporaneous movements on folds and faults detailed above. Such effects maintain local
instability along the trough-margins and furnish one means (perhaps the most important) of initiating turbidity flow through periodic seismicity.
CONCLUSIONS
The first decade of the turbidite concept in Britain has seen the achievement of the
following principal results:
(I) An exclusively shallow water origin for sandy sediments is no longer a tenable
hypothesis. Greywackes of turbidite character may represent relatively deep milieus
of deposition.
(2) Recognition of the dominant role of longitudinal transport in geosynclinal
sequences (compared with the traditional concept of lateral derivation) has revolutionised views on provenance (cf. CUMMINS
Wenlock greywackes, 1957, p.442). As a
consequence the role of cordilleran sources such as the postulated land-ridge of Silurian times in the Irish Sea (JONES,1938, p.cvi) may be somewhat diminished in
importance.
(3) Longitudinal transport can also explain certain puzzling facies relationships,
such as the by-passing of thin sequences of fine-grained rocks by thick, coarse turbidites of equivalent age and similar general source (e.g., Lower Silurian of southern
Scotland, JONES,1938, p.xciii).
90
G. KELLING
(4) The relative bathymetry of greywacke turbidites and black shales has been
virtually reversed (see p.85-86).
(5) Studies of lithological variation and of transport directions in British turbidites
have re-emphasized the interdependence of sedimentary pattern and tectonic framework in the developing geosyncline.
Despite the substantial progress which has been made many British geosynclinal
arenites and rudites still await re-examination. Outstanding specific problems include
the following:
( I ) The relative importance of flank supply (from cordilleras?) versus supply from
tectonic welts athwart the trough. Both sources may subsequently give rise to longitudinal transport. To resolve this problem more petrologic data are required.
(2) The precise mode of transition from shelf to turbidite facies is in many cases
unknown or imperfectly understood and awaits detailed sedimentological investigation.
(3) No two turbidite sequences are identical. In addition to the characters common
to all turbidites each sequence possesses some distinctive features which reflect differences not only in provenance but also in hydraulic regime, basin topography and
bathymetry. Careful documentation of such features may enable general or specific
conclusions to be drawn as to the environmental status of particular sequences. As an
example, it is clear that in some turbidite formations the role of indigenous or reworking bottom currents may be greater than is commonly supposed (see pp.81-85). It
is obviously desirable to ascertain the extent of such influences.
Many of the opinions and conclusions expressed in earlier sections of this paper are
founded on hypothesis or on empirical reasoning. Some will almost certainly prove
to be inadequate or incorrect. However they are offered in the expectation that they
will stimulate further effort in what has so far proved to be a very fruitful field of
research.
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Derbyshire, England. J. Sediment. Petrol., 30 : 193-208.
AUBOIN,
J., 1959. A propos dun centenaire: les aventures de la notion de g6osynclinal. Rev. Gkogrqh.
Phys. Gkol. Dyn., 2 : 135-188.
BASSETT,D. A. and WALTON,E. K., 1960. The Hells Mouth Grits: Cambrian greywackes in St.
Tudwals Peninsula, North Wales. Quart. J. Geol. Soc. London, 116 : 85-110.
BIRKENMAJER,
K., 1958. Oriented flowage casts and marks in the Carpathian flysch and their relation
t o flute and groove casts. Actu Geol. Polon., 8 : 117-148.
COPE,R. N., 1959. The Silurian rocks of the Devilsbit Mountain district, County Tipperary. Proc.
Roy. Irish Acad., Sect. E, 60 (6) : 217-242.
CRAIG,G. Y.and WALTON,
E. K., 1962. Sedimentary structures and palaeocurrent directions from
the Silurian rocks of Kircudbrightshire. Trans. Eiiinburgh Geol. SOC.,19 : 100-119.
CROOK,K. A. W., 1959. Unconformities in turbidite sequences. J. Geol., 67 : 710-713.
CROWELL,
J. C., 1958. Sole markings of graded greywacke beds: a discussion. J. Geol., 66 : 333-335.
CROWELL,
J. C., 1960. Depositional structures from Jurassic boulder beds, east Sutherland. Trans.
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CUMMINS,
W. A., 1957. The Denbigh Grits; Wenlock greywackes in Wales. Geol. Mag., 94 :433451.
CUMMINS,
W. A., 1958. Some sedimentary structures from the Lower Keuper sandstones. Liverpool
Manchester Geol. J., 1 : 3743.
CUMMINS,
W. A., 1959a. The Nantglyn Flags; Mid Salopian basin facies in Wales. Liverpool ManChester Geol. J., 2 : 159-167.
CUMMINS,
W. A., 1959b. The Lower Ludlow Grits in Wales. LiverpoolManchesrer Geol. J.,2 : 168-179
CUMMINS,
W. A., 1%1. In discussion of the symposium: Some aspects of sedimentation in orogenic
belts. Proc. Geol. SOC.London, 1587 : 69-80.
DAMES
K. A. and PLAw, J. I., 1933. The conglomerates and grits of the Bala and Valentian rocks of
the district between Rhayader (Radnorshire) and Llansawel (Carmarthenshire). Quart. J. Geol.
SOC.London, 89 : 202-218.
DEWEY,
J. F., 1962. The provenance and emplacement of Upper Arenigian turbidites in Co. Mayo,
Eire. Geol. Mag., 99 : 238-252.
DINELEY,
D. L. and ALLEN,J. R. L., 1960. Deposition of the Old Red Sandstone. Geol. M q . , 97 :
509-5 10.
Dorr JR., R. H., 1963. Dynamics of subaqueous gravity depositional processes. Bull. Am. Assoc.
92
G . KELLING
KUENEN,
PH. H., 1957. Longitudinal filling of oblong sedimentary basins. Verhandel. Koninkl. Ned.
Geol. Mijnbouwk. Genoot., Geol. Ser., 18 : 189-195.
MACGILLAVRY,
H. J., 1961. Deep or not deep, fore-deep or after-deep. Geol. Mijnbouw, 40 : 133148.
MCKERROW,
W. S. and CAMPBELL,
C. J., 1960. The stratigraphy and structure of the Lower Palaeozoic rocks of northwest Galway. Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., Ser. A, 1 : 27-52.
PRENTICE,
J. E., 1960. Flow structures in sedimentary rocks. J. Geol., 68 : 217-225.
PRENTICE,
J. E., 1962. The sedimentation history of the Carboniferous in Devon. In: K. COE(Editor),
Some Aspects of the Variscan Fold Belt. Manchester Univ. Press, Manchester, pp. 93-108.
ROLFE,W. D. I., 1961. The geology of the Hagshaw Hills Silurian inlier, Lanarkshire. Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc., 18 :240-270.
SIMPSON,
A, 1962. The stratigraphy and tectonics of the Manx Slate Series, Isle of Man. Proc. Geol.
SOC.London, 1603 : 1-31.
SMITH,A. J. and RAST, N., 1958. Sedimentary dykes in the Dalradian of Scotland. Geol. Mag.,
95 :234-240.
STANTON,
W. I., 1960. The Lower Palaeozoic rocks of Southwest Murrisk, Ireland. Quart. J. Geol.
SOC.London, 116 : 269-296.
STEWART,
A. D., 1962a. On the Torridonian sediments of Colonsay and their relationship to the main
outcrop in northwest Scotland. Liverpool Manchester Geol. J., 3 : 121-155.
STEWART,
A. D., 1962b. Greywacke sedimentation in the Torridonian of Colonsay and Oronsay.
Geol. Mag., 99 : 399-419.
STUF~T,
B., 1961. In discussion of symposium: Some aspects of sedimentation in orogenic belts. Proc.
Geol. SOC.London, 1587 : 69-80.
SUTTON,
J. and WATSON,J., 1954. Iceborne boulders in the Macduff Group of the Dalradian of
Banffshire. Geol. Mag., 91 : 391-398.
SUTTON,J. and WATSON,J., 1955. The deposition of the Upper Dalradian rocks of the Banffshire
coast. Proc. Geologists Assoc. Engl., 66 : 101-133.
SWALLOW,
S. C.and WORTHINGTON,
L.V., 1957. Measurements of deep currents in the western North
Atlantic. Nature, 179 : 1183.
WALTON,E. K., 1955. Silurian greywackes in Peeblesshire. Proc. Roy. SOC.Edinburgh, Sect. B.,
65 : 327-357.
WEIR,J. A., 1960. Mudstone inclusions in Salopian conglomerates from County Clare. Geol. Mag.,
97 :283-288.
WEIR,J. A., 1962. Geology of the Lower Palaeozoic inliers of S h e Bernagh and the Cratloe Hills,
County Clare. Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin SOC.,Ser. A, 1 (9) : 234-263.
WHITAKER,
J. H. McD., 1962. The geology of the area around Leintwardine, Herefordshire. Quart. J.
Geol. SOC.London, 118 : 319-352.
WILLIAMS,A., 1953. The geology of the Llandeilo district, Carmarthenshire. Quart. J. Geol. SOC.
London, 108 : 177-208.
WILLIAMS,
A., 1962. The Barr and Lower Ardmillan Series (Caradoc) of the Girvan District, southwest Ayrshire. Geol. SOC.London,Mem., 3 : 267 pp.
WOOD,A. and SMITH, A. J., 1959. The sedimentation and sedimentary history of the Aberystwyth
Grits (Upper Llandoverian). Quart. J. Geol. SOC.London, 114 : 163-195.
SUMMARY
Although the study of turbidites in the United States is increasing at a fast pace, most
references to turbidites to date are short articles that describe the presence of alleged
turbidites or treat one aspect of them. Many of the more detailed studies are unpublished theses or dissertations that receive little circulation.
Most studies have been limited to outcrop features with emphasis on the description of sedimentary structures. A few detailed studies include thin section petrography
and the mapping of directional current structures.
The flysch-type formations of the Appalachian and Ouachita geosynclines, and the
Tertiary Basin deposits of southern California have received the most study. These
areas have totally different tectonic frameworks and enable comparisons to be made
between turbidites of linear geosynclines and turbidites of small, steep-walled basins.
The depositional history of turbidites in these is summarized.
INTRODUCTION
Turbidites are significant sedimentary rocks; not only do they yield information on
the physical properties of a fascinating and important agent of erosion, transportation,
and deposition, but they yield some of the most detailed clues to the geologic history
of sedimentary basins that contain them. Study of turbidites in the United States is
proceeding at an increasing rate. About half the references on turbidites that have
appeared since 1950 have appeared in the last three years. However, most of these
references are abstracts or short articles in which the presence of supposed turbidites
is merely noted or a particular aspect of turbidites is described. Additional brief comments appear in lengthy geologic reports of areas in which turbidites are present.
Although detailed sedimentological reports exist, many are unpublished Masters
theses or Doctoral dissertations that are available, once one becomes aware of their
existence, only through library loan or purchase of a microfilm copy. To ignore
unpublished works in a review of United States turbidites would be to omit important
information; to attempt to discover, obtain, and review all such work in a short time
94
E. F. McBRIDE
is impractical. However, in order that this article may be as broad as possible, unpublished works that the writer is familiar with are included in the review.
In Table I turbidite references are summarized as to the rock unit studied and its
locality, the kind of article, and the subject matter covered; this table presents the
major review data. Complete references to the works cited are given at the end of the
article. Localities of turbidites studied to date are shown in Fig. 1. The writer is aware
of additional localities where turbidites have been recognized and studied, but the
results have not yet appeared in print. Undoubtedly new localities of turbidites will be
found in the future, particularly in the western United States where many areas have
received only reconnaissance study.
The term turbidites was introduced by KUENEN(1957, p. 231) for all deposits of
turbidity currents. In this paper turbidite will be used for the deposit of individual
turbidity currents; that is, a turbidity current deposits one turbidite bed (sedimentation
unit). Turbidites will be used for a group of such beds. Although turbidity current
deposits have been recognized in non-marine deposits, such as those in Pleistocene
Lake Bonneville, Utah (FETH,1954), and modern Lake Mead (GOULD,1951), the
term turbidite has by usage acquired the connotation of maring deposit and is used as
such in this review. Use offresh water turbidite or non-marine turbidite should serve to
distinguish these other rare deposits.
This review is restricted to studies of ancient turbidites of the continental United
States exclusive of Alaska and does not treat the many important contributions that
TABLE 1
SUMMARY OF TURBIDITE REFERENCES
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~
--
I
_
Reference
Rock unit
Locality
Type of
article
Subject matter2
Paleocurrent map
Appalachians
BIRD(1961)
Renssalaer (C.)
New York
FRAKE~
(1961)
(DeV.1
Pennsylvania
KUENEN
( 1956)
Portage (Dev.)
New York
LOWMAN
(1961)
Deepkill (Ord.)
New Yolk
MCBRDE(1 96h)
Martinsburg (Ord.)
MCIVER(1961)
Portage (Dev.)
MELLEN
(I 956)
(Pre-C.)
Georgia
Mapped 18 cross-beds.
Longitudinal transport.
New York
(1960)
SMOOR
Normnnskill (Ord.)
in deep water.
v,
TABLE I (continued)
-~
~~~~
Reference
Rock unit
Locality
Type of
article
Subject matter
S ~ O (1959)
N
Naples (Portage;
DeV.)
New York
SUTTON
(1960)
Naples (Portage;
DeV.)
New York
VANHOUTEN
(1954) Martinsburg (Ord.)
New Jersey
WEBER
(1961)
Normanskill and
Charney (Ord.)
WEBER
and MIDDLE-Normanskill and
TON (1961)
Charney (Ord.)
Delaware Basin
HULL(1957)
Delaware Mountain
(Permian)
NEWELL
et al. (1953) Permian formations
(1953)
Permian formations
Texas
RIGBY(1958)
Permian formations
Texas
Ventura Basin
RIGBY
Basins of Calijornia
BALDWIN
(1959)
Pic0 and Repetto
(Pliocene)
Paleocurrent map
?
a
Reference
Rock unit
CROWELL
(1957)
Topanga (Miocene)
Pic0 (Pliocene) Knoxville (Jurassic)
NATLAND
and
KUENEN
(1951)
(Pliocene)
Sporrs (1962)
SULLWOLD
(1960)
Modelo (Miocene)
Locality
Type of
article
Subject matter
Ventura Basin
not stated
Ventura Basin
Ventura Basin
Stanley (Carbon.)
Oklahoma
CLINE(1959)
Stanley, Jackfork
and Johns Valley
(Carbon.)
Oklahoma
CLINE
(1960)
SULLWOLD
(1961)
Several Tertiary
format ions
WINTERER
(1954)
Tertiary formations
BOKMAN(1953)
Ouaclritafoldbelr
Paleocurrent map
8
CI
2:
v)
TABLE I fcontinued)
Referznce
Rock unit
Locality
Type ?t
article
Subject matter
Paleocurrent map
COTERA
(1962)
Tesnus (Carbon.)
Texas
JOHNSON
(1962)
Tesnus (Carbon.)
Texas
KIMBERLY
(1961)
Smithwick (Penn.)
Texas
MCBRIDE
f1962b)
Haymond (Penn.)
Texas
RHNEMUND
and
DANILCHIK
(1957)
(Carboniferous)
Arkansas
SHELBURNE
(1960)
Stanley, Jackfork,
Johns Valley
(Carbon.)
Oklahoma
Squantum (Middle
Pal.)
Mascachiisetts
Pleistocene
Utah
Other localities
Don (1961)
FETH(1954)
TABLE I (continued)
~
Reference
Rock unit
Locality
Type
of
article
Subject matter
FAG
AN (1 962)
Carboniferous
Nevada
Hovr (1959)
Wilcox (Eocene)
Texas
PaSSEGA (1954)
Dakota (Cret.)
Pottsville (Penn.)
Wyoming
Tennessee
PHINNEY
(1961)
Meguma (Pte-C. or
Ord.)
WILSON(1950)
Vanceburg (Miss.)
Ohio, Kentucky
Paleocurrent map
rl
Mapped 39 readings in
a small area.
100
E. F. McBRIDE
AREAS OF STUDY
In the United States turbidites have been identified in rocks ranging from Precambrian
to Pliocene in age and from a wide range of geologic settings. The bulk of turbidite
studies has been in the Paleozoic foldbelts (the Appalachian Mountains of eastern
United States, the Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas and Oklahoma and structural
extension in Texas) and in the Tertiary Coast Ranges and adjacent areas in southern
California. Turbidites of the Appalachians and Ouachita system are chiefly typical
flysch sandstone of Precambrian and Paleozoic age that were deposited in linear
geosynclines. In contrast, the Tertiary turbidites in California were deposited in
relatively small, steep-sided basins such as exist today offshore (GORSLINE
and EMERY,
1959; EMERY,1960). Turbidites have been described in yet another geologic setting the Permian Reef complex of Texas and New Mexico. Here turbidites were deposited
in a deep basin rimmed much of the time by reefs. Other areas where alleged turbidites
have been identified are listed in Table I and are shown in Fig. 1. With the exception
of FAGANS
(1962) paper on Carboniferous eugeosynclinal rocks of Nevada, most
references of the ,,other localities merely note the presence of turbidites in the particular area studied.
101
some form of rose diagram. The form of the rose diagram has not been standardized,
but one similar to the concentric circle diagram introduced by CROWELL
(1955) is the
most popular.
The compilation of detailed (bed by bed) measured sections as a means of correlating individual beds by either petrographic features or bed thickness has not yet been
attempted. SUTTON(1960), however, has been able to make approximate correlation
of sections separated tens of miles by making and comparing logs on which are
plotted the azimuth of flute casts at their particular stratigraphic position.
Various laboratory techniques have been applied to study the texture and composition of turbidite samples. Grain size studies have been made by mechanical analyses
of unconsolidated samples by BALDWIN(1959), NATLAND
and KUENEN
(1951), and
SULLWOLD
(1960); and on consolidated samples by using thin sections by COTERA
(1962) and MCBRIDE
(1962a). Brief descriptions on the mineralogy of turbidites are
given by numerous writers, but the most comprehensive works are those by BOKMAN
(1953), KIMBERLY
(1961), WEBER
and MIDDLETON
(1961), COTERA
(1962) and MCBRIDE
(1962a). A geochemical study of the concentration of metallic elements in turbidite
beds by WEBER
and MIDDLETON
(1961) found the variation between successive beds
and between sections to be greater than within beds and between formations probably
as a result of the relative distance a turbidite had traveled from its source.
Grain orientation from thin sections have been studied by SMOOR
(1960), COTERA
(1962), MCBRIDE(1962a), and SPOTTS(1962). Coteras study .includes some nonturbidites and he did not specify which of his samples he considered to b: turbidites.
McBride found a highly preferrred orientation and upcurrent imbrication but was
unable to determine whether the orientation was chiefly a depositional fabric or the
result of tectonic deformation. Smoor found a consistent parallelism between flute
casts and grains in folded beds but did not consider effects of deformation. Spotts
worked on undeformed Tertiary turbidites and found a pronounced deviation (average
of 47 degrees) between sole marks and associated grain orientation that he attributed
to a change in the direction of current flow between the time of flute eiosion and grain
deposition. Spotts and Smoor also noted a distinct upcurrent imbrication of grains.
MCIVER(1961) reported a high degree of parallelism between sole marks and grain
orientation in both unfolded and steeply dipping beds. The grain orientation was
determined indirectly by measuring dielectric anisotropy with a device operated by
the Shell Development Company.
Information about the areal dimension and shape in plan view of turbidites is
meager. The importance of this information to the petroleum industry and the difficulties of determining it from subsurface techniques was emphasized by SULLWOLD
(1961). From knowledge of turbitites in the Tertiary basins of California, Sullwold
proposed three regions in which characteristic geometry of turbidites might develop:
channel or submarine canyon, fan, and basin floor. He also described possible ancient
deposits of each environment. An example of a submarine canyon that existed at the
edge of the continental shelf in Texas during Eocene time was described by HOYT
(l959), who mapped the extent of the channel in the subsurface using electric logs. The
102
E. F. McBRIDE
channel at its largest is 10 miles wide, 3,000 ft. deep, and 50 miles long, and was
presumably cut and filled largely by turbidity currents.
PASSEGA
(1954) has maintained that the geometry and texture of turbidites deposited
in basins differ markedly from those deposited on shelves. Passega describes the
Dakota and New Castle-Muddy Formations of Cretaceous age in the Powder River
Basin, Wyoming, as examples of shelf turbidites. The evidences cited for a turbidity
current origin of these deposits, however, is not wholly convincing to the writer.
Although the study of turbidites in North America is still in the infant stages, work to
date reveals interesting paleocurrent patterns and inferences about paleogeography.
A brief summary is given below for several areas where our knowledge is most
complete.
Appalachians
Geosynclinal deposits of the Ouachita system extend a distance of 1,300 miles, largely
in the subsurface, along the southern edge of the Central Stable Region of North
America (FLAWN
et al., 1961). Turbidites of Mississippian and Pennsylvanian flyschtype deposits are exposed in the Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas and Oklahoma; and
at the edge of the Llano uplift and in the Marathon Basin, Texas. Turbidites in the
Ouachita Mountains and the Llano uplift show chiefly longitudinal transport and
were derived from inferred source lands to the east (REINEMUND
and DANILCHIK,
103
1957l; SHELBURNE,
1960; KIMBERLY,
1961). The Marathon Basin has at least two
distinct turbidite-bearing units, both with sources to the east. The older formation
(Tesnus) shows predominantly transverse transport (JOHNSON,
1962; COTERA,1962),
whereas the younger (Haymond) formation shows chiefly longitudinal but important
transverse transport in addition (MCBRIDE,1962b).
Southern California
NOTE
Additional published works dealing with turbidites that have appeared since this
manuscript was submitted include a discussion of subaqueous gravity depositional
processes by DOTT (1963), a study of quartz grain sizes and shapes in turbidites by
MIDDLETON
(1962), and an abstract describing features of a carbonate flysch unit by
THOMASSON
and THOMSON
(1962).
Paleocurrent data only were given by Reinemund and Danilchik.
104
E. F. McBRlDE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CLINE,L. M., 1959. Black-shale flysch facies of the Ouachita Mountains, southeastern Oklahoma
(Abstract). Bull. Geol. SOC.Am., 70 : 1582.
CLINE,L. M., 1960. Late Paleozoic rocks of the Ouachita Mountains. Oklahoma, Geol. Surv. Bull.,
85 : 113 pp.
COTERA,A. S., 1962. Petrology and Petrography of Mississippian-Pennsylvanian Tesnus Formation,
Marathon Basin, Trans-Pecos Texas. Ph. D. dissertation, Univ. of Texas, 186 pp.
CROWELL,
J. C., 1955. Directionalcurrent structures from the prealpine flysch, Switzerland. Bull.
Geol. SOC.Am., 66 : 1351-1384.
CROWELL,
J. C., 1957. Origin of pebbly mudstones. Bull. Geol. SOC.Am., 68 : 993-1010.
Don JR., R. H., 1961. Squantum tillite, Massachusetts - evidence of glaciation or subaqueous
mass movements? Bull. Geol. SOC.Am., 72 : 1289-1306.
Don JR., R. H., 1963. Dynamics of subaqueous gravity depositional processes. Bull. Am. Assoc.
Petrol. Geologists., 47 : 104-128.
EMERY,K. O., 1960. The Sea off Southern California; a Modern Habitat of Petroleum. Wiley, New
York, 366 pp.
FAGAN,J. J., 1962. Carboniferous cherts, turbidites, and volcanic rocks in northern Independence
Range, Nevada. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 73 : 595-612.
FETH,
J. H., 1954. Convoluted bedding suggests turbidity-current deposition in Pleistocene Lake
Bonneville, Utah (Abstract). Bull. Geol. SOC.Am., 65 : 1251.
FLAWN,P. T., GOLDSTEIN
JR., J., KING,P. B. and WEAVER,
C. E., 1961. The Ouachita system, Texas,
Univ., Bur. Econ. Geol., Bull., 6120 :401 pp.
FRAKES,L. A., 1961. Sedimentary structures of the Upper Devonian of central Pennsylvania. Proc.
Penn. Acad. Sci., 35 : 116-123.
GORSLINE,
D. S. and EMERY,K. O., 1959. Turbiditycurrent deposits in San Pedro and Santa Monica
Basins off southern California. Bull. Geol. SOC.Am., 70 : 279-290.
COULD,
H. R., 1951. Some quantitative aspects of Lake Mead turbidity currents. In: J. L. HOUGH
(Editor), Turbidity Currents and the Transportationof Coarse Sediments to Deep Water, a Symposium
- SOC.Econ. Paleontologists Mineralogists Spec. Publ., 2 : 34-52.
Hour, W. V., 1959. Erosional channel in the middle Wilcox near Yoakum, Lavaca County, Texas.
Trans. GuIfCoast Assoc. Geol. SOC.,9 : 41-50.
HULLJR., J. P. D., 1957. Petrogenesis of Permian Delaware Mountain Sandstone, Texas and New
Mexico. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 41 : 278-307.
JOHNSON,
K. E., 1962. Paleocurrent study of the Tesnus Formation, Marathon Basin, Texas. J.
Sediment. Petrol., 32 : 781-792.
KIMBERLY,
J. E., 1961. Sedimentology of the Smithwick Formation, Burnet County, Texas. M. A.
thesis, Univ. of Texas, 95 pp.
KUENEN,
Ph. H., 1956. Problematic origin of the Naples rocks around Ithaca, New York. Geol.
Mijnbouw, 18 : 277-283.
KUENEN,
PH.H., 1957. Sole markings of graded graywacke beds. J. Geol., 65 : 241-258.
LOWMAN,
S. W., 1961. Sedimentary environment of the Deepkill Black Shale (Ordovician Beekmantown) at the type locality, Grant Hollow, New York (Abstract). Geol. SOC.Am., Spec. Papers,
68 : 221.
105
MCBRIDE,E. F., 1962a. Flysch and associated beds of the Martinsburg Formation (Ordovician),
central Appalachians. J. Sediment. Petrol., 32 : 39-91.
MCBRIDE,
E. F., 1962b. Sedimentology of the Haymond Formation (Pennsylvanian flysch), Marathon
Basin, Texas (Abstract). Geol. SOC.Am., Spec. Papers, 73 : 204 pp.
MCIVER,N. L., 1961. Upper Devonian Marine Sedimentation in the Central Appalachians. Ph. D.
dissertation, Johns Hopkins Univ., 530 pp.
MELLEN,J., 1956. Precambrian sedimentation in the northheast part of Cohutta Mountain Quadrangle, Georgia. Georgia Mineral Newsletter, 9 :46-61.
MIDDLETON,
G. V., 1962. Size and sphericity of quartz grains in two turbidite formations. J. Sediment.
Petrol., 32 : 725-742.
NATLAND,
M. L., 1957. Paleoecology of west coast Tertiary sediments. In: H. S. LADD(Editor).
Treatise on Marine Ecology and Paleoecology - Geol. SOC.Am., Mem., 67 ; 543-572.
NATLAND,
M. L. and KUENEN,
PH. H., 1951. Sedimentary history of the Ventura Basin, California,
and the action of turbidity currents. In: J. L. HOUGH(Editor), Turbidity Currents and the Transportation of Coarse Sediments to Deep Water, a Symposium - SOC.E o n . Paleontologists Mineralogists,
Spec. Publ., 2 : 76-107.
NEWELL,
N. D., RIGBY,J. K., FISCHER,
A. G., WHITEMAN,
A. J., HICKOX,
J. E. and BRADLEY,
J. S.,
1953. The Permian Reef Complex of the Guadalupe Mountains Region, Texas and New Mexico.
Freeman, San Francisco, 236 pp.
PASSEGA,
R., 1954. Turbidity currents and petroleum exploration, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists,
38 : 1871-1887.
F'HJNNEY,W. C., 1961. Possible turbidity-current deposit in Nova Scotia (Abstract). Bull. Geol. SOC.
Am., 72 : 1453-1454.
REINEMUND,
J. A. and DANILCHIK,
W., 1957. Preliminary Geologic Map of the Waldron Quadrangle
and Adjacent Areas, Scotr County, Arkansas. Oil and Gas Investigation, Map OM 192, U. S. Geol.
SUN., Washington.
RIGBY,J. K.. 1953. Subaqueous landslides and turbidity currents in the Permian of West Texas.
(Abstract). J. Sediment. Petrol., 23 : 134.
RIGBY,J. K., 1958. Mass movements in Permian rocks of Trans-Pecos, Texas. J . Sediment. Petrol.,
28 : 298-315.
SHELBURNE
JR., 0.B., 1960. Geology of the Boktukola syncline, southeastern Oklahoma. Oklahoma,
Geol. Surv., Bull., 88 : 84 pp.
SMOOR,P. B., 1960. Dimensional Grain Orientation Studies of Turbidite Graywackes. M. Sc. thesis,
McMaster Univ., Ontario, 97 pp.
Spom, J. H., 1962. Sand-grain orientation and imbrication in turbidity-current sandstones (Abstract). Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists., 46 ; 280.
SULLWOLD
JR., H. H., 1960. Tarzana fan, deep submarine fan of late Miocene age, Los Angeles
County, Califom'ia. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists,44 :433-457.
SULLWOLD
JR., H. H., 1961. Turbidites in oil exploration. In: J. A. PETERSON,
and J. C. O s m ,
(Editors), Geometry qfsandstone Bodies. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, Tulsa, pp. 63-81.
SUTTON,
R. G., 1959. Use of flute casts in stratigraphic correlation. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists,
43 : 230-237.
SUTTON,
R. G., 1960. Stratigraphy of the Naples Group (Late Devonian) in western New York. Bull.
N. Y.State Museum Sci. Serv., 380 : 56 pp.
THOMASSON,
M. R. and THOMSON,
A., 1962. Dimple limestone - a turbidite sequence (Abstract).
Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists., 46 : 312.
VANHOUTEN,F. B., 1954. Sedimentary features of Martinsburg slate, northwestern New Jersey.
Bull. Geol. SOC.Am., 65 ; 813-818.
WEBER,
J. N., 1961. Geochemistry of graywackes and shales. Science, 131 : 664-665.
WEBER,J. N. and MIDDLETON,
G. V., 1961. Geochemistry of turbidites of the Normanskill and
Charny formations. 1. Effect of turbidity currents on the chemical differentiation of turbidites. 2.
Distribution of trace elements. Geochim. Cosntochim.Acta, 22 : 200-288.
WILSON,W. J., 1950. Subaqueous Flow-markings in the Lower Mississippian Strata of South-central
Ohio and Adjacant Parts of Kentucky. M. Sc. thesis, Univ. of Cincinnati, Cincinnati.
WINTERER,
J. L., 1954. Geology of Southeastern Ventura Basin, Los Angeles County, California. Ph. D.
dissertation, Univ. of California, Los Angeles, 141 pp.
SUMMARY
Marginal lithofacies have been formed immediately below the active source zone.
They consist predominantly of coarse clastics. In direction to the basin axis, granulometric composition and thickness of beds decrease and transition from irregular
bedding into graded bedding may be observed there. In this same direction, thickness
of diagonal bedding - torrentional type - and magnitude of channels indicating
direction of progressing currents with great strength are lessening too. The changes
take place down the current.
Criterii concerning the direction of sedimentary transport are analyzed separately
in the individual lithofacies. They are based upon the analysis of primary sedimentary
structures - current lineations, sole markings, pebble orientation, grain orientation,
diagonal bedding orientation -which are formed by the current and which determine
the direction of the current. It has been found by means of the mapping of sedimentary structures in marginal lithofacies, that currents keep their constant direction
during the Upper Eocene and Lower Oligocene. This fact, and the character of bedding and its spacial distribution, indicate the gravitation transport mediated by turbidite currents and slides.
On the ground of the investigations of paleocurrents and of the study of sedimentary slump folds, the primary and secondary slopes of marginal lithofacies deposition
have been constructed.
INTRODUCTION
107
LOCATION
ROUGH SPACE RELATIONS AND CRITERIA FOR THE MAPPING AND CLASSIFICATION OF
LITHOFACIES
It has been shown by geological mapping and stratigraphic investigations, that the
flysch lithofacies have been differenciated between the underground of the Cierna
Hora-Gemer source-area and the margin to the axis of the basin. While near the
margin the lithofacies consist predominantly of thick conglomerate beds, in a direction
from the margin to the axis it gradually decreases in thickness, grain size, erosion results
and other characteristics, while the sorting improves. Beds in the form of flat elongated
108
R. MARSCHALKO
tongues reach 15-20 km and more towards the axis of the basin, but it is difficult to
follow them. In the case of periodic alternations of beds, series of remarkable thickness
have been formed, characterized by predominating complexes of clastics, available
for mapping, i.e., the conglomeratic flysch. The ratio conglomerate/sandstone and
claystone changes quickly basinward towards sandstones and claystones.
In the mapping of marginal lithofacies at various distances from the margin of the
source-area in normal flysch sequences, isolated beds of large extent and thickness
have been found, differentiated from the adjacent flysch series by a striking change of
granulometric composition and by a development of characteristic internal slump
structures, indicating the origin of submarine sliding. The flysch sequences are characterized by mass occurrences and maximums in the distribution of slide beds of great
thickness - to such an extent that the mapping and correlation in three dimensions,
and the classification of the wild flysch lithofacies, analogous to those of the Alps
(Kaufmann, as quoted in TRUMPY,
1960) and of the Caucasus (VASSOEVICH,
1948) have
been continued.
The mapping of characteristic structural and vector properties of the flysch clastics
-agreeing strikingly in material and morphology, has brought results that are helpful
in the classification of the separate lithofacies, and in the understanding of their
development relations in the basin.
By means of micropaleontological investigation, the age of the beds has been deter1961), and the stratimined as Upper Eocene and Lower Oligocene (MARSCHALKO,
graphic interval - on account of the younger Oligocene microfauna. Micropaleontological investigation proved that the separated lithofacies, unstable in space, formed
immense, finger-like bodies (WELLER,1958), disappearing, without stratigraphic correlation value. Therefore it is only possible to use them for correlation in wider territory to a limited extent.
Macropaleontological dates from the basal transgressive lithofacies, and associations of planctonic and bentonic Foraminifera from the marginal lithofacies, indicate
the exclusively marine environment of the source, without the smallest indications of
brackish character. The abundance of plant detritus in the marginal lithofacies represents the resedimented remains.
In stratigraphical investigations we kept partly to the division of flysch according to
Fig.1. Lithofacial map of the Central-Carpathian flysch north of the Cierna Hora Mountains and
northeast of the Branisko Mountains. I = The Mesozoic and Paleozoic underlier in the whole. 2 =
Basal transgressive lithofacies. 3 = Claystone lithofacies. 4 = Subflysch. 5 = Intermediate flysch.
6 = Wildflysch. 7 = Conglomeratic and microconglomeratic flysch. 2-7 = Upper Eocene to Lower
Oligocene. 8 = Andesite bodies. 9 = Tortonian conglomerates (?). 10 = Alluvium. I1 = Actual
border of lithofacies. I 2 = Supposed border of lithofacies: tectonic lines of greater importance; tectonic lines of lesser importance. 13 = Strike and slope of beds. 14 = Flute casts. 15 = Prod casts.
16 = Groove casts (the outer circle); brush casts (the inner circle). 17 = Orientation of long axes of
pebbles (50 pieces). 18 = Current bedding. 19 = Oriented load casts. 20 = Sense of the movement of
slump folds (marked by long line) perpendicular to the axis (short line). 21 = Subtracted direction of
the movement of giant ripples.
110
R. MARSCHALKO
VASSOEVICH
(1948), and thus the following main lithofacies have been determined:
(I) basal transgressive lithofacies, (2) claystone lithofacies and subflysch, (3) conglomeratic and microconglomeratic flysch, (4) typical and non-typical wild flysch, (5)
intermediate flysch.
Their distribution is given in the lithofacial map (Fig.1). Lateral relations are
presented by stratigraphic-facial schemes (Fig.2).
I
I1
111
N
N S
,=
b::t+:.a.
*L.".l
In the West-Carpathians, the transgressive lithofacies were formed after the period of
Cretaceous folding. There is a distinctive angular nonconformity with the underlying
rocks of the crystalline, and with the Mesozoic of the Cierna Hora Mountains along
the northern margin where the latter crops out. It represents a cycle, consisting essentially of two main lithotypes in strict sequence.
In the lower part are basal conglomerates and breccias, in the upper part subgraywackes and siltstones with sporadic slides which have macrofauna of different composition to those in the basal series.
Conglomerates and breccias completely reflect the composition of the local underlying sediments over which the transgression proceeded. In the majority of cases the
material consists of homogenous dolomitic limestone breccias and conglomerates
with a sandstone matrix. Well developed carst relief moderated the activity of traction
currents. Therefore neither orientation of long axes of pebbles nor imbrication has
been observed. The sorting is bad and stratification is not developed distinctly.
Different development has been observed in well-sorted heterogenous conglomerates alternating in beds of lens-like shape. Extension of beds of 20-30 cm in thickness
hardly exceed 250 m. The lower surface of beds with abundant erosion channels, often
111
with a depth of 150-200 cm and a width of 4-10 m, are very irregular. In beds containing small pebbles, or more frequently in coarse-grained sandstones, cross-bedding
is very common. This structure is very frequent in two to three open series which may
reach the thickness of 10-80 cm. If outcrops cut the cross-laminated bodies perpendicularly to the current direction, arcuate laminae and so-calledcross-bedding (Kreuzschichtung, NIEHOFF
1958) appear in these cross-sections. In sections parallel to the
current-direction, shovel-like concave laminae occur. According to NIEHOFFS
(1958)
classification, the cross-bedding of the arcuate type originates by means of movement
of giant ripples and the simultaneous activity of rhythmically pulsating tidal currents.
From the study of the direction and slope of cross-bedded laminae in embankment
bodies, it can be seen that the direction of traction currents (rose diagram Stefanska
Huta, Fig.1) was first to east-northeast, northeast and northwest with small pole
changes and crossing of current systems. According to NIEHOFF
(1958), the maximum
current direction indicates the slope, since in this direction the optimal slumping of
beds has been found. The opinion may be proved by extensive slides of coarse clastics
with macrofauna in fine-grained siltstones in the upper part of the transgressive lithofacies north of the ripple field.
Currents, transporting and sorting the coarse-clastic material from the southeast,
south and southwest, did fade away in a northerly direction due to bathymetric conditions. In connection with this, the lithological changes of transgressive lithofacies in
the vertical direction should be studied in all cross-sections known. In a vertical direction the medium diameter changes too. By the change in medium diameter thicknesses
of series of the cross-bedding morphological distinctnessch ange as well (SCHWARZACHER, 1953). In a vertical direction more abundant occurrence of horizontal lamination may be observed, interrupted by the growth of pyrite concretions and slump
activity in some places. In upper parts, morphological characteristics of stratification
disappear completely, and slow transition into claystones takes place. The disappearing of the transgressive cycle ends by slow vertical granulometric refinement of
grains. The pelagic biotope appears with the Foraminifera association, whilst the
macrofauna disappears completely.
112
R. MARSCHALKO
The share of graded bedding in the composition of claystone lithofacies and subflysch is very small; the sorting of the coarse fraction is sometimes somewhat regular.
Subgraywackes with graded bedding have distinct lower surfaces with sole markings
and slightly laminated transitions overlying claystones.
Slump structures are only characteristic for certain areas. They are more abundant
in the south and southwest than in the north. Whole successions of siltstone laminae
with claystones have been affected by slumps. All stages of transition, from elongation,
pressing, to tearing and migration have been observed in very complicated forms.
The present-day distribution of the claystone lithofacies of the subflysch, and the
comparison with equivalent lithofacies in the adjacent territory, prove that the growing
thickness in a northerly direction (300 m), in a northwesterly direction (200-300 m),
indicate quick subsidence of the zone under the condition of slow sedimentation of
claystones in the Upper Eocene. In a southeasterly direction, along the margin of the
cierna Hora Mountains, lithofacies gradually lose their thickness and disappear. This
phenomenon may be caused by: (Z) non-sedimentation of clay in the southern area,
(2) lateral transition with the upper part of transgressive lithofacies and with the
typical wild flysch, (3) erosive activity of extensive slides, especially in the place of
their maximum entrance into the basin during deposition of the conglomeratic flysch
and wild flysch.
All the alternations require an uplifted zone in the south.
113
supposed that turbidity currents cause plain erosion and are the origin of seemingly
recurrent bedding. This recurrent bedding is rather frequent in the conglomeratic
flysch, though having such a different origin that it is necessary to differenciate it.
Unusual types of bedding with sudden stops to the sorting of the coarse fraction and
sharp separation from the fine-grained fraction, have also been found. Also in the
upper strata there is a bed which ends sharply. Mutual ratio of thicknesses of both
fractions is changing. The beds reach 0.5-8 m in thickness.
Graded bedding of described types is not equally developed as in the plain. The
maximum concentration (60-70 %) has been observed in places, in the northwestwest-northwest, 10 km away from the present-day margin of the conglomeratic flysch
in the southeast.
(2) A different type of bedding is represented by irregular bedding (mixed bedding,
BIRKENMAJER,
1959) without horizontal sorting of fraction and without distinct inner
orientation of the components. There are frequent claystone and sandstone fragments
and slump overfolds with the same composition as the beds of the underlying
series. Shapes of fragments, slump balls and slump overfolds indicate that claystones
were plastic at the time of the movement. On the surface of many unconsolidated
rounded claystone fragments pebbles have been stuck, armouring the fragments.
Lower and upper surfaces of beds with irregular bedding are always strikingly smooth.
Some beds are even 8.5 m thick. They do not differ from the graded beds in thickness,
yet their inner structure indicates their origin by means of submarine sliding.
Claystone fragments and slump overfolds, as well as rounded blocks of the same
composition as the bed itself, have also been observed in beds with graded bedding,
especially in microconglomerates and coarse-grained sandstones. Therefore it may be
supposed that there exist transitions from irregularly bedded strata to graded-bedded
ones. Spacial distribution of irregular bedding with the conglomeratic flysch and
microconglomeratic flysch proves the supposition. Irregular bedding forms 60-70 %
of the coarse conglomerate beds in the area Klenov-KvaEany-Such6 Dolina, south
and southeast of permanent occurrence of typical graded bedding.
Apart from slump overfolds (CROWELL,
1957) and claystone fragments, many of the
irregularly bedded conglomerates have sandstone fragments identical with the underlying beds, siltstone and sandstone chunks, blocks of large size (1 x 1 x 1.5 m) and
irregular, more or less angular shape. They are often quite sharp-edged, coming from
the basal transgressive lithofacies, and have also frequently been found. Since the
transgressive lithofacies were only connected with the base of the formation, they
merge under the conglomeratic flysch in the north. The finger-like contact of the basal
lithofacies with the conglomeratic flysch has not been observed, and the origin of
slump claystone overfolds together with blocks of the basal lithofacies cannot be
explained by slumping of beds in the basin, but rather by the abrasion of abruptly
inclined slopes of the continental terrace built by claystone and basal lithofacies, and
uplifted in the south of the basin in the period of the origin of extensive slides of the
conglomeratic flysch. A sharp erosion contact of the conglomeratic flysch with the
basal and claystone lithofacies mapped in the south, in the zone Klenov-Such&
114
R. MARSCHALKO
Dolina, 6-8 km wide, testifies to the cutting-in and erosive force of the passing slides.
A low degree of roundness of blocks and fragments from the basal transgressive
lithofacies as far as 10 km from the southeastern margin of the conglomeratic flysch
proves that transport in slides has taken place quickly and that the material deposited
has not undergone any further washing-through.
If the proceeding slide reached the zone of unconsolidated sequence of sandstone
and claystone, it tumbled down the underlying beds, compressed them, kneaded them
and deformed them into slump forms as slump overfolds, slump balls, slump rolls,
folded lumps, and transferred them in the moving slide mass farther from the place of
their original deposition. The structures originated as a consequence of sinking,
grooving and dragging of the passing masses along the sea-floor (CROWELL,
1957) and
not by later slumping of beds already formed. The latter possibility of origin is indicated by various structures of thickening of beds, pull-apart structures and slump folds.
Decrease of the erosive force of slides and of turbidity currents from the place of the
maximum entering into the basin, have been proved by the investigation of channels
on the base of beds of the conglomeratic flysch. On the base of irregularly bedded
strata 0.5-2 m deep channels have been found, filled by clastics with irregular sorting
of pebbles and by fragments and slump overfolds of claystones, and plainly truncated
by the current passing further without deposition, or - in the majority of cases depositing a bed with finer grained material. Rare are the cases of preservation of
channels of this type, in most cases straight and sharp lower surfaces of beds have been
found.
Another very frequent type of channel is formed by a current depositing material.
Channels of this type are found together with graded bedding of smaller thickness,
occurring northwest of the former. Also with decreasing thickness of beds the depth
of channels has been decreasing, and thus the channels have acquired smaller erosive
forms described as flute casts. The phenomenon has been observed in a southeastnorthwesterly direction together with other phenomena, e.g., refinement of granulometric composition, better sorting of particles and increasing thickness of claystone.
Reliable proof of the one-direction activity of turbidity currents in conglomeratic
flysch has been offered by current bedding. It has been found in the upper surface of
beds, always in one series only. By its straight laminae it looks most like the type of
torrential bedding (SHROCK,
1948), but many observations have shown that in one
series, in a section parallel to the plane of symmetry sigmoid, shovel-like forms in the
margin, and straight laminae in the axial part, may occur. Less frequent is the presence of one series in an isolated bed of table-like form in claystones.
On the ground of quantitative observation of the thickness of torrential bedding
and the thickness of beds in which it occurrs, a relation has been found (Fig.3), viz.
that with the decreasing bed thickness the thickness of diagonal bedding also decreases.
Since it has been observed in a southeast-northwesterly direction, the entering of
currents, gradual decrease of traction force and gradual disappearing of currents, have
been presumed in this direction as well.
In no case has the degree of alternation of many series of diagonal bedding been
115
Fig.3. Relation between the thickness of torrential bedding and the thickness of the conglomeratic
flysch beds. Thickness of torrential bedding is indicated at the horizontal axis.
All the above mentioned studies show that the conglomeratic flysch differentiation
of clastics from the source-area situated south of the present-day distribution of the
conglomeratic flysch is predominant. By means of material composition of pebbles,
the direction of currents with the position of the source-area from which the pebblematerial came, has been confronted. Compared to the basal facies, the composition of
the conglomeratic flysch only contains heterogenous conglomerates with mixed associations of rocks of the Gierna Hora Mountains crystalline, of the Spigsko-GemerskB
Ore Mountains and of younger mantle rocks of the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous of
the West-Carpathian and Kriina developments.
The amount of unstable rock fragments (limestones, basics, granites) is rather high
and reaches 40-50 % on the average. PETTIJOHN
(1957) classifies such rocks as immature
lithic conglomerates. Immature conglomerates with non-disintegrated fresh rocks
may have originated in a source-area with high topographic relief, and with heavy
rains which have effectively supported mechanical erosion accompanied by immediate
transportation.
116
R. MARSCHALKO
117
The intermediate flysch forms the equivalent of the wild flysch and conglomeratic
flysch in the basin. It contains 75-90% of graded-bedded sandstones and siltstones
with convolute laminations. The maximum size of the coarse fraction reaches the
limit of gravels. Thickness of beds is 60-80 cm on the average, 350 cm at a maximum.
Convolute laminations occupy the middle, less frequently the upper, strata of beds.
It may be observed in unchanged thickness in the bed. Continuity of laminae has been
preserved. Twisted inclusions of claystone lamines have not been found. There are
no load casts and slide casts on the lower bed surface, since convolution has no relation to gravitational slumping. It is connected to the origin of one bed only and is a
result of primary synsedimentary processes.
118
R. MARSCHALKO
CURRENT DIRECTION AND DEPOSITIONAL SLOPE
119
being overlaid by younger beds, it can be presumed -according to the diameter of the
fan (dispersion) - that currents entered the basin from the south.
The direction the middle and upper parts of the intermediate flysch current system
have been measured, which is in agreement with younger systems, and its direction is
southeast-northwest (rose diagram, Rogkoviany, Fig. 1). Pole change of current direction has been observed from northwest to south-southeast. In some sequences directions have been found which are distinctly different to the former, with an oblique angle
from northeast to southwest. Orientation of this system is rather anomalous with
respect to predominating systems from south to north, 'southeast and northwest. It
indicates that in the intermediate flysch the entering of clastics into the basin has been
from the source situated in the north and northeast (MARSCHALKO
and RADOMSKI,
1960) for a certain time. The analysis shows that for the filling of the basin by clastics
the southern cierna Hora-Gemer source-area has been most important. Abrupt entering of great amounts of coarse clastics from the southern source to the north has
been observed, especially in the origin of the conglomeratic flysch and extensive slide
bodies of the wild flysch. There a question arises: what is the relation between predominately fine-grained homogenous-bedded sandstones of typical wild flysch and the
southern source-area, producing clastics with high gravel contents ?
In the study of current systems in flysch sequences in which slides alternate, surprising stability of current direction has been determined on an extensive surface (200
km2)running without change from southeast to northwest. Since the southeast-northwest current system has also been measured in the southernmost part of the wild
flysch on its contact with the cierna Hora Mountains, and in the southwest of it (rose
diagram, Ondrdovce, Fig.l), one may assume that it continues to the southeast in
sequences of typical wild flysch separated by tectonic line of the Hornhd River and
covered by sediments and volcanites of the Miocene. The remarkably constant current
system represents longitudinal filling of the basin (KUENEN,
1957b), passing in agreement with the position of the axis of the basin and independently of the lateral filling.
Therefore fine-grained homogenous-bedded siltstones and sandstones, inserted between
slide bodies, have no genetic relation to the southern source-area and are transported
by turbidity currents from another source-area. For this reason they cannot be called
marginal lithofacies.
Typical lateral filling of clastics in the basin (DZULYNSKI,
et al., 1959) has been proved by petrographical and sedimentological investigations of the conglomeratic and
microconglomeratic flysch. Orientation of long axes of pebbles, torrential bedding and
orientation of axes of channels in the conglomerate beds point to the uniform direction of transporting slides and currents from the south-southeast to the north in older
constituents (KvaEany, Suchh D o h a ) , and to northwest and west-northwest in
younger constituents of the conglomeratic flysch (Chminianske Jakuboviany).
Since current directions in the conglomeratic flysch areas, about 15-20 km from the
southeast margin (Chminianske Jakuboviany), show coincidence with primary longitudinal filling of the typical wild flysch, a detailed investigation of two independent
sequences of the non-typical wild flysch alternating with two sequences of the con-
121
glomeratic flysch (over a surface of 15 x 10 km) has been carried out to differentiate
the lateral filling from the longitudinal fllling of the typical wild flysch.
It has been observed that current directions in the lowermost conglomerate sequence
I (Fig.4) and in its overlying non-typical wild flysch I are in agreement according to
oriented structures. Besides that, internal structures of the conglomeratic flysch are
oriented in agreement with lineations of the non-typical wild flysch. Characteristic
lateral filling of clastics from the south-southeast is certain and might have been followed by many sequences of the non-typical wild flysch along the margin of the (llierna
Hora Mountains (rose diagrams OvEie, Zipov, Fig. 1).
In the conglomerate sequence ZZ and in the overlying non-typical wild flysch ZZ
slight change of current direction (Fig.4) to the west-northwest has been shown by
measurements. It may be observed again in both lithofacies quoted. In the non-typical
wild flysch there is an increasing amount of coarse fraction, graded bedding and irregular bedding with horizons of claystone breccias and sliding. Here, these phenomena
are very frequent compared to the typical wild flysch.
Generally it may be stressed that current directions in the non-typical wild flysch,
15-20 km from the present-day southeast margin, have approximately the same directional values as the primary longitudinal filling in the typical wild flysch. This is in
agreement with the axis of the basin and with the course of large tectonic structures,
yet lithological proofs undoubtedly affirm differences conditioned by abrupt lateral
entering of clastics from the southern source-area. Transporting currents, forming
conglomerate beds and the non-typical wild flysch, change direction in the basin and
acquire a course parallel with the position of the axis in this segment of the basin
(Fig.5).
From the general regional pattern of current distributions, it appears that the predominating uniform current direction observed over a long time represents a strong
argument for the turbidity current hypothesis concerning the origin of the marginal
flysch lithofacies.
For the origin of turbidity currents a slope is necessary. Therefore uniform current
directions, measured in separate lithofacies, indicate the slope along which the turbidity currents were moving. The majority of oriented load casts (Fig.1) is really in
agreement with the predominating current direction, i.e., the filling by clastics has
been the first main factor determining the so-called primary depositional slope of the
basin (TENHAAF,1959).
The analysis of current directions in the basin show that the primary depositional
slope of the basin had been developed during the formation of separate lithofacies in
two main directions: (1) in the axis of the basin the depositional slope gradually
decreased from the southeast to the northwest; (2) near the margin of the southern
source-area the slope ran perpendicularly and transversely to the axis in the northnortheast and northwest.
Fig.4. Current-rose diagrams of two sequences of conglomeratic flysch I and II, alternating with two
sequences of the non-typical wild flysch I and II. Marking as in Fig.1.
122
R. MARSCHALKO
From the analysis of distribution and frequency of slump folds and pull-apart structures in the typical wild flysch, it appears that the primary depositional slope which
was formed during the deposition of clastics by turbidity currents and longitudinal
filling from one centre, could not have been very steep, since periodic slumping of
deposited beds has not taken place at all.
n
Fig.5. Map of current directions in marginal lithofacies during Upper Eocene and Lower Oligocene.
I = Epimetamorphosed crystalline of the Spiii-Gemer Ore Mountains. 2 = Mesocatazonally metamorphosed crystalline of the Cierna Hora Mountains. 3 = Line of overthrust of the Spiii-Gemer Ore
Mountains crystalline on the Cierna Hora Mountains crystalline. 4 = Main current directions during
Upper Eocene. 5 = Main current directions during Lower Oligocene. 6 = Extensive slides in Upper
Eocene. 7 = Extensive slides in Lower Oligocene.
The situation is different in the conglomeratic flysch and the non-typical wild
flysch deposited near the southern margin of the basin, where, in some cases, axes of
slump folds have been oriented primarily perpendicularly (Fig.1, 4) to the course of
the axis of the basin, and less frequently transversely or parallel to it. Several deformed
beds, occurring together, show that slump folds have been caused by forces long after
the deposition of beds. Therefore it may be supposed that they originated by more
rapid supply of the primary slope by the clastics and in consequence of tectonic
bending of the depositional slope. In the non-yypical wild flysch, the direction of
123
slumping has been mainly from the south to the north, northwest an east-northeast,
in connection with increasing tectonic pressure, with the uplifting of the southern
source-area and with the origin of steep slopes on one hand, and axial depression on
the other.
Certain specific data, e.g., the origin of horizons with claystone fragments and
slump rolls, origin of extensive submarine slides with blocks of basal and transgressive
lithofacies in the wild flysch, and especially the high amount of irregular bedding in
the conglomeratic flysch, distribution and distance of slides, and the irregular and
graded beddings from the margin of the source-area, show that the uplifting of the
source-area together with older basal lithofacies took place in a short time. They were
accompanied by the origin of sufficient inclination of the slope along which the sliding
of gravel masses, abrasion of uplifted beds and transport far into the basin, could take
place.
Based on these results, it may be supposed that the origin of large slide bodies, conglomeratic and non-typical wild flysch, depends upon the so-called secondary slope,
the function and influence of which will be explained in more detail.
The given values for the inclination of the slope on which the slides originated and
on which the sliding took place, differ between various scientists. According to some
1953; KUENEN
and CAROZZI,
1953) the slope must have
sedimentologists (KUENEN,
been concave and with such a dip that it was possible for rolling particles to descend
freely into the basin under the influence of gravity. Others (Vassoevich as quoted in
RUCMN,1959) suppose that the inclination from the source-area to the axial part of
the basin has been moderate and they prove it by the distribution of slides at the
marginal side of the source-area only.
In the analysis of the three dimensionaldistribution of submarine slide bodies in this
area, it may be seen that extensive slides accumulate in the zone of the typical wild
flysch from its southernmost margin over distances of 7-10 km and in the zone of the
conglomeratic flysch and the non-typical wild flysch from its margin (KvaEany,
Sedlice) 15-20 km and more to the centre of the basin. Since all the slides in the zone
have not been washed-through, they are deposited below the level of wave action and
strong currents, so it may be assumed that this zone occurred at greater depths and
near the steep slope of the continental terrace.
From the analysis of the lithological composition of slide bodies and irregular
bedding it may be seen that steep slopes of continental terraces consisted of uplifted
older lithofacies as upper constituents of basal transgressive lithofacies, claystone
lithofacies and partly those of the subflysch. Extensive sliding masses composed of
gravels, tumbling down the slope of continental terrace to the north, cut into the slopes
and grooved submarine valleys into them. Erosion relief of such a valley has been
preserved in a zone, 6-8 km wide, in the area Klenov-Such6 Dolina. Sharp truncations
of the upper constituents of the basal lithofacies and claystone lithofacies, preserved
only in fragments by bodies of the conglomeratic flysch may be observed. The truncations have low angle (3"-5", ROSING, 1947) and show wedging out of irregularly
bedded conglomeratic sequences on contact with the lithofacies. The depth of the
124
R. MARSCHALK0
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BOTVINKINA,
L. N., FEOFILOVA,
A. P. and JABLOCHKOV,
V. S., 1954. Izuchenie textur i uslovij zaleganija novejshichaljuvialnych i nekatorych drugich otlozhenij v nizovjach reki Dona i napoberezhe
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1. C., 1955. Directional current structures from the prealpine flysch, Switzerland. Bull.
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CROWELL,
J. C., 1957. Origin of pebbly mudstones. Bull. Geol. SOC.Am., 68 : 993-1009.
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S.and RADOMSKI,
A., 1955. Origin of groove casts in the light of turbidity current hypothesis. Acta Geol. Polon., 5 : 47-66.
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S., KSIAZKIEWCZ,
M. and KUENEN,
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F. P. H. W., 1954. Graded Bedding of the Harlech Dome. Thesis, Univ. of Groningen,
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M., 1950. Slip-bedding in the Carpathian flysch. Rocznik. Polsk. Towarz. Geol.,
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M., 1954. Graded and laminated tedding in the Carpathian flysch. Rocznik. Polsk.
Towarz. Geol., 23 : 3 9 9 4 9 .
KSIAZKIEWCZ,
M., 1958a. Submarine slumping in the Carpathian flysch. Rocznik. Polsk. Towarz.
Geol., 28 : 123-150.
KSIAZKIEWCZ,
M., 1958b. Stratigraphy of the Magura Series in the Sredni Beskid, Carpathians. Bid.
Inst. Geol., 135 :43-96.
KUENEN,
PH. H., 1952. Paleogeographic significance of graded bedding and associated features.
Koninkl. Ned. Akad. Wetenschap.,Proc., Ser. B, 55 : 28-36.
KUENEN,
PH.H., 1953. Graded bedding, with observations on Lower Paleozoic rocks of Britain. Verhandel. Koninkl. Ned. Akad, Wetenschap.,Afdel. Natuurk., Sect. I, 20 (3) : 147.
KUENEN,
PH.H., 1956a. The difference between sliding and turbidity flow. Deep-sea Res., 3 : 134-139.
KUENEN,
PH.H., 1957a. Sole markings of graded graywacke beds. J. Geol., 65 : 231-258.
KUENEN,
PH.H., 1957b. Longitudinal filling of oblong sedimentary basins. Verhandel.Koninkl. Ned.
Geol. Mijnbouwk. Genoot., Geol. Ser., 18 : 189-195.
KUENEN,
PH. H. and CARROZI,
A., 1953. Turbidity currents and sliding in geosynclinal basins of the
Alps. J. Geol., 61 : 363-373.
KUENEN,
PH.H. and MIGLIOFUNI,
C. I., 1950. Turbidity currents as a cause of graded bedding.J. Geol.,
58 : 91-127.
LOMBARD,
A., 1956. GPologie SPdimentaire.Les SPries Marines. Masson Paris, 722 pp.
MARSCHALKO,
R., 1961. Sedimentologic investigations of the marginal lithofacies of the CentralCarpathian flysch. Geol. Prrice, Bratislava, 60 : 197-232.
MARSCHALKO,
R. and RADOMSKI,
A., 1960. Preliminaryresults of investigationsof current directions in
the flysch basin of the Central Carpathians. Ann. SOC.GPol. Pologne, 30 : 259-272.
MARSCHALKO,
R. and VOLFOVA,
J., 1960. Submarine slide and its macrofauna in the Paleogene of the
Central Carpathians. Geol. Prdce, Zprdvy, 19 : 95-108.
NIEHOFF,
W., 1958. Die primar gerichteten Sedimentstruktureninsbesondere die Schragschichtungim
Koblenz-Quarzit am Mittelrhein. Geol. Rundschau, 47 (1 1) : 252-321.
PETITJOHN,
F. J., 1957. Sedimentary Rocks. Harper, New York, 718 pp.
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F.,, 1947. Die geologischenVerhaltnisse des Branisko-Gebirgesund der &ern&Hora (Karpathen). Z . Deut. Geol. Ges., 99 : 8-39.
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W., 1953. Cross-bedding and grain size in the Lower Cretaceous sands of East
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SHROCK,
R. R., 1948. Sequence in Layered Rocks. McGraw-Hill, New York, 507 pp.
SULLWOLD
JR., H. H., 1960. Tarzana fan, deep submarine fan of Late Miocene age, Los Angeles
County, California. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 44 : 433457.
TENHAAF,E.,1959. Graded Beds of the Northern Apennines. Thesis, Univ. of Groningen, Groningem,
102 pp.
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126
R. MARSCHALKO
TRWY,
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N. B., 1948. Hysh i Metodkujevo Zzuchenijz. Vses. Neft. Geol. Razved. Nauchn. Issled.
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Geologists, 42 (3) :609-639.
SUMMARY
At least a dozen distinct types of flysch occur in the northern Apennines. Two differential processes -resedimentation and tectonic sliding - are invoked to account for
their distribution in space and time, and to trace some genetic connections.
INTRODUCTION
From Genoa to Lake Trasimene, various flysch formations make up the major part of
the Apennine chain. Their location and succession reflect the orogenic history, while
their diversity has been instrumental in shaping, not only the present landscape, but
even its tectonic structure.
Mountain building in the northern Apennines has been characterized by two peculiar and decisive features. Firstly, folding and consequent sliding did not affect the
entire area at once, but progressed from west to east during the Oligocene and
Miocene (MERLA,1951). An even earlier, Cretaceous-Eocene phase of orogeny must
be postulated in a Palaeoapennine zone, now foundered, west of the present peninsula. Secondly, the successive structures emerged very late, so that the upper part of
the sedimentary pile - the flysch formations - remained largely unlithified during
orogeny. This prolonged hapalotectonic phase (TENHAAF, 1961a) gave an unpred e n t e d opportunity for differential displacements, both by resedimentation and by
gravitational sliding.
In reviewing the various flysch formations involved, we shall follow the natural
threefold division of the northern Apennines (Fig. 1):
(I) The autochton of Toscana, Romagna, and Umbria (southern half of our map,
and beyond).
(2) The allochton that chaotically overlies the former, and reigns supreme on the
slopes of Emilia between the watershed and the Po valley.
(3) The rocks of eastern Liguriu (between Genoa and La Spezia) and farther north;
in part similar, and passing into, the formations of the Emilian allochton, but structurally an imbricated thrust-pile rather than a promiscuous flow.
Named formations, in Italian usage, may represent mere mapping units (cf. MAXWELL,
1959b).
Fig.1. Simplified map of the major flyxh formations of the northern Apemines.
LlGURlAN SERIES
ALLOCHTON
I AUTOCHTON
\
"alberese' (Eocene)
garenarie wperioriY
'scisti gal-trini"
(with ophiolites,
passing E into the
"argille scagliose")
FLYSCH FORMATIONS OF
UNCERTAIN AGE AND AFFINITY
Sr
,J""
....-..--,
"3"
--I
(older sediments)
' (Cretaceous)
FACES
4sedimentary
contact
Iimit allochtonautochton
post
- orogentic
-----) minor
tectonic
contact
-b
direction o f
turbid* currents
Legend to Fig. I .
chiefly
argillaceous
flysch
chiefly dcareau~flysch
("alberesi ''1
pelit-
and limestones
130
E. TEN HAAF
AUTOCHTONOUS FLYSCH FORMATIONS
In the watershed area, the pre-orogenic series (mainly carbonates, topped by the shaly
scisti policromi or scaglia) is overlain concordantly by the well-known Oligocene
macigno. This was the first formation to be explained by the hypothesis of turbidity
currents (MIGLIORINI,1943; KUENENand MIGLIORINI,1950). Resedimentation
accounted not only for the facies of alternating shales and graded graywacke beds, and
for the presence of (reworked) Eocene Foraminifera, but also for the obvious lack of a
near-by source area for the enormous quantity of sand involved. Originally, turbidity
currents were still supposed to have run transversely off the nascent chain, fed by
detritus from the hypothetical Palaeoapennine land mass to the southwest; but
investigation of the current directions has revealed a longitudinal supply from the
northwest, out of Liguria or adjacent regions (TENHAAF,1958, 1959). We shall concern ourselves presently with the origin of the sand in the macigno.
Below the macigno there occur, in some places, beds of nummulitic brecciola,
considered by KUENEN
and MIGLIORINI
(1950) as turbidites of local origin. Upward,
the macigno passes into the more marly macigno B or Vicchio series near its
eastern margin; but elsewhere, a top is lacking and typical macigno is covered directly
by allochton, or unconformably by Villafranchian or marine Pliocene. The thickness must be several kilometres.
With the progress of orogeny, the trough of turbiditic sedimentation was evidently
shifted eastward: the top of the autochton on the outermost fold ridges is constituted,
not by macigno, but by the yormazione marnoso-arenacea of Lower-Middle
Miocene age. Mechanically, it is very similar to the macigno, deposited likewise by
turbidity currents from the northwest, and of great thickness, but slightly more calcareous and fossiliferous. The marnoso-arenacea is overlain by the shallow-water
sandstones, marls, and evaporites of the Po valley border. Its base is exposed only in
Umbria, where the underlying Oligocene -a thin pelitic scaglia cinerea - must be
the lateral equivalent of the macigno. Apparently this part of the sea floor was at
first too high to be reached by turbidity currents following the axis of the macigno
trough.
A formation very much resembling the marnoso-arenacea, but slightly younger
again - Upper Miocene - extends north of the Gran Sasso massif (outside the map
of Fig.1). Its resedimentation by turbidity currents from the north makes it seem
likely that, genetically, this Picenejysch is still connected with the flysch of the
northern Apennines (TENHAAF,1959).
Thus, successive autochtonous sandy flysch formations have been deposited in an
elongated foredeep that migrated east and south with the advance of orogeny, during
the Oligocene and Miocene. The large masses of sand contained in these vast and thick
formations have been transported longitudinally by turbidity currents from the northwest. Lateral supply from adjacent rising ridges was presumably restricted to pelitic
material, after the initial resedimentation of patches of brecciole.
131
The allochton consists of the notorious argille scagliose or slickensided clays, mixed
up with ophiolite masses and with various slabs and fragments of recognizable sedimentary formations. On the margins of Eastern Liguria, argille scagliose are seen to
develop, by increasing tectonization, out of the scisti galestrini; farther on, their
volume has probably been supplemented by the incorporation of other shaly formations, such as scaglia, wherever these had been exposed - by the sliding off or
resedimentation of overlying formations, or by diapirism. The emplacement of the
allochton must have been a gradual process, keeping pace with the eastward progress
of orogeny. It is envisaged as a series of submarine gravity slides, among partly
unconsolidated sediments, toward the retreating foredeep (MERLA,1951; SIGNORINI,
1956).
The argille scagliose themselves are not properly a flysch formation. Although in
part derived from flyschoid sediments, they have been too thoroughly tectonized and
contaminated. But among the embedded slabs of distinctive formations, there are
several types to interest us.
These allochtonous units are of two kinds: those that have their counterparts in the
autochtonous series, from which they have apparently been detached, and exotic
formations that must have travelled far, since they are quite foreign to the autochton
and can be matched, if at all, only in Liguria.
Among the former are the numerous outcrops of allochtonous macigno and
marnoso-arenacea surrounded by argrlle scagliose. Most of these slabs have
gyrated variously while sliding away, as can be shown by comparison of the apparent
direction of turbidity flow, in each of them, with the very constant orientation northwest-southeast in the autochton (TENHAAF,
1957). Others have been turned upside
down, as on M. Cimone.
Recurrent exotic flysch types are the pietraforte and alberese. The pietraforte, much used as a building stone, is a turbiditic series of fine-grained calcareous
sandstone beds alternating with dark shales, of Upper Cretaceous age. It only occurs
in the Tuscan allochton, and has probably been deposited originally as a Palaeoapennine flysch.
The Eocene alberese, on the contrary, is extremely widespread as great and small
slabs all through the allochton as well as in eastern Liguria. Its white-weathered outcrops consist of well-stratified alternations of marls, turbiditic calcareous sandstones,
and limestone beds - dense marly limestones as well as calcarenitic turbidites.
Some of the Tuscan alberesi seem to be in stratigraphic contact with underlying
pietraforte, while in the Emilian allochton alberese is overlain unconformably by
various, but largely molassic, younger sandstone series. These allochtonous Upper
Oligocene-Miocene formations (blank on our map) have not been crumbled very much
and can be reconstructed (PIERI,1961) into a sequence comparable to the post-orogenic series north of Liguria and the autochton of the Salsomaggiore anticline. According to MERLA(1957) they have been deposited on top of the still-moving allochton.
132
E. TEN HAAF
133
An Oligocene age, more recently re-advocated by BONI(1961b) and MUTTI(1963) would make the
Bobbio sandstones - but not the others - truly an extension of the Tuscan macigno. However, at
present data are not from the Bobbio sandstone itself, but from adjacent formations of uncertain
relevance.
134
E. TEN HAAF
RELATIONSHIPS OF THE VARIOUS FLYSCH FORMATIONS
The envisaged relations are of two kinds: derivation by tectonic displacement, and
derivation by resedimentation. In the northern Apennines both of these processes seem
to have been active on a large scale, thanks to the retarded lithification of the submerged argdlaceous and arenaceous flysch.
Only limestones can consolidate soon after deposition; accordingly we find the
alberesi, stiffened by numerous calcareous beds, uprooted and scattered as completent
slabs. Graviational sliding of the more argillaceous series produced thick comminute
shear zones that increased and multiplied until all stratification was lost in the chaotic
flow of argille scagliose.
Of the unconsolidated sandy flysches disturbed by approaching orogeny, large parts
must have spilled downslope and departed along the successive foredeeps in turbidity
currents, to be re-deposited as Similar, but younger and more mature, formations
elsewhere. A whole cannibalistic series can thus be imagined, strung out en
khelon from northwest to southeast, and from Eocene to Miocene in time: arenaria
superiore and Ligurian macigno -+ macigno, macigno and Emilian sands +
mamoso-arenacea, mamoso-arenacea + Picene flysch. The primordial source of all
this arenaceous material is still unknown, since the oldest sandy flysch (arenaria
superiore) is already re-sedimented. Speculation about its ancestry may range
unchecked from the Gulf of Genoa up to the inner Alps.
Any attempt at unscrambling the northern Apennine flysch must further
reckon with two different directions of transport, both actuated by gravity. The
turbidity currents that re-deposited the sandy formations followed, along the strike,
the axes of successive troughs, but the subsequent tectonic slides (Ligurian nappes,
argille scagliose, exotics, and uprooted autochton) must have moved mainly down the
direction of steepest slope, that is, down the front of the nascent chain -transversely
to the strike (cf. MAXWELL,
1959b).
The relations suggested by all these considerations are represented in the diagram
of Fig.2. Much of it is mere hypothesis, and the responsibility is entirely that of the
present author. Probably, each of the cited geologists, who have recently worked
among the flysch formations of the northern Apennines, would have placed differently
a few of the arrows. Yet most of them would agree that progressive early orogeny has
spilt out, differentially, tKe contents of an ancestral Palaeoapennine-Ligurian flysch
trough, and that the flysches of the northern Apennines were emplaced by individual
participation in either, or both, of the vast gravity-impelled migrations: longitudinal
resedimentation and transversal sliding.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Part of the field work has been made possible by grants from the Netherlands Organization for Pure Scientific Research (Z.W.O.).
135
Fig.2. Probable genetic relationships of northern Apennine flyschh. Legend as in Fig.1, with the
addition of br = b d o l a ; pic = Picene flysch.
by resedimentation
LDerivation
Derivation
by tectonic displacement
REFERENCES
136
E. TEN HAAF
LANTEAUME,
M.,1958. Schema structure1 des Alps marithes franco-italiennes. Bull. SOC. GPol.
France, 6e SPr., 8 : 651-656.
MAXWELL,
J. C., 1959a. Orogeny, gravity tectonics and turbidites in the Monghidoro area. Trans. N.Y.
Acad. Sci., Ser. 2, 21 : 269-280.
MAXWELL,
J. C., 1959b. Turbidite, tectonic and gravity transport, northern Apennine Mountains,
Italy. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists, 43 :2701-2719.
MERLA,G., 1951. Geologia dellAppennino settentrionale. Boll. SOC.Geol. Ital., 70 :95-382.
MERLA,
G., 1957. Essay on the Geology of the Northern Apennines. A.G.I.P. Mineraria, Milano, 30 pp.
MIGLIORINI,
C. I., 1943. Sul mod0 di formdone dei complessi tipo macigno. Boll. SOC.Geol. Ital.,
62 :48-49.
TENHAAF,E., 1958. Les directions dapport dans le flysch arena& des Apennins. Eclogue Geol. He Iv..
51 : 977-980.
TENHAAF,E., 1959. Graded Beds of the Northern Apennines. Thesis, Univ. of Groningen, Groningen.
102 pp.
TENHAAF,E., 1961a. Differenciation tectonique des skdimentsdans lApennin ligure. Boll. SOC.Geol.
Ital., 80 (3) : 87-94.
TENHAAF,E., 1961b. La structure de la fenetre de Bobbio. Boll. SOC.Geol. Ital., 80 (3) : 95-100.
TREVISAN,
L., 1956. Aspetti e problemi del cornplesso delle argille scagliose ofiolitifere nei suoi
affioramenti occidentali uoscana marittima e Liguria). Boll. SOC.Geol. Ital., 75 : 23-40.
SUMMARY
An attempt is made to show the part played by sedimentation from turbidity currents
in the development of the geosyncline east of the river Rhine. Following on from the
Eifel Stage to the deeper Upper Carboniferous, turbidite formations appear again and
again in the deep parts of the basin far from the continent. Each of the various source
areas delivers different material. Sand-, greywacke-, and limestone-turbidites can be
fixed in space and time.
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Es wurde der Versuch gemacht, den Anteil der Sedimentation aus Suspensionsstrbmen
im Laufe der rechtsrheinischen Geosynklinalentwicklung aufzuzeigen. Von der EifelStufe durchgehend bis zum tieferen Ober-Karbon kommt es jeweils in den festlandfernen und tiefen Beckenteilen zur Bildung von Turbiditen. Verschiedene Liefergebiete bringen dabei verschiedenes Material. Sand-, Grauwacken- und Kalkturbidite
lassen sich raumlich und zeitlich klar fixieren.
EINLEITUNG
Es war bisher ein Hauptziel der Turbidit-Forschung, die Einzelmerkmale dieses Sedimentationstypus zu beschreiben und zu deuten. Ein weiterer Schritt war die ubertragung und Auswertung der Merkmale auf grbssere horizontale Erstreckung und weitere
Zeitabschnitte. Es SOU hier in einer kurzen Skizze versucht werden, die neuen Erkenntnisse uber diese Sedimentationsart einmal bei der Betrachtung der Fullung eines
ganzen Geosynklinal-Sektors anzuwenden. Sicher kommt dieser Aufsatz zu fruh,
noch sehr vie1 Gelandearbeit muss geleistet werden, um endgultigeres aussagen zu
konnen. Trotzdem sol1 der Versuch hier gemacht werden, um Anregungen zu geben,
Widerspriiche herauszufordern und um damit die Forschung vielleicht weiter zu
treiben.
138
W. PLESSMANN
Ein Gebiet, das sich fur die Betrachtung der Sedimentation aus turbidity currents
in Raum und Zeit geradezu anbietet, ist das astliche und besonders das nordastliche
Rheinische Schiefergebirge. Auf relativ kleinem Raum haben wir hier einen Geosynklinal-Querschnitt, in dem die verschiedensten Sedimente verschiedensten Alters und
verschiedenster Fazies mehr oder weniger gut aufgeschlossen sind. Versuchen wir nun,
hier in einer schematischen ubersicht den Ablauf der Geosynklinalfullung zu skizzieren.
Devon
Die eigentliche Senkung im Kern des rechtsrheinischen Schiefergebirges (Ebbesattel)
beginnt im Unter-Gedinne. Das Ober-Gedinne mit seinen roten Schiefern und Sandsteinen zeigt hier wie in weiteren Teilen des Gebirges den bedeutendsten festlandnahen
Einfluss. Spuren von Turbiditen aus dem Gedinne sind bisher nicht bekannt, anscheinend blieb wie auch in der folgenden Siegen-Zeit der Trog so flach, dass sich Suspensionsstrome nicht entwickeln konnten.
Das Unter-Ems wurde ebenso wie die Siegenschichten im nardlichen Bereich des
rechtsrheinischen Schiefergebirges uberhaupt nicht ausgebildet. Erst das Ober-Ems
transgrediert nach Norden und bezieht das Gebiet nardlich des heutigen Siegener
Sattels erneut und verstarkt in die Absenkung ein. Turbidite aus dem hachsten UnterDevon sind mir nicht bekannt. Sie waren erst ganz weit im Sudosten, im Nordlandfernsten Bezirk zu erwarten.
Im Mittel-Devon, beginnend mit der Eifel-Stufe, erhalten wir eine verstarkte
Gliederung des betrachteten Sektors. Die Nordkuste ruckt weiter nach Norden und
Nordwesten vor, sodass in den landferneren Geosynklinalbezirken im Sudosten
Bedingungen erreicht werden, um Suspensionsstramen den Abfluss zu errnaglichen.
Wir kennen im Norden, in landnahen Gebieten, machtige Ablagerungen mit reichem
Benthos, unruhiger Sand-Ton Sedimentation (rheinische Fazies), wahrend im Suden,
im landferneren Gebiet, abgesehen von Wurmspuren nur nektonische und planktonische Lebewesen in dunklen Schiefern gefunden werden (herzynische Fazies, Typ
Wissenbacher Schiefer). Unvermittelt schalten sich nun in diese dunklen, unter Stillwasserbedingungen sedimentierten Schiefer glimmerreiche Sandsteine in zahlreichen
Horizonten ein. Schane Beispiele sind die unteren und oberen Raumlander Quarzite
von je etwa 100 m Machtigkeit auf dem Messtischblatt Berleburg, die alle Merkmale
von Turbiditen zeigen. Nach Ubersichtsmessungen kommt die Stramung generell von
Norden, z.T. von Nordosten bzw. von Nordwesten. In einzelnen Banken, die sedimentaren Breccien ahneln, ist zu sehen, dass haufig zerbrochenes rheinisches Benthos
vorliegt, das hier uberhaupt nicht bodenstandig sein konnte und einen raschen und
weiten Transport von Norden her bezeugt. Ganz ahnlich liegen die Verhaltnisse im
Eisenbergquarzit an der Diemel-Talsperre.
Im unteren und mittleren Givet blieben die Faziesbezirke im Grossen und Ganzen
139
gesehen in ahnlicher Lage. Im Nordwesten haben wir machtige, bis zu 3.000 m erreichende sandige und kalkige Sedimente, im Suden finden wir dunkle Schiefer von kaum
100 m Machtigkeit, die sowohl in der Berleburger Umgebung (Schiittung generell von
Nord) als auch im Diemelgebiet durch glimmerreiche Sandsteine mit allen Merkmalen
von Turbiditen aufgegliedert werden.
Im hoheren Givet riickt die Grenze herzynische und rheinische Fazies noch weiter
nach Nordosten vor. Machtige Riffkalke (bis zu 800 m machtig) deuten darauf hin,
dass in isolierten einzelnen Bezirken die verstarkte Senkung durch das Korallenwachstum lange Zeit kompensiert wurde. In den zwischen den Riffkorpern liegenden
tieferen Beckenteilen kamen feinkornige Tone zum Absatz (Typ Nuttlarer Dachschiefer), denen ein Benthos praktisch fehlt. Diese Tone werden nun mit scharfen
Grenzen aufgegliedert durch bis zu 1 m Machtigkeit erreichende Kalkbanke, die eine
deutliche Gradierung zeigen. An der Basis schon makroskopisch sichtbar, enthalten
diese Kalkbanke in Massen meistens zerbrochene Korallen, Stromatoporen, Brachiopoden usw. Wir haben hier deutliche Kalkturbidite vor uns, die seit der aufschlussreichen Arbeit von MEISCHNER
(1962) als besonders gute Stiitzen fur die Richtigkeit
der turbidity current-Theorie gelten miissen. Ursprungsorte des Materials werden
die Riffrander gewesen sein, von denen episodisch Riffschutt in die tieferen Beckenteile glitt.
Im Ober-Devon konnen wir aus der Faziesverteilung ersehen, dass der Nordrand
der Geosynkline sich noch weiter nach Nordwesten verlagerte und gleichzeitig die
schon im Givet begonnene Spezialgliederung der landfernen, tieferen Trogteile sich
weiter verstarkte. Schwellen- und Beckenbezirke sind klar erkennbar.
In der Adorf-Stufe setzt sich in einzelnen Bezirken die Kalk-Turbiditbildung wie im
oberen Givet weiter fort. Seit der Nehdenstufe gleiten generell gesehen von Norden
glimmerreiche Feinsande rnit Suspensionsstromen in die StillwasserbezirKe. Die
Schwellen mit Cephalopodenkalk-Sedimenten werden von den Strbmen urnflossen.
Ganz im Siiden scheint ein Festland, die Mitteldeutsche Schwelle, steil aufzusteigen
und Grauwacken, vielleicht zum Teil mit Suspensionsstromen nach Norden ins
Becken zu liefern.
Karbon
Mit Beginn des Karbons waren zumindest die nordostlichen Geosynklinalteile weit
vom Landeinfluss abgeschirmt. Es schieden sich sehr eintonige und uber weite Bezirke
nachweisbare Alaun- und Kieselschiefer ab. Turbidite aus diesen Serien sind mir im
Nordosten nicht bekannt, lediglich einige sedimentare Breccienlagen in den Kieselschiefern (z.B., auf Blatt Laasphe) mit zerbrochenen Faunenresten mogen auf die
Existenz von turbidity currents hinweisen. Ganz im Suden geht vom weiter aufsteigenden Festland die im Ober-Devon begonnene Lieferung mit Grauwacken weiter.
Erst im hoheren Unter-Karbon finden wir wieder Turbidite in verschiedendsten
Bezirken und in zahlreichen Fallen. Von Siiden und Sudosten kommen Grauwacken
ins Becken. iiber diese Grauwacken nach Nordwesten hinaus reichend auch von
140
W. PLESSMANN
Meischner beschriebene Kalkturbidite. Im Nordwesten scheinen die Kulm-Plattenkalke ebenfalls zum Teil Absatze aus Suspensionsstromen, diesmal von Nordwesten
bzw. Norden her zu sein.
Im Ober-Karbon verlagerte sich das siidliche Festland (bzw. dis siidliche Insel), von
wo seit der Nehden-Zeit Grauwacken nach Norden geschuttet wurden, weiter nach
Nordwesten. Wie WACHENDORF
(1962) zeigte, wurde das Becken des Flozleeren von
Siiden her mit Grauwacken-Suspensionsstromenaufgefiillt. Im hbheren Namur verflachte sich das verbliebene nordliche Restbecken und nahm bei weiter andauernder
Senkung die rund 3.000 m machtigen flbzfiihrenden Schichten auf.
Dieser kurze Riickblick zeigt, dass wir im Laufe der Entwicklung der Geosynkline
Schichtfolgen mit Turbiditen immer an denjenigen Stellen finden, wo wir aus faziellen
Griinden (Fazies = Summe der primaren petrographischen und palaontologischen
Merkmale einer Ablagerung) festlandferne und tiefere Beckenteile annehmen mussen.
Das sind die Gebiete mit herzynischer Fazies. Die Turbidit-Bildung geschieht im
allgemeinen unabhangig von orogenetischen Bewegungen.
Liefergebiete
Als Liefergebiete kommen von der Eifel- uber die Givet-Stufe bis zum hohen OberDevon zunachst das Nordland in Frage, genauer der nordische Scheltbereich, denn
alle diese Schichtserien bestehen aus glimmer- und kalkreichen Sandsteinen, die sicher
im Flachseebezirk schon vorher aufbereitet waren. Die langsam sich generell nach
Nordwesten verschiebende Grenze rheinische-herzynische Fazies (mit einem Ubergangsgebiet) bedeutet gleichzeitig eine fortschreitende Eintiefung. Denkbar ist als
Auslosungsort von Suspensionsstromen dann der sich eintiefende Schelf.
Im Gegensatz dazu bestehen die aus dem Siiden bzw. Sudosten gelieferten Sedimente
des Ober-Devons, Unter- und Ober-Karbons vorwiegend aus Grauwacken, die auf
eine rasche zeitliche Folge von fortschreitender Hebung, Abtragung, Transport und
Ablagerung hindeuten. Damit sol1 nicht gesagt sein, dass alle Grauwacken auch
Turbidite sind.
Sonderfalle von Turbiditen sind die Kalkturbidite, die einmal von Riffrandern
(oberes Givet und Adorf), dann von sudlichen und nordlichen kalkigen FlachwasserSedimentationsbezirken (Unter-Karbon) ins tiefere Becken gelangten. Alle diese
Typen sind flachenhaft verbreitet ; Ausnahme ist die Packelmannsche Querzone
(siehe SCHMIDT,1962, Abb.4).
Neben diesen drei angefuhrten Typen gibt es vielleicht einen vierten, aber von sehr
untergeordneter Bedeutung, namlich Tuff-Turbidite. Zum Beispiel liegen am Diemelstausee in der Eifel-Schichtenfolge bis 1 m machtige, gut gradierte Keratophyrtuffe,
die an der Basis zahlreiche, meist zerbrochene Fossilien mit rheinischem Charakter
fuhren, die in den ubrigen Sedimenten fehlen.
141
SCHLUSSBETRACHTUNG
Wie bereits erwahnt, ist diese Skizze nur ein erster Versuch, die Bedeutung der Turbidite bei einer Geosynklinalfullung aufzuzeigen. Angeharige des Gottinger Geologisch-PalaontologischenInstitutes arbeiten seit einiger Zeit an diesem Objekt. Weitere
Untersuchungen werden in Kiirze in Angriff genommen.
LITERATUR
KULICK,J., 1960. Zur Stratigraphie und Palaogeographie der Kulm-Sedimente im Eder-Gebiet des
nordostlichen Rheinischen Schiefergebirges. Fortschr. Geol. Rheidand Westfolen,3 (1) : 243-288.
MEISCHNER,
K.-D., 1962. Rhenaer Kalk und Posidonienkalk im Kulm des nordostlichen Rheinischen
Schiefergebirgesund der Kohlenkalk von SchreufaIEder. Abhandl. Hess. Lundesamtes Bodenforsch.
39 :47 s.
PLESSMANN,
W., 1961. Stromungsmarken in klastischen Sedimenten und ihre geologischeAuswertung.
Geol. Jahrb., 78 : 503-566.
PLESSMANN,
W., 1962. uber Stromungsmarken in Ober-Devon-Sandsteinen des Sauerlandes. Geol.
Jahrb., 79 : 387-398.
RABIEN,A., 1956. Zur Stratigraphie und Fazies des Ober-Devons in der Waldecker Hauptmulde.
Abhandl. Hess. Landesamtes Bodenforsch., 16 : 83 S.
RABIEN,A., 1959. Stratigraphische und fazielle Probleme im Palaozoikum der nordwestlichen Dillmulde. Z. Deut. Geol. Ges., 110 : 629-633.
SCHMIDT,H., 1962. Uber die Faziesbereiche im Devon Deutschlands. In: H. K. ERBEN
(Redakteur),
Symposium Silur-Devon Grenze, 1960. Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, S. 224-230.
SEILACHER,
A., 1958. Zur okologischen Charakteristik von Flysch und Molasse. Eclogae Geol. Helv.,
51 : 1062-1078.
WACHENDORF,
H., 1962. Wesen und Herkunft der Sedimente des westfalischenFlozleeren. Thesis, Univ.
Gottingen, Gottingen, 61 S.
SUMMARY
A sand-silt layer in acore from a depth of 1,198 m in the southeastern Adriatic Sea,
is interpreted as having been deposited by a turbidity current on account of the following properties: ( I ) a sharp base, (2) muddiness of the sand in parts, (3) grading of
grain sizes, (4) the characteristic sequence of parallel laminations in the lower part,
then ripple laminations, then convolutions, and finally, fine parallel laminations in
the top part, and (5) the presence of numerous tests of shallow water forminifera.
The cores from this region generally show sand and silt layers, intercalated in the fine
pelagic muds. The topography of the area below a depth of about 1,200 m is
typically that of an abyssal plain.
INTRODUCTION
The Adriatic Sea is, on the whole, rather shallow; depths exceeding 1,OOO m exist only
Fig.1. Southeastern Adriatic Sea,with location of the sections given in Fig.2 and 3, and of station 293.
L. M. J. U. VAN STRAATEN
143
in the southeastern part (Fig. 1). During a sedimentological expedition in the summer
of 1962 it was found that the sea floor in most of this southeastern part has a marked
relief. However, beyond a depth of 1,200 m, the bottom is quite flat and slopes gradually to the deepest places, which are approximately 1,216 m below sea level'. The
latter lie east of the centre of the flat area, which itself lies east of the axis of the Adriatic
Sea.
Subsurface reflections of the precision depth recorder used during this part of the
expedition showed that everywhere in the flat area the bottom sediments are well
stratified, at least down to some 12 m below the surface2. This stratification has a
striking lateral continuity, separate layers being traceable over distances of several
dozens of kilometres (see Fig.2, 3). On the edges of the flat area, the stratified series is
seen to thin out suddenly in some places. Yet, southwest of station 350-A, a series of
about the same thickness was found which may have been deposited synchronously
with the series in the flat area.
Cores taken from the sediments in this general region all contain one or more
layers of sand and silt, intercalated between fine pelagic mud. In long cores, several
such layers were encountered, e.g., in the 330 cm core of station 293 (depth 1,198 m,
position N 41"45,3' E 18"9,0', X on Fig.1) at 46, 58, 160, 199, 239 a'nd 289 cm from
the top3. These layers are mostly from one to a few centimetres thick. At station 353
(depth 1207m, position N 42"07,2' E 17'38,O') a much thicker layer of some 12 cm was
found at a depth of 461 cm (in the core), and the layer at 289 cm in the core from station
293 has a thickness of 17cm. Probably the reflections registered by the precision depth
recorder took place on relatively coarse-grained layers of such thicknesses of 10 cm or
more.
It seems likely that these sands at stations 353 and 293 belong to the same layer;
their differences in depth below the surface could then be due to the thinning out of
the series over the edge of the flat area. In this connection it may be remarked that the
depths, as measured in the cores, may be somewhat smaller than the real depths of the
layers below the sea floor, owing to shortcomings of the coring method.
While many of the thinner sand and silt layers have lost their original depositional
structures, evidently as a result of burrowing by benthonic animals, the thicker ones
usually show laminations and grading of the grain sizes. Cross-sections of the thick
layer in the core from station 293 are given in Fig.4. The sections have the same
No indications whatever were found of the presence of low transverse ridges and troughs, as given
on the Carta Batimetrica del Mediterraneo Centrale, Mare Adriatico, 1 : 750,000, published by the
Istituto Idrografico della Marina, Genoa, 1960.
In Fig.2 and 3 the depths of the layers below the surface have been presented as they would be if
there were no difference in velocity of the ultrasound waves in the sediment and in the water.
* These figures refer to the base of each layer.
144
Fs.1.
Fig.3. -ion
Fig.1.
L. M. J. U. VAN STRAATEN
145
Fig.4. Turbidite layer (almost natural size) from 289-272 cm below surface in core from station 293
(Xon Fig.1).
146
orientation and are about 1% cm apart. They display features which together are
typical of turbidites, viz. (a) a sharp base, (6) muddiness of part of the sand, especially
in the lower laminae, (c) a rough grading of grain sizes, and ( d ) the characteristic
sequence of parallel laminations in the lower part, then ripple laminations, then convolutions and finally, fine parallel laminations in the top part. After the photographs
were taken further drying out of the sediment rendered the latter laminations still
much more distinct. In the 55 cm thick top part, more than 90 sets of a darker and a
lighter lamina were counted, some of them having a thickness of only 200 p. As far as
the author is aware, no such complete analogy in structures to ancient turbidites described by Kuenen and others (including well-developed convolutions) has hitherto
been recorded from deep-sea sands from the recent sea floor.
The bulk of the sand consists of quartz grains and grains of calcium carbonate, in
approximately equal proportions. Glauconite grains are common. Furthermor,
the sand contains numerous tests of shallow water Foraminifera including Asteriginata
mamilla (WILLIAMSON),
Gibicides lobatulus (WALKERand JACOB), Elphidium advena
(CUSHMAN),
Elphidium granosum (DORBIGNY),
Rosalina globularis (DORB~GNY),
Spiroplectammina wrightii (SILVESTRI),
Streblus beccarii (LINNB), cf. CHIERICI
et al.
(1962), and also spines of echinoids.
The coarsest grains, up to some 160 p, are found in the muddy sand laminae (dark
coloured on the photographs). Most of the grain sizes in these dark laminae lie between 80 and 120 p; the light coloured laminae are better sorted, and practically free of
clayey material. In the lower part their texture is, on the whole, a little finer than that
of the muddy sand laminae. In the middle part, with the convolutions, they have grain
sizes mainly from 40-80 p; above the zone with convolutions, many very thin laminae
are also practically free of lutite admixtures, and consist mostly of grains of 10-40 p.
The layer described above was most probably formed during the Pleistocene period
as is indicated by the presence of large numbers of tests of Globigerina pachydermu
(EHRENBERG)
and Globorotalia scitula (BRADY),while remains of Orbulina universa
(DORBIGNY)
are lacking. These features point to deposition under cooler climatic
conditions than those of the present day (PARKER,
1958).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
L. M. J. U. VAN STRAATEN
147
REFERENCES
CHIERICI,
M. A., Busr, M. T. et @A, M. B., 1962. Contribution B unebtude kcologique des Foramhif&resdans la mer Adriatique. Rev. Micropaliontol., 5 : 123-142.
PARKER,
F. L., 1958. Eastern Mediterranean Foraminifera. In: H. P E ~ R S O(Editor),
N
Rept. Swed.
Deep-sea Expedition. 8. Sediment Coresfrom the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, 4 : 217-283.
SUMMARY
The morphology of the western Mediterranean is the same as that of the Atlantic, as
described by HEEZEN
and EWING(1957), at the borders of the basin: continental shelf
and continental slope, sculptured with submarine canyons, continental rise, totally
flat abyssal plain.
Until now, it was thought that except for the littoral sands and those at the end of
the continental shelf, the totality of this sea was occupied by muds. Drilling-operations
in the continental rise have disclosed coarse- and fine-grained sands, silts and cobbles
(- 2,400 m), which can only be provided by coastal currents.
At the continental rise, on the abyssal plain, we have gathered stratified cores,
consisting of sands and muds with bands coloured by manganese, and some horizonts
that are formed only by planktonic pteropods and foraminifers.
The study of the western Mediterranean will surely permit us to resolve the problem
of turbidity currents in the future, thanks to the relief in submarine canyons and to
the new apparatuses of Captain Cousteau: diving saucer and Trolka.
RBSUMB
La morphologie de la Miditerran&. occidentale est identique a celle de lAtlantique,
dkrite par HEEZEN
et EWING(1959), sur les bords de la cuvette: plateau continental
et pente continentale sculptks par des gorges sous-marines, glacis pri-continental
(continental rise), plaine abyssale tout a fait plate.
Jusqua prbent, en dehors des sables littoraux et de ceux de la fin du Plateau continental (sables du large), on pensait que la totaliti de cette mer itait occupie par des
vases. Des carottages faits dans le glacis y ont dicouvert des sables, sablons, silts et
galets (- 2.400 m), qui ne peuvent provenir initialement que des fleuves c6tiers.
Au large du glacis, nous avons rCcoltC, en plaine abyssale, des carottes stratifikes
faites de sables et de vases avec des bandes colorks par le manganhse et quelques
niveaux uniquement faits de ptiropodes et de foraminifhres planktoniques.
MBDITERRANNBE
OCCIDENTALE
149
INTRODUCTION
Dans les derniers cent ans, deux probltmes encore irr6solus intkressent a la fois la
morphologie et la ddimentation sous-marine: celui des canyons sous-marins et celui
des sables profonds. Lun et lautre ont CtC traitb dans les oceans profondset dans des
zones assez eloignees, ne permettant pas une Ctude approfondie et, de ce fait, ont CtC
lobjet de controverses surtout thtoriques.
AussitBt libCrC de mes obligations militaires, jai entrepris lktude des premiers
canyons dkouverts en MBditerranCe, prts de la frontitre espagnole, par mon Maitre
Georges Pruvot, Directeur du Laboratoire de Banyuls sur Mer (PRUVOT,
1894). Grace
a la proximitk du canyon, aux moyens nautiques mis a ma disposition par le Directeur
actuel du Laboratoire: Georges Petit, puis surtout a la possibilite de travailler avec de
petites unites de la Marine Nationale: dragueurs de mines ou chasseurs et surtout ceux
fournis par le Cdt. Cousteau: batiment de recherches scientifiques Calypso et
soucoupe plongeante, jai pu reprendre et jesptre poursuivre ce travail.
Dans la suite, jai pu entreprendre une Ctude compltte du nord de la MCditerranCe
occidentale (BOURCART,
1955; BOURCARTet al;, 1961; BOURCARTet ROS-V~CENT,
1962). Cette Ctude a CtC effectuke grace a la Calypso, il en est rCsultC une carte au
1/1.000.000t de cette mer.
150
J. BOURCART
contre IA-pic du Cap Ferrat oh sa direction est celle de cette falaise sous-marine soit
nord-nordouest-sud-sudest et devient ensuite parallele au fond de la pente continentale a peu p r b ouest-est. Cette bande sableuse a a peu prts 3 milles de large et est
doucement inclinte vers le sud, diviske, suivant la pente, en bandes 6troites ressemblant a des dunes dont le versant raide est tournt vers le large. En utilisant le sondeur
P.D.R. de la Calypso, le Cdt. Cousteau a reconnu la m&medisposition qui semble
donc exister des deux c8tes du Golfe de Gsnes.
REPARTITION DES SEDIMENTS
TERRIGBNES
Les carottes obtenues ont atteint une moyenne de 2 m. Elles descendent a peu pres a
la base du dtp6t, ce que dkmontrent des lits plus grossiers comme grains avec m&medes
granules et des graviers. Lensemble est stratifie et coup6 de vases surtout quartzeuses,
contenant des lits de matieres organiques: surtout feuilles de Phragmites et oogones de
Chara avec des fragments ddrundo Donax a la partie inftrieure. Les bandes de vase
se terminent vers le haut de deux facons difftrentes:
( 1 ) par augmentation progressive du calibre des Bltments et passage aux sablons
(silt); les grains de ceux-ci passent ensuite aux sables qui redeviennent des sablons dans
la partie suptrieure de la stquence;
(2) la bande de vase est brutalement interrompue par une coulte de sable avec
parfois de petits galets a la base; sa surface est strite et souvent de petits galets de vase
existent a la base de la s6rie sableuse. I1 semble que cette disposition soit due a un
courant torrentiel de sable ou A une chute en cascade analogue A celle photographik
par SHEPARD
(1960, Fig.9).
Ce type de courant, fait de sable et deau, a 6t6 observ6 lors du percement du tunnel
de Meudon sur la ligne de chemin de fer de Paris (Invalides) a Versailles et a causi
d6normes difficult&; ou lors du percement de sables boulants dans les chantiers et
aussi dans les galeries creusies dans les Alpes a travers les quarzites triasiques. Sans
que Ion ait ce propos employ6 le mot de courants turbides, il est certain que les
sables fins plus ou moins aquiftres coulent comme un liquide. La composition de ces
sables, presque pas calcaires et presque sans foraminiftres, est la m&meque celle des
roches des galets du cordon de la Promenade des Anglais a Nice, qui proviennent tous
du Var, notamment de psammites rouges du Permien qui, trts reconnaissable au
microscope binoculaire, peuvent servir dindicateurs. I1 en est de m&mede ceux de la
Roya, en face de Vintimille. La bande de sables dtbute ti -1.900 m. Elle parait
continuer la direction dune bande caillouteuse qui, daprts la carte lev& par GENNESSEAUX (1962), poursuit le cours du Paillon a partir du cours commun avec le Var.
Rappellons que la Baie des Anges nest pas une portion du plateau continental, mais
que, du Cap dAntibes au Cap de Nice, cest un cane en creux tail16 dans des marnes
pliocenes qui sur le continent remontent jusqua la chaine des Baous (Gattitres, 224 m;
Carros, 376 m) et sur la rive gauche du Var: La Roquette, 360 m; Aspremont, 400 m et
dans la vallte du Paillon: la Trinitt Victor, 175 m.
151
Dans cette baie, les diffkrents fleuves c8tiers: Brague, Loup, Cagne, Var, Magnan,
Paillon, se sont creusks des cours sous-marins qui sont remplis de sablons, sables et
graviers, ou de sables et galets qui aboutissent tous B la cuvette de -1.800 m et, finalement, sont continues par la trainke de sables stratifiks dont nous venons de parler. Le
reste de la baie est occupk par de la vase c6titre et de la vase bleue, dure, avec foraminiftres plioctnes en gknkral en saillie entre deux coulkes de galets avec un peu de
sable.
152
J. BOURCART
Les missions effectukes avec la soucoupe plongeante de Cousteau dans les canyons au
voisinage de Port Vendres, ainsi dailleurs que les forages de la Socittt des PBtroles
MMiterrankns en Camargue, ont montrB que les canyons du Golfe du Lion ont BtB
creuds A la fin du Miodne par des fleuves et envahis par la mer au dCbut du Plioctne.
La gorge actuelle est, comme lont montrB nos carottages, incomplttement remplie
dun mBlange pdteux: vase, coquilles de la faune atlantique, cailloutis fluvial pyrenkns,
qui la moule en affectant une forme semi-cylindrique, remplissage dont une prochaine
mission dkterminera lktendu.
En rBsumB il existe trois proc6dBs de remplissage des canyons: sables stratifib, vase,
cailloutis, apr&smelange avec du bBton de vase.
Lhypothbe ayant BtB Bmise, notamment par 1Ccole de Lamont, que les plaines
abyssales doivent leur horizontalit6 B des sables ou limons apportCs par les canyons
sous-marins, une carotte no.124 a BtC prBlevCe A la sortie de la rivikre de Nice, juste
avant sa jonction avec la Rivikre de Genes (Fig. 1). Elle a ramenCe (a partir de -2.500
m) une sBrie trts Bpaisse, finement stratifik, de sables fins, de sablons et de vase grise.
La composition minkralogique est la mbme que celle du Var et de la Vallk de Nice
soit: quartz, micas, feldspaths, psammites du Permien du Mercantour.
I1 ne sagit plus dkoulement turbulent, mais de stratification plus ou moins rCgulitre, sans Brosion a la base et sans galets, au moins sur les buttes rocheuses qui
apparaissent parfois au milieu des sables.
En 1960, la zone centrale de la plaine abyssale du Golfe de G h e s a BtB Btudik A
louest de la Corse et au nord de la Sardaigne. Du point de vue de son remplissage rien
nCtait connu et elle Btait considBrk comme entitrement faite de vase grise. Toutes ces
carottes sont analogues A la carotte no. 124, cest B dire composkes dalternances de
sables fins quartzeux et de sablons micads avec des intercalations de vases, sans turbulence ou Brosion.
La fraction > 40 p est infkrieure B 5 %. Des strates uniquement faites de globigCrines, orbulines et ptkropodes, interrompent la succession; certains lits sont entitrement
composds de ces organismes. D a p r b une suggestion de TrBgouboff (communication
orale), il pourrait sagir dune thanatocoenose succt3dant a une mort subite du
plankton B la suite, soit dune variation hydrologique, soit dune Bpizootie (p6ridinien?). Cette observation a BtB faite au large de Villefranche.
Fig.1 (p.153). Profil en long de la vallk sous-marine de Nice et de ses affluents.
Longitudinal profile of the submarine valley of Nice and its affluents.Vase jaune = yellow mud. Vase
= gray mud. Zone oxydke = oxydated zone. Sable fin = fine-grained sand. Sablon = very finegrained sand. Sable grossier = coarse-grainedsand.Galets de vase = mud-cobbles. Galets = cobbles.
grise
153
154
J. BOURCART
En 1962, une croisibre de huit jours a ktk faite en direction de Minorque. Quatre
longues carottes et trois carottes Alinat de gros diambtre ont ktk prklevkes sur lalignement Minorque - axe du Golfe de GCnes (Fig.2). Toutes ces carottes sont en vase
jaune oxydke et vase grise, parfois noire, avec des niveaux rouges et bandes de sables
fins ou de sablons et meme la carotte no.16 prts de lemplacement du carottage 0.18 de
PETTERSSON
(1961), contient 0,52 m de sable a sa base, sans vase. Ces sables sont
toujours quartzeux avec feldspaths, zircons, micas, un peu de calcaire crayeux (23 %
de la fraction > 40 p) et quelques grains de rikbeckite.
Fig.2. Carte de la Mtditerrank occidentale avec localisation des carottages. = Carottages mission
H. Pettersson (1947-1948). 0 = Carottages sdrie Golfe du Lion (1960), en cours detude. = Carottages drieRivi6re de Nice (1958-1961), en cours de publication. 0 = Carottages drie plaine abyssale
(1961), en cows detude. A = Carottages sbie plaine abyssale (1962), en cows dCtude.
A un niveau comparable, des bandes de vases, colorkes par le manganbse, se trouvent dans les carottes, ainsi que des niveaux de ptkropodes analogues a ceux de la
rivibre de Nice. La vase par endroits est en bandes de teintes diffdrentes, variant entre
le brun et parfois m&mele gris vert clair.
Lorigine des premibres coulees du mtlange vase-galets dans la Baie des Anges est a
chercher dans la microfalaise limite de la terrasse ou plateforme limite du littoral, qui
est entaillke soit en forme de rebord, soit faconnk en cordons par les vagues.
Les photographies, presque continues, obtenues avec la Trolka, en remontant le
Paillon, montrent plusieurs microfalaises successives limitant 16boulement,le chenal
ttant caractdrisk, ce qui est absolument remarquable, par des ripples longitudinaux.
Ces diffkrents traits morphologiques doivent permettre dans la suite une kvaluation
155
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BOURCART,
J., 1955. Les sables profonds de la Mtditerrantk. Arch. Sci. (Geneva), 8 (1) : 5-13.
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J., 1960. Sur la repartition des ddiments observb en Mbditerrantk occidentale. Intern.
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J. et ROS-VICENT,
J., 1962. Sur le remplissage ddimentaire de la partie centrale de la
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J., GENNESSEAUX,
M. et KLIMEK,
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M., 1962a. Une cause probable des Coulements turbides profonds dam le canyon
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M., 1962b. Les canyons de la Baie des Anges, leur remplissage ddimentaire et leur
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M. et LECALVEZ,
Y., 1960. Meurements sous-marinsde vases pliocknes dans la Baie
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N ,(Editor), 1961. Rept. Swed. Deep-sea Expedition, 1947-1948,8 (4) :335-391.
PRWOT,G., 1899. Essai sur la topographie et la constitution des fonds sous-marinsde la region de
Banyuls, de la plaine du Roussillon au Golfe de Rosas. Arch. Zool. Exptl. Gen., 3 (2) :599-672.
SHEPARD,
F. P., 1960. Deep sea sands. Intern. Geol. Congr., 21st, Copenhagen, 1960, Rept. Session.
Norden, 23 : 26-42.
MEISCHNER
SUMMARY
ALLODAPISCHE KALKE
157
ing and sliding, from autochthoneous limestone/clay series of pelagic Schwel1enfacies, and from calcitic arenites of shallow water.
Allodapic limestones are very useful tools for environmental and paleogeographical
reconstruction of sedimentary basins. But they were so far neglected and often
misinterpreted.
Examples of allodapic limestones are described from the Devonian and Carboniferous of the rhenish geosyncline,the Malm of the Swabian Alb, and the west hellenic
flysch trough of Greece. Several examples previously published are mentioned.
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
158
K.-D.
MEISCHNER
Model1 gegeben, anhand dessen sich die einzelnen sedimentologischen Strukturen auf
bestimmte Vorgange beim Transport und der Ablagerung des Detritus zuruckfiihren
lassen.
Allodapische Kalke mussen abgegrenzt werden gegen Gesteine, die durch Sedimentgleitung (slumping and sliding) gebildet wurden, autochthone Kalk-Ton-Wechsellagerung z.B. der pelagischen Schwellenfazies und Kalksande des Flachwassers.
Allodapische Kalke sind wertvolle Hilfsmittel fur palaogeographische Rekonstruktionen und die Analyse fossiler Sedimentations-Becken. Sie werden aber bisher meist
ubersehen oder falsch gedeutet.
Beispiele fur allodapische Kalke werden beschrieben aus Devon und Karbon der
rheinischen Geosynkline, dem Malm der Schwabischen Alb und dem westhellenischen
Flyschtrog Griechenlands. Einige Beispiele aus der Literatur werden angefuhrt.
EINLEITUNG
159
ALLODAPISCHE KALKE
DIE SEDIMENTOLOGISCHENMERKMALE ALLODAPISCHER KALKE
Gesteins- Verband
plant remains
convolute bedding
current ripple lamination
diagenetic fault adjacent to hornstone lens
lutite spots
hornstone
lutite balls
silicified parts
im br icat ion
4
_-
MAIN PHASE
PRE -PHASE
160
K.-D. MEISCHNER
Machtigkeit der Kalke, ihre Korngrosse und die durchschnit tliche Bank-Machtigkeit, von einem Zentrum ausgehend, gleichsinnig ab.
Die einzelne Bank
Der Aufbau der Einzel-Bank ist statistisch abhangig von ihrer Machtigkeit. Die
einzelnen Struktur-Zonen sind am vollstandigsten in dicken Banken vertreten, dunne
Banke sind meist unvollstandig. Die beste Ausbildung zeigen etwa 1 m machtige
Banke. Der Aufbau einer idealen allodapischen Kalkbank ist etwa folgender (vgl.
Fig. 1).
ALLODAPISCHE KALKE
161
(3) Die hangendsten Teile der Bank sind oft sehr feinschichtige Mergel, die durch
diagenetische Entmischung flaserig und schuppig werden konnen.
Die Bank geht so ganz allmahlich in das pelitische Zwischenmittel uber. Der Ubergang kann rasch vorgehen, ist aber immer fliessend.
162
K.-D. MElSCHNER
ihrer Einbettung noch weich gewesen sind und dann bei der Setzung des Sediments
zerquetscht wurden. Besitzen solche Gerolle ein internes Gefiige, so ist es mit deformiert.
Convolution. Die feinkornigen, feinschichtigen Bank-Teile neigen bei einer bestimmten Korngrosse dazu, sich zu Wulst-Strukturen, im Querschnitt girlandenformigen
Bogen und schliesslich liegenden Falten-Strukturen zu deformieren. Das sind die
gleichen Strukturen, die in sandigen Sedimenten convolute lamination genannt
werden. Sie entstehen durch diagenetische Verformung des noch weichen Sediments,
vielleicht verbunden mit einem thixotropie-artigen Zusammenbruch des Gefiiges.
Convolution, Winkelschichtung und Setzungs-Figuren um Hornstein-Linsen konnen leicht miteinander venvechselt werden. Es ist also immer eine genaue Analyse
notig.
Verkieselungen. Fast alle allodapischen Kalke sind etwas verkieselt. Im allgemeinen
sind einzelne Kbrner oder Teile der Grundmasse durch Quarz oder Chalcedon
crsetzt. Aus vielen Banken konnen daher Mikro-Fossilien durch k z e n mit Sauren
gewonnen werden.
Regelrechte Hornsteine sind in Form flacher Linsen oder Bander an bestimmte
Korngrossen gebunden. Sie liegen parallel zur Schichtung in den Bank-Teilen, welche
die beste Sortierung aufweisen. In dicken, grobkornigen Banken ist das im oberen
Teil der Fall, in diinneren feineren kann es nahe oder ganz an der Basis sein. Solche
Hornstein-Linsen fehlen in keinem Profil.
Die Verkieselungen sind friihdiagenetisch, denn sie haben die Setzung des Sediments
nicht mehr mitgemacht. Die dadurch bedingten Machtigkeits-Schwankungen auf
engem Raum fuhren oft zur Deformation der Feinschichtung. Neben flachen Hornstein-Linsen treten in den schichtungslos gradierten Bank-Teilen (Zone Zb) annahernd
kugelformige Zonen starkerer Einkieselung auf. Sie sind aber vie1 seltener.
Sekundares Korn- Wachstum, Neubildungen. Nach der Ablagerung der Banke traten
noch umfangreiche Stoff-Verlagerungen ein. So sind Quarzkorner oft calcitisiert
worden, Calcit wurde verkieselt. Aber Calcit- und Quarzkorner sind auch weitergewachsen. Die Calcite durchdringen dann einander und bilden luckenlos verzahnte
Fig.2.A. Profil durch die Ideal-Bank in Stromungsrichtung. Die maximale Machtigkeit der verschiedenen Korngrossen-Klassen verschiebt sich mit abnehmender mittlerer Korngrosse beckenwarts
(oblique Gradation). Gesamtechtigkeit der Bank ca. 1 m, L h g e 15-20 km.
B. Profile in allodapischen Kalken, nach ihren sedimentologischen Merkmalen in das SchiittungsSchema (Fig.2A) eingeordnet. Masstab 1 : 100.
C. Beispiele fiir allodapische Kalke. Die Profile sind nach dem Schema (Fig.2A) geordnet. Die
schraffierten Bereiche sind nicht bekannt. Nicht eingeklammerte Ortsnamen bezeichnen die Profile,
die in Fig.2B dargestellt sind, die eingeklammerten sind nur im Text erwahnt.
A. Section through an ideal bed in current direction. Note downstream sequence of maximum
thicknesses for different fractions. Whole thickness reaches more than 1 m, length up to 15-20 km.
B. Comparison of the general character of beds in actual profiles with the model bed (Fig.2A).
C. Examples of allodapic limestone sequences in relation to the ideal profile. Hatched parts not
known. Those not in parentheses are represented among the profiles of Fig.ZB, others in text only.
ALLODAPISCHE KALKE
163
164
K.-D. MEISCHNER
Strukturen. Weitergewachsene Quarze werden oft idiomorph. Sie konnen zonar verunreinigt sein oder einen kataklastischen Kern haben. In einigen Kalken sind auch
Neubildungen von Pyrit in Form hochidiomorpher Wurfel und Pentagondodekaeder
und von idiomorphem Baryt haufig.
Stromungs- Marken
KUENEN
und TENHAAF
(1956) beschreiben Kalke mit deutlichen Stromungs-Wulsten
(flute casts), GWINNER
(1961) bildet groove casts aus dem Malm
von Zainingen ab. In den mir bekannten Vorkommen sind solche Wulste selten. Einige Banke im
ALLODAPISCHE KALKE
165
Rhenaer Kalk zeigen deutliche flute casts. Etwas haufiger sind Schleifmarken
(drag marks) und Stossmarken (impact casts).
Stromungs-Marken sind in allodapischen Kalken sehr vie1 seltener als in FlyschSedimenten gleicher Struktur. Sie kommen iiberhaupt nur unter Banken nicht zu
feiner Korngrosse vor. Fur eine Rekonstruktion der allgemeinen Schiittungsrichtung
reichen sie nicht aus.
166
K.-D.
MEISCHNER
Size of particles, mm
Fig.3. Beziehungen zwischen Stromungs-Geschwindigkeit,Transport und Ablagerung von Sedimenten einheitlicherKorngrosse in einem FIuss.
Diagram showing relationship between current velocity, erosion, transportation, and deposition of
uniform sediments in a river (after Hjulstrom in KUENEN,
1950, p.259).
Alles deutet auf ein Medium mit starker, flachenhaft gleichartiger Stromung mit
eigenartigen, statistisch verteilten Inhomogenitaten (Wirbel).
(d) Die Sedimentation folgt in jedem Fall der Erosion unmittelbar nach.
Die Erosionsformen sind stets an die Unterseiten detritischer Kalkbanke gebunden;
sie kommen nicht isoliert im Pelit vor (ungestorte Feinschichtung). Niemals schiebt
sich zwischen die Phasen der Erosion und der Sedimentation ein anderes Ereignis
ein. Es besteht eine (allerdings nur grobe) statistische Beziehung zwischen der Starke
der Erosion und der Sedimentation. Stromungs-Wiilste konnen groberes Material als
die Umgebung enthalten (vgl. hierzu PLESSMANN,
1961, S.523).
Das bedeutet aber einen plotzlichen Umschwung von flachenhafter Untersattigung
des stromenden Mediums (Erosion) zu ebenso flachenhafter starker Obersattigung
(Sedimentation).
(e) Das Transportmedium ist fur ein breites Kornspektrum gleichzeitig iibersattigt.
Der Sortierungsgrad ist mit der Korngrosse korreliert.
ALLODAPISCHE KALKE
167
Gradation (graded bedding) ist das auffalligste und haufigste Merkmal der Sedimente von Suspensionsstromen (turbidity currents). Das bedeutet jedoch nicht,
dass Gradierung in jedem Fall auf Ablagerung aus Suspensionen schliessen lasst. Sie
ist nur das Ergebnis stetig abwandelnder Sedimentations-Bedingungen und kann daher
in Sedimenten verschiedenster Entstehung auftreten.
Charakteristisch ist dagegen die Verknupfung von Gradation und Sortierung. In
Ablagerungen von Suspensions-Stromen finden wir in der Regel alle Korngrossen,
also auch feine Grundmasse, in der gesamten Bank. Die maximale Korngrosse nimmt
von unten nach oben ab. Der Sortierungsgrad nimmt dagegen deutlich zu.
Eigenartig is, dass Einschlusse von Ton-Gestein relativ grober Korngrosse sich noch
einmal gehauft in feinkornigen Bank-Teilen finden (Zone Zc). Bei genauer Betrachtung stellt sich heraus, dass es sich hier um dunne Haute von seifigem, feinkornigem
Ton handelt, die vollig flach gepresst sind und das Chagrin der Detrituskbrner abformen. Die einfachste Deutung ist folgende.
In dem turbulent stromenden Transportmedium werden feine Tonflocken (vielleicht
zusammen mit organischem Material) zu wasserreichen Kugein zusammengerollt.
Ihre Sinkgeschwindigkeit entspricht derjenigen der sie umgebenden kompakten
Korner. Eine Bestatigung scheinen die kugelformigen Einschliisse in bestimmten
Flinzkalken zu bringen.
Pflanzenreste, die haufig bereits vor der Sedimentation in der Kalkbank mazeriert
gewesen sein durften, haben - auch wenn sie mit Wasser gesattigt sind - nur eine
Dichte, die nahe uber der des Wassers liegt. Sie werden nach oben aus der Suspension
herausgedruckt und sinken nur sehr langsam wieder ab. Sie reichern sich daher in den
Schluff-Korngrdssen an der Oberkante der Banke an.
Die Sedimentations-Bedingungenandern sich mit nachlassender Heftigkeit ganz
allmahlich wieder zu denen des pelagischen Stillwassers.
Der Ubergang von der detritischen Bank in den Pelit nach oben ist meist vBllig
fliessend. Feinkbrniges Material der Suspensions-Schiittung vermengt sich allmahlich
mit den normalen Beckensedimenten. Die regelmassige, immer engstandiger werdende Feinschichtung deutet auf rhythmisches Auspendeln der Wasserunruhe. RippelSchichtung in diesem Stadium bezeugt eine tangentiale Komponente und bodennahen
rollenden Transport.
(9) Die Korner sind ungewohnlich wenig abgerollt.
Die tadellose Erhaltung zerbrechlichster Fossil-Reste konnte auf einen nur kurzen
Transport deuten. Da aber ein weiter Transportweg aus faziellen Grunden bewiesen
ist, muss der Schluss anders lauten: Die Korner sind auf sehr schonende Weise transportiert worden. Rollender oder schleifender Transport scheiden daher aus. Der
Erhaltungs-Zustand der Detrituskorner deutet auf ganz iiberwiegend schwebenden
Transport, wie er fur Suspensionen charakteristisch ist.
Die gut gerundeten Gerolle der Konglomerate scheinen dagegen zu sprechen. Doch
ist zu berucksichtigen, dass es sich um Gesteine handeln kann, die im Brandungsbereich zugerundet wurden, bevor sie in die Suspension gerieten. Ferner sind die
Gesteine zum Teil noch wenig verfestigt gewesen und konnten auch bei schonendstem
cf>
168
K.-D. MEISCHNER
ALWDAPISCHE KALKE
169
Biofazielle Kriteried
170
K.-D. MEISCHNER
haufig, dass sie oft das Bild der Banke ganz bestimmen und mehrere Autoren veranlassten, die Kalke als Riffschutt anzusehen.
Fur die Kalke hatten wir ein Meer anzunehmen, in dem Kalk produzierende Organismen gunstige Lebensbedingungen fanden. Das bedeutet: Oberangebot an Sauerstoff infolge starker Wasser-Bewegung, warmes Wasser (Sattigung mit CaCO, gunstig
fur Produktion und besonders Erhaltung von Kalkschalen); das heisst aber auch
flaches Wasser.
Der beobachtete Wechsel in der Fossilfuhrung von detritischen Kalken und Peliten
ware also nicht nur ein Wechsel der artlichen Zusammensetzung der Fauna, sondern
ebenso eine standig wiederholte Anderung der erwahnten chemischen und physikalischen Daten.
Dieser krasse Fazies-Gegensatz lasst sich rein schematisch verschieden deuten. Man
konnte an Schwankungen des Meeres-Spiegelsdenken, indem der Beckenboden episodisch immer wieder in den Bereich bewegten, durchlufteten Wassers gehoben bzw.
hin und wieder in lebensfeindliche Tiefen versenkt wird. Der Wechsel hiitte dann
tektonische Ursachen.
Andererseits ware eine Art Klima-Wechsel denkbar, dergestalt dass entweder
tatsachlich das Klima ganzer Erdzonen schwankt oder aber ein abgeteiltes Meeresbecken episodisch mit wannem Wasser gespeist wird, wobei die Wasserbewegung
zunimmt bzw. ein warmes Meeresbecken zeitweilig vom Frischwasser abgeschnurt
wird und biologisch verodet.
Tatsachlich sind solche Deutungen fur allodapische Kalke wiederholt bis in neueste
Zeit gegeben worden. Es besteht hier eine auffallige Parallele zur Deutung von FlyschGesteinen, deren Rhythmik von einigen Autoren zum Teil auch heute noch auf
tektonische oder klimatische Schwankungen zuruckgefuhrt wird, obwohl das I)bergewicht der sedimentologischen und palaontologischen Argumente fur die Theorie
der turbidity currents inzwischen geradezu erdriickend geworden ist.
Auch im Falle der allodapischen Kalke fuhrt ein einfacherer Weg zum Ziel. Wir
konnen mit guten Grunden annehmen, dass die feinkornigen, langsam sedimentierten
Gesteine, die nektonische und planktonische Fossilien einschliessen, die normalen
bionomischen Bedingungen am Meeresboden wiederspiegeln. Die Substanz der
detritischen Kalkbanke ist dagegen episodisch aus Bereichen anderer Fazies herantransportiert und im Stillwasserbecken sedimentiert worden. Mit anderen Worten:
Die Tiere, deren Detritus wir in den Kalkbanken finden, waren am 01%
ihrer Einbettung nicht lebensfahig, das Material der Kalkbanke liegt ortsfremd im Bereich
anderer Fazies. Dieser Schluss ist deshalb berechtigt, weil die Fossilien der Kalkbanke
keinen normalen biologischen Verband bilden.
Benthonische Flachwasser-Organismen, deren Reste wir in den Kalkbanken vor
In einemeigenartigen Gegensatz hierzu steht die Tatsache, dass Serien allodapischer Kalke wiederholt als fossilleer bezeichnet wurden. Der Widerspruch erklart sich leicht. Alle Fossil-Reste sind in
der beschriebenen Weise sortiert. Grosse Fossilien sind also nur in grobkornigen W e n zu erwarten,
die aber meist selten sind. Der feine Detritus ist im frischen Gestein nicht erkennbar und nur auf
angewitterten Flachen verkieselter Banke mit einiger Aufmerksamkeit zu entdecken.
ALLODAPISCHE KALKE
171
uns haben, bilden im Leben bestimmte Siedlungsformen aus. Viele von ihnen leben
angeheftet oder in bestimmter Orientierung flach dem Boden aufliegend, sie umkrusten
einander, wachsen aufeinander auf und bilden feste Kolonien und Stocke mit gemeinschaftlichem Skelett oder dichte Rasen. Die Ausbildung dieser Organisationsformen
richtet sich hauptsachlich nach der Wasserbewegung. Von der Brandungszone abwarts
lasst sich eine zonare Anordnung der Wuchsformen und Vergesellschaftungen erkennen, die mit Ausdriicken wie Bank-, Block-, Knollen-, Rasen-Riff bezeichnet werden
(WEDEKIND,
1924; BIRENHEIDE,
1962; STRUVE,1963).
Solche Strukturen sind im fossilen Sediment erkennbar, sofern sie an Ort und Stelle
uberdeckt werden, auch wenn Vorgange der Auflosung oder Abschwemmung eine
gewisse Auslese treffen. Ein grosser Teil der Schalen kann zerstort und als Detritus
verfrachtet werden. Er wechsellagert dann mit Riff-Rasen oder -Stotzen.
In allen allodapischen Kalken lasst sich aber keinerlei Anzeichen einer solchen
Besiedlung an Ort und Stelle finden. Wir haben es stets mit vollig isoliertem Detritus
zu tun, dessen einziges Ordnungs-Prinzip sedimentologische Merkmale sind. Dariiber
hinaus lasst sich zeigen, dass Organismen, die im Siedlungsbereich des FlachwasserBenthos nicht oder nur sparlich vorkommen, in allodapischen Kalken regelmassig
vertreten sind. Das sind, z.B., im Devon und Karbon Goniatiten und Conodonten,
im Malm Belemniten und planktonische Foraminiferen. Es ist anzunehmen, dass
solche Reste beim Uberrollen des Becken-Bodens von der Suspension aufgenommen
wurden. Ihre zahlenmassige Verteilung und Auslese gibt Hinweise darauf
(MEISCHNER,
1962, S.40). D.h. die allodapischen Kalke enthalten eine Taphocoenose
mit Bestandteilen benthonischer und nektonischer Organismen verschiedener Lebensbereiche. Die Reste benthonischer Flachwasserbewohner uberwiegen bei weitem. Die
fazielle Analyse fiihrt damit ebenfalls zu der Vorstellung, dass das Material der
detritischen Kalkbanke aus entfernten Gebieten anderer Fazies herantransportiert
worden ist.l
Der Schiittungs-Mechanismus
Der Schuttungs-Vorgang ist etwa folgender: Der Schutt grosserer Riff-Korper2 hauft
sich am Rande von Stillwasserbecken unterhalb der Reichweite normaler BrandungsTurbulenz an. Entweder bei Uberschreitung der Stabilitats-Grenze durch Anlagerung
oder Relief-Ubersteilung oder bei aussergewohnlichen Beanspruchungen wie Erdbeben, Stiirmen, Verlagerung von Stromungen, extremen Gezeiten, gerat eine grossere
Sedimentmasse unter dem Einfluss der Schwerkraft in Bewegung. Sie gleitet mit
zunehmender Geschwindigkeit hangab und lost sich dabei vollig in eine hochturbuDieser Schluss wurde fur den Rhenaer Kak schon von SCHMIDT(1942) gezogen. Schmidt sprach
von Driftkalken, die durch Bodendrift in Stillwasserbecken gekommen sein sollten.
a Der Begriff Riff wird hier im weitesten Sinne gebraucht fiir ein Gebiet, in dem eine Lebensgemeinschaft skelett-bauender Tiere schneller aufwachst als das umgebende Sediment und dadurch
eine Erhebung formt, auf der auch die okologischen Bedingungen sich von denen der Umgebung
unterscheiden.
172
K.-D. MEISCHNER
lente Suspension hoher Dichte auf, die mit grosser Geschwindigkeit iiber den Beckenboden schiesst und dabei etwas Sediment von der Oberflache aufnimmt. Die Erosion
geschieht einmal durch die vor der Front liegenden Wasser-Massen, die schon vor
Ankunft der Trubungswalze selbst stark beschleunigt werden und stark untersattigte,
gleichformige Stromungen hoher Geschwindigkeit bilden. Sie heben flachenhaft die
unverfestigten Beckentone ab und bringen sie in Schwebe. Da jedes grobere Material
fehlt, ist dieser Vorgang sehr schonend (erosion of an unusual type SEILACHERS,
1962). Zum anderen durfte die Suspension selbst noch die Beckensedimente kurzfristig erodieren und unter Beteiligung groben Materials Stromungsmarken (flute
casts und groove casts) schaffen.
Schliesslich wird der Strom durch Nachlassen der Hang-Neigung langsam gebremst,
er kann stark iibersattigt werden, die Sedimente fallen rasch und grob nach der Sinkgeschwindigkeit geordnet aus (graded bedding).
Die feinen Partikel sinken vie1 langsamer ab. Sie werden daher von schwankenden
Boden-Stromungen erfasst, die entweder Nachwehen des turbidity current selbst
sind oder 2.B. Gezeitenstrome. Die Sedimentation des feinen Materials wird dadurch
rhythmisch oder periodisch gestort (Feinschichtung, Lamination).l Bei starkem Oberwiegen der tangentialen Komponente konnen Stromungs-Rippel-Strukturen auftreten
(current ripple lamination).
Die feinste Trube des Suspensionsstromes vermischt sich mit der autochthonen
pelitischen Sedimentation. 1st diese silikatisch, so entstehen Merge1 als Oberkante der
Banke.
Nach Ablagerung der Banke konnen sich die feinkornigen, feinschichtigen oberen
Partien, die moglicherweise wegen ihres hohen Gehaltes an Ton und organischem
Material einen unverfestigten Sedimentbrei bilden, zu faltenartigen Strukturen verbiegen (convolute lamination).
Das Sediment enthalt Bestandteile, die leicht mobilisierbar sind und wahrend der
Diagenese wandern.
(I) Amorphe Kieselsaure der Skelette mit eingeschlossenen Organismen ist leicht
loslich. Sie wandert offenbar nach dem Prinzip der besten Wegbarkeit und scheidet
sich daher in den gut sortierten, ziemlich feinkornigen, aber noch tonarmen Niveaus
der Kalkbanke in Form von Hornstein-Lagen und flachen Knollen wieder aus.
Ausserdem kommt es zu mannigfaltigen Wechsel-Wirkungen zwischen karbonatischen Losungen und Si02,die sich in mehreren Generationen von Verkieselungen und
Calcitisierungen aussern.
(2) Die organische Substanz lebend oder vor Abschluss der Verwesung eingebetteter Fossilien kann unter den herrschenden Stillwasser-Bedingungennicht vollstandig
abgebaut werden. Das verbleibende Bitumen impragniert Fossil-Schalen und HohlEs ist nicht einzusehen,wieso diese laminierten Bank-Teile aus einem laminar stromendenMedium
sedimentiert sein sollen. Eine laminare Stromung bedeutet fur den Sedimentations-Vorgang nur eine
inhomogeneTranslationparallel zur Sedimentobefiache.Eine Feinschichtung ist so nicht zu erkliiren.
1963) ist meines Erachtens ubefiussig.
Ein besonderer Name (Laminite, LOMBARD,
ALLODAPISCHE KALKE
173
174
K.-D.
MEISCHNER
Aus der Deutung der allodapischen Kalke als Sediment von Suspensionsstromen
ergeben sich einige wichtige geologische Folgerungen.
Massen-Verlagerungen durch Suspensionen geschehen unter Einfluss der Schwer-
ALLODAPISCHE KALKE
175
kraft, d.h. sie setzen ein erhebliches Gefalle zwischen Liefergebiet und SedimentationsRaum voraus. Die allodapischen Kalke sind Sedimente tieferer Becken und bestehen
aus Material des Flach-Wassers.
Daher gibt uns das Vorkommen allodapischer Kalke einen Hinweis auf Gebiete
altersgleicher, kalkreicher Flachwasser-Fazies in abschatzbarer N&e, auch wenn diese
erodiert sind oder unter jungerer Bedeckung liegen.
Aus den Schuttungs-Merkmalen lasst sich die Schuttungs-Richtung und damit die
Becken-Neigung und die Lage der Bewegtwasser-Gebiete ermitteln. Aus statistischen
Beobachtungen uber den Bank-Aufbau kann man die palaogeographische Lage von
Einzel-Profilen innerhalb einer Schuttungs-Serie schatzen und Angaben uber die
ursprunglichen Dimensionen der Sedimentkorper erhalten (vgl. Fig.2).
Die Tatsache, dass wahrend langerer Zeit grossere Kalkmassen geliefert wurden,
die aber nur einen Bruchteil des im zugehorigen Flachmeer vorhandenen Kalkes darstellen, lasst auf eine kontinuierliche Produktion grosser Kalkmengen schliessen, d.h.
auf Riffe oder wenigstens riffahnliche Zonen starker Besiedlung durch kalkabscheidende Organismen. So ausgedehnte Aufwuchs-Zonen konnen aber nur zustande
kommen, wenn der Zuwachs durch Absenkung des Bodens kompensiert wird. (Der
Vorgang ist logischerweise eigentlich umgekehrt.)
Die Tatigkeit von turbidity currents bedeutet einen Vorgang, der zur Ausgleichung des Reliefs fuhrt, wenn es nicht durch einen anderen Mechanismus standig
erneuert wird. Wir nehmen an, dass dieser Mechanismus eine weitraumige Senkung
ist, die zwar die Becken tiefer legt, in den Aufwuchs-Zonen aber wegen der hohen
Zuwachsgeschwindigkeit der Organismen wirkungslos bleibt. Vorkommen machtiger
allodapischer Kalke sind daher Indikatoren einer regionalen Senkung. Damit ist noch
nichts uber die Ursachen dieser Senkung gesagt.
Die Tiefe, bis zu der eine ausreichende Kalkproduktion moglich ist, lasst sich nach
rezenten Vergleichen auf 30-50 m maximal schatzen. Kann man zeigen, dass das
Liefergebiet ein regelrechtes Riff oder ein anderer regelmassiger Schuttungskorper
war, so l a s t sich die Tiefe des Beckens abschatzen. Sie muss wenigstens so gross gewesen sein wie die Differenz der Machtigkeiten gleichaltriger Flachsee- und Beckensedimente.
Diese Ergebnisse konnten gering erscheinen. Fur palaogeographische Rekonstruktionen stehen aber meist nur ausserst sparliche Hinweise zur Verfugung, die noch dazu
oft mehrdeutig sind. Allodapische Kalke liefern zwar wenige, aber eindeutige
Kriterien, die fur die Einordnung weiterer Beobachtungen eine feste Grundlage bilden.
Der Nachweis von allodapischen Kalken ist demnach von grossem Interesse; er lasst
weitreichende palaogeographische Schlusse zu.
176
K.-D. MEISCHNER
ALLODAPISCHE KALKE
177
Es werden einige Vorkommen einbezogen, die auf Grund guter Beschreibung in der
Literatur oder mundliche Mitteilung durch die Bearbeiter eine befriedigende Deutung
zulassen. Viele Kalk-Serien, die den Verdacht auf allodapische Kalke erwecken,
werden hier nicht angefuhrt, weil die Unterlagen zu unsicher sind. Es wird noch einmal
an die Aufstellung bei KUENENund TENHAAF(1956) erinnert.
Rheinische Geosynkline
Die Flinz-Fazies des Devons
Der alteste mir bekannte allodapische Kalk ist der Flinz-Kalk im Devon des Rheinischen Schiefergebirges (Fig.4). Als Flinz wird eine wohlgeschichtete Wechsel-Lagerung dunkler, bituminoser, meist dichter Kalke mit dunklen Tonschiefern bezeichnet.
Diese Fazies ist im oberen Givetium bis zur Adorf-Stufe in weiten Gebieten verbreitet.
Die geologische Stituation ist folgende.
Etwa bis zum mittleren Givetium werden im nordwestlichen Teil des rechtstrheinischen Schiefergebirgesmachtige Flachwasser-Sande und -Tone sedimentiert. Gelegentliche Einlagerungen von geringmachtigen Korallenkalken bezeugen kurzfristige
Unterbrechungen der Sandschuttung. Anzeichen tieferen Wassers finden sich erst
siidostlich einer Fazies-Grenze, die etwa von Koblenz nach Brilon das Gebirge quert
(SCHMIDT,
1962).
Fig.4. Die Beziehungen zwischen Massenkalk- und Flinz-Fazies im Devon der rheinische Geosynkline.
A. Palaogeographische Karte des nordlichen Rheinischen Schiefergebirges. Die Grenzen zwischen
rheinischer und herzynischer Fazies verlauft im mittleren Givetiurn etwa an der unterbrochenen Linie.
Der Sparganophyllum-Kalk (mittleres Givetiurn) ist mit regelmihiger, Massenkalk-Riffe sind durch
unregelmassige Punktierung angegeben. Unter Verwendung von Daten aus SCHMIDT(1962) und
PLSSMANN
(1 962).
B. Sedimentations-Geschichtedes nordlichen Rheinischen Schiefergebirges wahrend der Bildung
der Massenkalke (oberes Givetiurn bis Adorf-Stufe). In Stichworten: a. Mittleres Givetium. Im Gebiet
rheinischer Fazies unreine Sande und Tone, an einzelnen Stellen AnSatze zu Riffktirpern und -rasen.
Am Aussenrand des Schelfs eine Zone bevorzugten Kalk-Aufwuchses (Schelfrandkalk = Spargano-
phyllum-Kalk). b. Oberes Givetium. Die Sand- und Tonschuttung hat nachgelassen, die andauernde
Absenkung wird an einigen Stellen durch Riffwachstum ausgeglichen. Das Briloner Massenkalk-Riff
wird im Westen durch die synsedimenthe Altenburener Storung begrenzt. Erste Einschiittungen von
Riff-Detritus in benachbarte Becken durch turbidity currents. c. Grenze Mitteldevon/Oberdevon.
Der Hohepunkt des Riffwachstums ist uberschritten, die starkere Absenkung kann nicht mehr ausgeglichen werden. d. Obere Adorf-Stufe. Das Riff-Wachstum ist erloschen, die Sedimente der BeckenFazies greifen allrnahlich iiber die versenkten Rimorper. Vermutlich wird an einigen Stellen noch
Riffdetritus aufgearbeitet und in die Becken geschuttet. e. Nehden-Stufe. Silikatische turbidity currents bringen grosse Sand-Mengen vom Nord-Kontinent in das Becken. Die versenkten Riffe werden
urnflossen, durch sie geschutzte Teilbecken bleiben frei von Sand (vgl. PLESMANN
1962).
Relationship between Massenkalk and Flinz facies in the Devonian of the Rhenish geosyncline.
A. Paleogeographic map of the northern Rheinisches Schiefergebirge. Boundary between Rhenish
and Hercynian facies until Middle Givetian times shown as a broken line; Sparganophyllum-limestone
(Middle Givetian) by stippled, and Massenkalk reefs by grey shading.
B. The sedimentary history of the northern Rheinisches Schiefergebirgeduring the formation ofthe
Massenkalk (Upper Givetian t o Adorfian). Partly based on data by SCHMIDT(1962) and PLE~~MANN
(1962). For further explanations see text.
178
K.-D. MEISCHNER
TAFEL I
A. Regelm-ige Wechsellagerung von Peliten und detritischen Kalken im Kulm-Plattenkalk.Nordostliche Ecke des Steinbruchsan der Edelburg bei Menden, nordliches Rheinisches Schiefergebirge.
B. Gradierte allodapische Kalkbank, hauptsachlich aus den Zonen l a und Ib bestehend. Die Machtigkeit der Zonen 2 und 3 ist reduziert. Kulm-Plattenkalk, Steinbruch an der use bei Menden,
nordliches rheinischesSchiefergebirge.Natiirliche Grosse.
TAFEL I
180
K.-D.
MEISCHNER
Der Flinz des Beckens von Nuttlar-Meschede. In der Umgebung von Nuttlar und
Meschede im Sauerland finden sich gute Aufschlusse in typischer Flinz-Fazies. Gelegentlich kommen darin besonders schone, machtige allodapische Kalkbanke vor
(Tafel I). Das Material 1asst sich einmal vom Briloner Massenkalk-Plateau ableiten,
das sich ostlich der schon wahrend der Sedimentation des Massenkalkes als FaziesGrenze wirksamen Altenbiirener Storung erstreckte und an dieser tektonischen Linie
plotzlich abbrach. Grossere Detritus-Massen durften aber aus dem Massenkalk der
Attendorner Mulde geliefert worden sein. Die Flinz-Fazies geht in Richtung auf diesen
Massenkalk in die Fazies der allodapischen Kalke maximaler Bank-Machtigkeit,
Gesamt-Machtigkeit, Korngrosse usw. iiber, die etwa im Beisinghauser Kalk erreicht
wird. Noch weiter in Richtung auf das Liefergebiet nimmt die Machtigkeit rasch ab,
die sedimentologischen Strukturen verwischen sich, grosse Fossilschalen (hier Cephalopoden) stellen sich ein. Die Gesteins-Ausbildungzeigt Anklange an die Cephalopoden-Fazies der Tief-Schwellen im Sinne RABIENS
(1956, S.67). Das Profil des Arper
Kalkes zeigt etwa dieses Bild, es liegt aber nicht mehr auf derselben Verbindungslinie
Riff-Flinz. Interessanterweise kommen hier auch synsedimentare Rutschungen grosseren Ausmasses vor, die auf einen steileren Hang deuten konnten. Es ist zu vermuten,
dass die Riffkorper in einer gewissen Wassertiefe von Cephalopodenkalken umgeben
waren. Material dieses Siedlungs-Streifens wurde von den dariiber hinweggehenden
Triibungswalzen erfasst und beckenwartsverschleppt. Die Analyse dieses Flinzbeckens
verspricht wertvolle Ergebnisse.
Der Flinz des ostlichen Schiefergebirges. Auch an der Sud-Flanke des Briloner Massenkalk-Plateaus wurde Kalk-Detritus durch turbidity currents uber den heutigen
Ostsauerlander Hauptsattel hinweg in die anschliessenden Stillwasserbecken verfrachtet. Gradierung und andere typische Strukturen sind deutlich vorhanden. Eine
interessante neue Arbeit von BOTTKE(1 962) bringt erstmals chemische Gesichtspunkte.
Bottke konnte hohe Gehalte an fossilem Polybitumen mit Spuren-Gehalten an V, Co,
Ni und Mo nachweisen. Er schliesst auf unvollstandigenAbbau organischer Substanz.
Bottke gibt eine bionomische Deutung der Sedimente, die von der hier vertretenen
abweicht. Er versucht den Wechsel zwischen Kalk und Ton als eine zyklische Folge
von Sapropel, Gyttja und bitumenarmen Anteilen zu deuten, wobei zeitweilig der
Eh-Wert negativ war und der pH-Wert durch freies C 0 2unter 7 sank. Er schliesst aber
aus dem Vorkommen kleiner (pseudo-benthonischer!) Brachiopoden und Lamellibranchiaten in den Kalken auf Bodenleben in gut durchluftetem Wasser, ohne die
Moglichkeit einer Verfrachtung zu erwagen.
Der Ooser Plattenkalk. Eines der schonsten Beispiele fur allodapische Kalke hat
KREBS
(1962) beschrieben. Sorgfaltige Aufnahme des Fossil-Inhaltes von Kalken und
Schiefern und petrographische Daten fuhren im Ooser Plattenkalk zu den gleichen
Ergebnissen wie in anderen allodapischen Kalken. Das ist umso bemerkenswerter, als
Krebs seine Arbeit unter einem ganz anderen Gesichtspunkt geschrieben hat. Seine
Deutung ist, dass die Kalkbanke der rheinischen (Frischwasser-), die Schiefer der
herzynischen (Stillwasser-) Fazies angehoren: Wahrend der Zeit der Ooser Plattenkalke fand ein standiger Wechsel zwischen Bildungen einesjachen, gut durchlufteten,
181
ALLODAPISCHE KALKE
bewegten und eines tieferen, schlecht durchlufteten, stromungsarrnen bis stillen Wassers statt (Hervorhebungen vom Verfasser).
Das ist im Prinzip die gleiche Deutung, wie sie bei Flyschgesteinen versucht wurde.
Wir geben der Deutung der Kalke als Sedimente von Trubungsstrbmen den Vorzug.
KREBS (1962, S.212-213) Aufstellung von 5 Kalk-Typen, die eine bathymetrische
Reihenfolge sein soll, erweist sich damit als eine sedimentare Abfolge grob-fein,
die auf Sedimentation durch turbidity currents zuruckzufuhren ist. Typ 3, gelbgraue Mergel, 2.T. mit knolligen Kalkalgen bzw. Kalkknollen, die Crinoiden und
TABELLE I
DEUTUNG VON GESTEINS-TYPEN IM OOSER PLATTENKALK
Kommentar
Moglicherweise Riffschutt, wenn lagig bedeutet, dass autochthone StromatoporenRasen usw. vorkoxnmen. ist Wechsel-Lagerung
von Biostromen mit Schutt anzunehmen. Die
Beschrankung solcher Gesteine auf den unteren
Teil der Ooser Plattenkalke konnte dafur
sprechen.
Sonst konnte es sich urn den gerollfiihrenden
unteren Teil dicker Banke (Zone la) handeln,
wo plattige Stromatoporen-Fladen vorkommen.
2. Graue diinnbankige, feinspatige bis feindetritische Kalke mit einigen Einzelkorallen, Crinoiden, Brachiopoden und Schalenbruchstiicken. Haufig geht innerhalb eher
Kalkbank diesel Typ nach oben in Typ 4
iiber.
..
trig zerfallende, schwach kalkige Tonschiefer. Bei starkerem Kalkgehalt enthalten sie
lagenweise zerbrochene kalkschalige Brachiopoden (z.T. sicher Leiorhynchus formosus). Die kalkarmeren Schiefer sind voll von
Styliolinen, seltener Tentaculiten, Anaptychen, flachgedriickten Goniatiten, diinnschaligen Zweiklappern und Pflanzenhack-
sel...
182
K.-D. MEISCHNER
ALLODAPISCHE W K E
183
Velberter Sattel vorstosst. Allerdings ergibt sich eine Schwierigkeit. Die Sedimentation
des Kohlenkalkes setzt im Velberter Sattel etwa an der Grenze Dinantium I11 a-p aus
(B~GER,
1962). Die Hauptmasse des Plattenkalkes ist also junger als der Kohlenkalk
in diesem Gebiet. Zwei Erklarungen sind moglich.
(1) In der weiteren Umgebung ging die Kohlenkalk-Sedimentation weiter. Die Verhaltnisse am Velberter Sattel sind nur lokal gultig, sie zeigen einen langsamen Ruckzug
der Riff-Zone wie in der Massenkalk-Fazies des Devons.
(2) Der Plattenkalk ist im wesentlichen ein Abbauprodukt abgestorbener, aber noch
unverfestigter Kohlenkalkriffe und ihrer Schuttkorper.
Die Sedimentation der Kulm-Plattenkalke steht im Zusammenhang mit einer Verstarkung der bis dahin langsamen Absenkung, die wie im devonischen Massenkalk
- einige hundert Meter erreicht hatte. Als Folge starkerer Senkung erlischt das RiffWachstum, die Fazies dunkler Stillwasser-Gesteine greift uber den Kohlenkalk nach
Westen vor. Moglicherweise ist die verstarkte Absenkung eine Folge des Heranwanderns der subvaristischen Saumtiefe (PAPROTH,
1960), so dass man ausserdem eine
Versteilung des Reliefs durch imosten starkeres und fruheres Einsinkenannehmen darf.
184
K.-D.
MEISCHNER
TAFEL ll
TAFEL I1
186
K.-D. MEISCHNER
Die geologische Situation des Vorkommens ist ahnlich der der devonischen Flinzkalke. Zwischen Riffen von Kieselschwammen und Korallen, die auf langsam sinkendem Boden aufwuchsen, bildeten sich einzelne Stillwasserbecken, in die nur wenig
Sediment gelangte, so dass sich schliesslich ein starkes Relief herausbildete. Der
Schutt benachbarter Riffe wurde zusammen mit benthonischen Fossilien durch turbidity currents in die Stillwasserbecken eingeschuttet.
Das Becken von Nusplingen ist modellhaft klein, es hat nur etwa 1.000 m Durchmesser. Trotzdem haben sich freie Suspensionen entwickeln konnen.
Der Fossil-Inhalt der pelitischen Banke ist reich und ungewdhnlich. Neben (nektonischen) Fischen, Ammoniten, Belemniten sind auch Flugsaurier uberliefert. Die
ausgezeichnete Erhaltung dieser Reste deutet auf Bedingungen lebensfeindlichen Stillwassers, in dem jede Zerstorung durch Aasfresser unterblieb. Es bestehen erhebliche
Unterschiede zu den gleichaltrigen Fossil-Vorkommen von Solnhofen und Eichstatt.
Allodapische Kalke in Griechenland
ALLODAPISCHE KALKE
187
sich an der Strasse Tripolis-Kalamai zwischen Paradisia und Dervini, stets mit
tonigem dunnbankigem Flysch vergesellschaftet. Beim Abstieg in die messenische
Ebene 6 km sudlich Dervini sind auch Kalke aufgeschlossen, die aus groberem Detritus bestehen und reichlich Mikro-Fossilien enthalten.
Doch sind allodapische Kalke nicht auf den westhellenischen Flysch beschrankt.
Ahnliche Gesteine finden sich auch auf dem ostlichen Peloponnes, und in Bootien.
Meine Beobachtungen sind hier aber nur obedachlich, wie uberhaupt in einem
geologisch so wenig bekanntem Gebiet wie Griechenland diese Mitteilungen nur eine
erste Fund-Meldung sein konnen.
Verschiedene Mitteilungen uber allodapische Kalke
188
K.-D. MEISCHNER
gen die Regel sind. Nach miindlicher Mitteilung von Herrn Prof. A. G. Fischer (1962)
gibt es auch in der Hallstatter Fazies der roten Ammonitenkalke gradierte Kalkbanke,
die auf Ablagerung durch Suspensionsstrome zuruckzufuhren sind.
SCHLUSSBETRACHTUNG
TAFEL UI
Sedimentare Strukturen allodapischer Kalke in Schnitten quer zur Schichtung. Alle Bilder sind
negative fotografische Vergrosserungen von Dunnschliffen; x TO.
A. Untergrenze einer schlecht sortierten, groben Kalkbank (Zone la). Der unterlagernde Pelit ist
durch Setzung deformiert. Posidonienkalk (Dinantium IIID), Hillershausen, nordostliches Rheinisches Schiefergebirge.
B. Grosse Gerolle aus feinkornigem Material, die durch Sediment-Setzungdeformiert sind. Sortierung
sehr schlecht (Zone la). Rhenaer Kalk (Dinantium IIIy), Steinburch am Kohlberg bei Sudeck,
nordostliches Rheinisches Schiefergebirge.
C . Zone lb, der Kalk besteht aus Fossil-Detritus und Mikrofossilien. Die Sortierung ist schlecht, aber
besser als in Tafel IIIA und B. Bituminose Impragnationen von Fossil-Schalen erscheinen hell.
Rhenaer Kalk (Dinantium HID), Steinbruch Rhena, nordostliches Rheinisches Schiefergebirge.
D. Fladenforrnige Ton-Einschliisse liegen parallel zur Schichtung. Oberer Teil der Zone lb. Rhenaer
Kalk (Dinantium IIIy), Bomighausen, nordostliches Rheinisches Schicfergebirge.
E. Die feinkornige Zone 2a wird durch diinne Einschaltungen von organischen Material gebandert.
Rhenaer Kalk (Dinantium My), Bomighausen, nordostliches Rheinisches Schiefergebirge.
F. Flaser-Textur, die auf diagenetische Entmischung in der Zone 3 zuriickgefiihrt wird. Die Flasern
bestehen aus Kalkspat (dunkel) und Ton (hell). Posidonienkalk (Dinantium IUD), Diidinghausen,
nordostliches Rheinisches Schiefergebirge.
Sedimentary features of allodapic limestones in vertical sections. All figures are negative prints of
actual slides; x 10.
A. Lower contact of poorly sorted coarse limestone bed (zone la). Pelite underneath load casted.
Posidonienkalk, Hillershausen, northeastern Rheinisches Schiefergebirge.
B. Large pebbles of fine grained material deformed by settling. Sorting very poor (zone la). Rhenaer
Kalk, Kohlberg quarry near Sudeck, northeastern Rheinisches Schiefergebirge.
C. Zone l b, limestone consisting of detrital fossils and of microfossils. Sorting poor, but better than in
Tafel IIIA and IIIB. Bituminous impregnation of fossil shells in light colours. Rhenaer Kalk,
Rhena quarry, northeastern Rheinisches Schiefergebirge.
D. Lenticular clay pebbles parallel to bedding. Upper part of zone 16. Rhenzer Kalk, Bomighausen,
northeastern Rheinisches Schiefergebirge.
E. Fine grained zone 2a laminated by thin intercalations of organic material. Same locality as Tafel
IIID.
F. Phacoidal structure due to diagenetic differentiation in zone 3. Lenticles consisting of calcite (dark)
and clay (light colours). Posidonienkalk, Diidinghausen, northeastern Rheinisches Schiefergebirge.
TAFEL I11
190
K.-D. MEISCHNER
Allerdings sind unsere Kenntnisse von diesen Sedimenten noch gering. Die Gesteine
vieler Gebiete, in denen man allodapische Kalke erwarten konnte, mussten unter
diesem Gesichtspunkt untersucht werden. Vor allem fehlt noch jede quantitative
Arbeit, die aber in Kalken auch grbsseren Schwierigkeiten begegnet und mehr Aufwand erfordert als in silikatischen Sanden.
Auswertung von Stromungs-Anzeichen, genaue Aufnahme des palaontologischen
Bestandes, eine gute Feinstratigraphie, Korngrbssen-Analyse, Bestimmung und Auswertung der silikatischen Begleit-Minerale, chemische Untersuchungen u.a. sind
nbtig und versprechen interessante Ergebnisse.
Der Zweck dieser Arbeit ist erfullt, wenn sie zu solchen Untersuchungen anregt. Ob
sich die hier vorgetragenen Gedanken im einzelnen bestatigen oder nicht, ist gleichgiiltig, sofern nur unsere Kenntnis verbessert wird.
LITERATUR
ALLODAPISCHE KALKE
191
NEWELL,
N. D., RIGBY,J. K., FISCHER,
A. G., WHITEMAN,
A. J., HICKOX,
J. E. and BRADLEY,
J. S.,
1953. The Permian Reef Complex of the Guadelupe Mountains Region, Texas and New Mexico.
Freeman, San Francisco, 236 pp.
PAPROTH,
E., 1960. Der Kulm und die flozleere Fazies des Namurs. Stand der Untersuchungen und
olTene Fragen. Fortschr. Geol. Rheidand Wesqalen, 3 : 385-422.
PHILIPPSON,
A., 1891. Geologische Karte des Peloponnes, 1 : 300.000. Friedlander, Berlin.
RESSMANN,
W., 1961. Stromungsmarken in klastischen Sedimentenund ihre geologischeAuswertung.
Geol. Jahrb., 78 :503-566.
PLESSMANN,
W., 1962. Uber Stromungsmarken in Ober-Devon-Sandsteinen des Sauerlandes. Geol.
Jahrb., 79 : 387-398.
RABIEN,A., 1956. Zur Stratigraphie und Fazies des Ober-Devons in der Waldecker Hauptmulde.
Abhandf. Hess.'Landesamtes Bodenforsch., 16 : 83 S.
J., 1960. Les formations brkhiques dans le Tithonique du sud-est de la France. Trav. Lab
REMANE,
GPol. Fac. Sci. Univ. Grenoble, 36 : 75-1 14.
SCHMIDT,H., 1935. Die bionomische Emteilung der fossilen Meeresboden. Fortschr. Geol. Palaeontol.,
38 (12) :154 S.
SCHMIDT,H., 1942. Nach Goniatiten gegliederte Profile im sauerlandischen Kulm. Decheniana,
101 :49-63.
SCHMIDT,H., 1962. uber die Faziesbereiche im Devon Deutschlands. In: H. K. ERBEN(Redakteur),
Symposium SilurlDevon-Grenze,1960. Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, S. 224-230.
SEILACHER,
A., 1962. Paleontological studies on turbidite sedimentation and erosion. J. Geol.,
70 : 227-234.
Smwe, W., 1963. Das Korallen-Meer der Eifel vor 300 Millionen Jahren - Funde, Deutungen.
Probleme. Natur Museum, 93 :237-276.
WEDEKIND,R., 1924. Das Mittel-Devon der Eifel. I. Die Tetrakorallen des unteren Mitteldevon.
Schriften Ges. Beforder. Ges. Naturwissenschaften, 14 : 1-93.
SUMMARY
A short description is given of the lower part of the Oligocene sediments outcropping
in the province of Navarra (Northern Spain) near the village of Liedena.
One of the salient features is the presence of graded beds bearing flute casts in a
continuous section which also contains layers revealing evidence of evaporitic
conditions.
The sediments in question form the basis of the huge molassic fill of the Ebro basin
and should not be considered a flysch in spite of their rhythmic aspect and local grading.
INTRODUCTION
On the occasion of the Symposium held at London, February 1961, under the heading:
Some aspects of sedimentation in orogenic belts (DE RAAF,1961), I expressed the
view that studies in the Koninklijke/Shell Exploratie en Produktie Laboratorium of
microfaunas occurring in pelitic intercalations of some representative alpine flysch
sequences, point to a bathyal-abyssal environment of deposition.
The sequences then mentioned, characterised by graded bedding, belong to the
Alpine orthogeosynclinal belt and include Ultrahelvetic flysch deposits (Switzerland),
macigno complexes (Italy) and the Peka Cava flysch (France). The graded sandstones
occurring in these complexes have, in all important respects, the same characteristics.
It is an easily recognisable type of sandstone described in many publications, notably
by Ph. H. Kuenen and his followers (see KUENEN
and HUMBERT,
1964), and its properties have recently been collated and summarized by BOUMA(1962) in his study of
the Peira Cava region.
The latter author gives a series of drawings (BOUMA,
1962, pp.49-51) showing the
different aspects these sandstones may assume. The whole range of variants encountered in the field can best be described by adopting a lettering system such as he uses,
and by designating, for instance, a graded bed as being of the a-c type, etc.
At about the time of the above-mentioned investigations, I inspected other environ-
193
ments for the presence of graded beds characterised by sandstones of the same type,
and research was not restricted to orthogeosynclines. It was considered that this would
shed light on the mechanisms responsible for the formation of these sandstones.
Preliminary results indicate that they occur most frequently in environments deeper
than the neriticum, but that they may also occur in association with beds the nature
of which points to shallower water conditions.
Eocene sediments of the southern Pyrenees extending west of the Aragon River an area which has been the object of an admirable study by MANGIN(1959-1960) are very instructive in this respect. The unusual occurrence of a limited number of
important neritic limestone intercalations in graded sequences is the prominent
feature here. The Oligocene of the same region presents an even more remarkable case,
in that there are graded arenaceous units of the type mentioned above, close to saline
lagoonal deposits, in an uninterrupted sequence (MANGIN, 1962). Thus, at the base
of the Oligocene molasse-like deposits outcropping in the Pamplona area, marine
clastics and lagoonal gypsiferous deposits occur and the latter are locally associated
with Mangins grks A ripple-marks, in which I found evidence of grading together
with indications pointing to evaporitic conditions.
The Liedena Beds
Description
I had an opportunity to pay two brief visits to exposures of these sandstones near
the village of Liedena (36 km southeast of Pamplona), in one instance guided by
Mangin, and a short account of features observed now follows.
The cross section visited runs parallel to a roughly north-south part of an abandoned railway, along which poles are found at regular distances of about 20 m (MANGIN,
1962). The beds are overturned to the south and parts of the section rich in sandstone
beds have an uneven rhythmic aspect (Fig.1). From north to south, the following
types of beds can be observed:
(I) Beds outcropping near pole 130: red and greenish grey marls with thin intercalations of siltstone. Both the mark and the siltstones contain a certain amount of
gypsum. Towards the south (i.e., towards the top) the sequence becomes gradually
more arenaceous.
(2) Beds outcropping between a point about 17 m north of pole 129 and pole 127:
an alternation of beds consisting of relatively fine-grained sandstone, siltstone and
marl. No systematic grain-size studies have been made of the arenaceous sediments,
but a cursory inspection suggests that there is a predominance of ungraded beds,
which is particularly true of the thinly bedded and fine-grained units. Sandstones
interrupted by discontinuous lenses or tongues of silty to pelitic material are not
194
J. F. M. DE RAAF
Fig.1. General aspect of the grh B ripple-marks seen at pole 129. The very noticeable bed at the
extreme left is the one revealing the flute casts shown in Fig.2. Oligocene near Liedena village,
Navarra. northern Spain.
Fig.2. Overturned graded sandstone bed with flute cast sole markings. Oligocene, Liedena, Spain.
195
Fig.3. Overturned sandstone bed with apparently symmetrical ripple-markingon upper depositional
surface. Oligocene, Liedena, Spain.
infrequent. The best examples of grading were found in the thickest sandstone beds
(ca. 1 m thick).
Individual graded units of type a, a-b and a-c (see p.192) were recognised.
On the sole of the graded units good flute casts (Fig.2), groove casts and other less
characteristic sole markings are occasionally present. The bird tracks described by
Mangin were also found in this part of the section. Several thin beds reveal evidence
of slumping. Many of the sandstones and siltstones display ripple marks on their
lower or upper surfaces. The ripple marks often have directions that do not differ very
much from either the strike or the dip of the beds. Good instances of apparently symmetrical ripple marks, that are generally thought to have been caused by wave action,
have been observed (Fig.3). Other kinds of ripples have also been seen, and it is clear
that a detailed investigation of rippling by sectioning the sandstones and determination of the directional features is needed. Another subject worth further investigation
is the silty and marly pelites occurring between the sandstones and siltstones. They
are generally greyish, but subordinate beds occur that are red in colour. No micropalaeontological study of the pelites has been made as yet.
Towards the top (between poles 128 and 127) the sequence becomes richer in finegrained material.
(3) Beds outcropping between poles 127 and 126: only very fine-grained, thinly
bedded sandstones and siltstones have been developed in this part of the section
(Fig.4). They often bear delicate sole markings (burrowings, etc.) and in particular
some pseudomorphs after salt crystals that merit special mention (Fig.4, 5).
Some of the intercalated marly pelites have a brown reddish colour.
196
J. F. M. DE RAAF
Interpretation
The individual graded units encountered in the Liedena section have a similar
sedimentary structure to those intercalated in deep-water pelites, and also to those
occurring in the above-mentioned Eocene sediments of the southern Pyrenees.
However, the Liedena Beds have been deposited near or at a coast, in a belt where
temporarily and locally evaporitic conditions existed.
Fig.4. Overturned sequence consisting of marly pelite with intercalations of very line sandstone and
siltstone; pseudomorphs after salt crystals occur occasionally as sole markings. For assessment of
size, see sunglasses at bottom left. Oligocene, Liedena, Spain.
197
Fig5 Pseudomorphs after salt crystals as sole markings: finegrained silty sandstone bed. Oligocene,
Liedena, Spain.
to shed light on the role played by graded bedding and on the shape of individual
graded units in the gr& a ripple-marks, as well as the latters relationship with other
facies (WNGIN,
1959-1960, fig.92, sandstones with nummulites, conglomerates, etc.).
It may be useful to summarize the different features that, at Liedena, point to shallow or negligible aqueous cover during deposition: ( I ) red and greenish pelites associated with gypsum, (2) salt pseudomorphs, (3) bird tracks, (4) abundant ripple marks
on upper as well as lower surfaces of sandstone beds with crests running in different
directions, (5) occurrence of apparently symmetrical ripples (presumably wave ripplemarks), (6) a particular kind of lensing and interfingering in certain arenaceous units.
The above account shows that graded beds of the same habitus may occur in differing depositional environments and that a turbiditic origin is particularly evident
for those which occur in bathyal or deeper deposits.
GENERAL REMARKS
Tn the course of my investigations, I came to the conclusion that they occur also in
198
J. F. M. DE RAAF
(GNACCOLINI~,
1960), intracratonic units M ALL EN^, 1960; GILL,1961) etc. In the orthogeosynclines they attain their maximum development and play an important role in
flysch comFlexes.
The Liedena Beds dealt with in this account form the basis of the huge molassic
fill of the Ebro Basin and should not be mistaken for a flysch, in spite of their rhythmic
aspect and local grading.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank the directors of Shell Internationale Research Maatschappij N.V. for permission to publish this article.
REFERENCES
ALLEN,J. R. L., 1960. The Mam Tor sandstones: A turbidite facies of the Namurian deltas of
Derbyshire, England. J. Sediment. Petrol., 30 (2) : 193-208.
BOUMA,
A. H., 1962. Sedimentology of Some Flysch Deposits. A Graphic Approach to Facies Interpretation. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 168 pp.
Cumms, W. A., 1958. Some sedimentary stmtures from the Lower Keuper sandstones.Liverpool
MANGIN,
I. PH.,1962. Traces de pattes doiseauxet flute-casts associb dans un facies flysch du
Tertiaire pyrbnkn. Sedimentology, 1 (2) : 163-166.
FRENTICE,
J. E., 1962. Some sedimentary structures from a Weald clay sandstone at Warnham Brickworks, Horsham, Sussex. Proe. Geologists Assoc. Engl., 73 (2) : 171-186.
and
0. E. WESER
SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
In the past decade, the information available on sedimentary sole structures in turbidity current deposits has been rapidly increasing. Most of these data concern European
exposures because of the abundance of good outcrops in European turbidite sequences
and alarge group of workers in that area. An unusually well-developed, small sandstone
sole in Miocene turbidites of the Topanga Formation is exposed in the Santa Monica
Mountains in Southern California. The exposed sandstone sole is small, approximately 7 by 19 ft., but it contains a remarkable number and variety of tool markings.
Severalvarieties of scour markings are also present. The sand bed is well-cemented and
the sole surface is overturned and dipping 74". It thus provides excellent conditions for
studying the form, variation and orientation of sole features.
The outcrop is located in a road-cut on Mulholland Drive approximately0.8 miles
200
J. H. SPOTTS A N D 0 . E. WESER
west of Las Virgenes Road. It is about 30 miles northwest of downtown Los Angeles
(Fig. 1).
Although well exposed here, sole features are not ubiquitous in turbidite outcrops
and are rarely found in subsurface cores. Other directional features such as grain
orientation and current-rippling or cross-bedding must be used for paleogeographic
reconstruction in the absence of sole marks. Geologists working in turbidite sequences
have long been interested in particle or grain orientation relative to linear sole features
and the abundance of linear markings in the Mulholland Drive outcrop provided an
excellent opportunity for statistical comparison of grain orientation and sedimentary
SAN JOAWIN
VALMY
\
\\
\
---/
/
PLATE I
FEET
Photograph of sandstone sole in turbidite sequence in Topanga Sandstone (Miocene) in the Santa Monica Mountains, California. The exposure is on
Mulholland Drive, approximately 0.8 miles west of Las Virgenes Road in Los Angeles County. The sandstone is overturned and dips approximately 74"
toward the observer. Direction of current movement is toward the lower left.
202
h)
0
h)
Fig.2. Orientation of fractures, grains and sole features, Topanga Sandstone outcrop, Mulholland Drive, Santa Monica Mountains, California.
203
PREVIOUS WORK
Several workers have been active in recent years in the descriptive and interpretive
aspects of sole markings. Comprehensive studies that also include some excellent
illustrations include works by KUENEN(1957), RADOMSKI
(1958), DZULYNSIU
and
SLACZKA
(1959), TENHAAF(1959), and DZULYNSKI
and SANDERS
(1962). Photographs
and detailed descriptions of sole marks are also given by GLAE~~NER
(1958), R~~CKLIN
(1938), PEABODY
(1947), CUMMINS
(1958), and BIRKENMAJER
(1958). The terminology
and interpretation of genetic significance of sole marks is diverse; and, unfortunately,
there has been no concerted effort to standardize the nomenclature. In general, the
terminology of DZULYNSKI
and SANDERS
(1962) is followed in this paper.
Considerably less work has been done on sand grain fabric in turbidites and its rela(1958), and TEN
tionship to other directional features. KOPSTEIN
(1954), RADOMSKI
HAAF(1959), made limited investigations of sand grain, pebble and other particle
orientation. SPOTTS
(1962, 1964) found a consistent divergence between dimensional
grain orientation and groove and flute casts in a Miocene turbidite of the Los Angeles
Basin. Very little investigation has been done on local variations in grain orientation along bedding planes or regional grain fabric relationships primarily because of
the tedious work involved in obtaining valid statistical measurements.
METHODS OF STUDY
For purposes of description and statistical measurement, the outcrop was divided into
a grid system of 2 x 3 ft. sectors with black tape. Twenty complete and partial
sectors were outlined (Fig.3). Each sector was photographed close-up and the orientation of all measurable linear features was determined with a goniometer and Tsquare on 8 x 10 inch enlargements. Angles were measured with the strike of the
strata as a reference line. Because of curved trails at the terminal ends of some features, the direction of each marking was measured at the point of first contact with the
bedding surface. Orientation of each type of feature in each sector was tabulated separately. The exposed surface was examined for possible engraving tools which could
204
have made the sole features, and several possible impacting tools are described in a
later section.
Samples of shale were collected for determination of depth of water at the site of
deposition by paleoecological techniques.
BCILE IN FT.
Fig.3. Sketch of outcrop showing grid system for reference and statistical measurements. See Plates I1
and 111.
Fifteen oriented sand samples were taken from the thin 1-2 inch sand bed immediately overlying the grooved and fluted surface for measurement of grain fabrics. Sand
grain imbrication studies were made on six of the oriented sandstone samples; these
were the only samples that were sufficiently well-laminated that the bedding could be
accurately defined in thin-sections perpendicular to bedding planes.
The fracture pattern was measured by tracing the fractures onto an overlay for an
enlarged photograph (15 x 32 inch) of the entire exposure. The distinction between
open and closed fractures was made on the overlay by examination of the outcrop in
the field. Orientations of the two types of fractures were recorded separately.
PLATE lI
Photographs of sole features on Topanga Sandstone, Santa Monica Mountains, California. Direction
of current movement is toward the lower left in all figures. Photographs represent portions of sectors
of outcrop as noted; see Fig.3 and Plate I for location of sectors on the outcrop.
A. Prod casts made by impacting tools of different sizes. Some prod marks (P)show curved longitudinal traces and bent or overturned keels. Other features are flute casts (F),bounce casts (E),
and long, broad grooves. Sector 3.
B. Skip casts (S)and prod casts (P).
Short prod cast nearest right margin was cut by very blunt tool.
Sector 4.
C. Brush cast (ER),bounce casts (E), groove casts (G),and prod casts (P).Sector 2.
D. Large, well-developed flute cast (F)with upcurrent tip of flute removed. Note curved and reclining prod casts (P)in upper center of figure. Vertical and horizontal black lines are tape used for
dividing outcrop for analytical purposes. Sector 14.
PLATE I1
6
INCHES
12
205
206
PLATE 111
6
INCHES
12
207
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Topanga Sandstone in the Mulholland Drive outcrop is part of a thick sequence
of turbidite beds in a rather small orogenic basin of relatively short duration. The
basin formed during the strong mid-Miocene tectonic activity that affected most of
southern California. Turbidite sediments deposited in the basin were derived from
several directions; the orientation of sole features in the Mulholland Drive exposure
suggests a southeasterly source for these particular sands.
Faunal evidence indicates a water depth of several hundred feet at the site of deposition. This is considerably shallower than most Tertiary turbidites in southern California. The sand bed is thin with an average thickness of about one inch. The sandstone is a poorly sorted, fine-grained, subangular, slightly argillaceous and micaceous
arkose with minor amounts of metamorphic rock fragments. The thin turbidite bed
shows a very slight degree of normal graded bedding. The overlying bed is another
thin (1-2 inch) graded sandstone. This upper sand is medium-grained but otherwise
petrographically similar to the thin, fine-grained sand on the face of the outcrop.
SOLE MARKINGS
The sole marks are classified primarily on the mode of formation of the depressions
responsiblefor the casts and they are divided into two major categories, scour markings and tool markings. Scour markings are formed by the cutting action of the
current on the sea bottom. Tool marks are made by the impact of current-transported,
large particles against the muddy sea bottom. Several types of individual sole markings
are illustrated in Plates I1 and 111.
Tool markings
Tool markings are much more abundant than scour features on the outcrop. These
markings are believed cut by relatively large, transported particles that strike the sea
PLATE IU
Photographs of sole features on Topanga Sandstone, Santa Monica Mountains, California. Direction
of current is toward the lower left in all figures. Photographs represent portions of sectors as noted;
see Fig.3 and Plate I for location of sectors on the outcrop.
A. Cusp casts, a row of several individual casts which have almost coalesced to form a linear
feature. Sector 13.
B. Several small bounce and prod casts that show intersecting features (I),diversity of directions,
curved trails (T), and bent keels ( K ) . Sector 7.
C. Detail of intersecting fracture system. Open fractures are diagonal, upper right to lower left and
closed fractures extend horizontally through center of photograph. Both sets show some offset
here. Sector 5.
D. Group of cusp casts (C),
unusual ribbed prod cast (P)in upper left and another very blunt prod
cast (P)above cusps. Sector 6.
208
bottom as they are carried along by turbulent flow. The tools are usually considerably
larger than the average grain size in sandy sediments. The distinction in morphology
of the tool markings is based on relative velocity and the angle of incidence of impacting particles, degree of turbulence in the current, and the nature of the substratum.
In defining the shorter tool markings such as prod marks, brush marks and bounce
marks, we have departed slightly from recent subjective terminology and have used
the definitions given below.
DeJinitions
( I ) Bounce casts
short impact marks whose longitudinal profile is symmetrical.
The deepest penetration of these marks, therefore, is in the center of the cast and their
terminations merge at equal rates with the sandstone sole. Bounce casts provide only
directional data and no information on sense of current movement.
(2) Prod casts - impact marks whose longitudinal profiles are asymmetrical. The
deepest point of the trace is off-center in the longitudinal section. Usually the downcurrent termination merges more abruptly with the sandstone sole than the upcurrent
termination. Rarely, however, because of an exceedingly high impact angle, these
relations are reversed. Thus these features in most cases are very reliable for determining current direction.
(3) Brush casts - impact marks having a crescentic depression around the downcurrent termination. The depression is the pressure ridge in front of the impacting tool.
Several types of tools were available to make the markings. Seaweed, charcoal,
mollusk fragments, fish bones, and relatively large rock fragment grains which have
been found on the sandstone sole could have been impacting tools for most of the
tool markings observed.
Groove casts
These occur singly or in groups, and are some of the most prominent features.
Plate I shows a few groove casts extending completely across the outcrop face. Some
strongly etched grooves range from one to two inches wide and up to 1-2 inch deep.
Others are delicate lines which are visible only on the larger scale photographs. (Plates
I1 and 111.)
Bounce casts
These are the most numerous markings and the longer ones grade into groove casts.
In this report all groove casts shorter than 12 inches were termed bounce casts. Most of
the bounce casts are fairly straight and exhibit little secondary deformation.
Prod casts
These casts exhibit the greatest variety of shapes and sizes and are second in abundance to the bounce casts. Their paths can be straight or curving in an arc up to 50".
The angle of incidence varies from very low to 60".Prod marks show a wide range in
size and their profile ranges from smooth to distinctly ribbed. These casts generally
209
have the largest depth to length ratio, which commonly is 1/1 and occasionally may
be as high as 3/1.
Many prod marks exhibit extreme deformation and the sharp, deep prow may be
bent over so that it is almost parallel to the sandstone sole. This shows that, in spite of
the high degree of deformation, the original outline of the mark is well preserved. Certainly this deformation took place before lithification and probably in a plastic state
shortly after deposition, but the mud had sufficient cohesion to preserve the thin,
delicate shapes.
Brush casts
These also show a variety of shapes and sizes. Generally, however, their trail is
relatively straight and short. Both the longitudinal and transverse profiles are usually
smoother than those of prod casts. Generally brush casts are also not etched as sharply
or deeply as the prod casts.
It is possible that brush casts are formed after the prod casts and perhaps after a
thin sand layer has been deposited on the lutite bottom. Any sharp or small projectile
striking a mud bottom can make a deep, sharply etched impression. If a mud ridge is
formed, it may be carried away by the current, and the marking would be called a prod
cast. However, a thin sand coating over the mud bottom would cushion the impact of
the tool and the marking would then be muted in outline and depth. Any mud ridges
formed during this type of impact would be protected from erosion by the sand cover
and the feature would be classified as a brush cast.
Skip casts
A few excellent examples of skip casts were noted, see Plate 11. One skip mark
appears to have been made by a fish vertebra and is similar to one shown by
DZULYNSKI
and SLACZKA
(1959).
Scour markings
Scour markings are not as abundant as tool markings in the outcrop studied.
DZULYNSKI
and SANDERS
(1962) recognize several varieties of scours but only two are
present here.
Flute casts
Several scattered flute casts are illustrated in the right half of the photograph
(Plate I).A well-developed example is also shown at higher magnification in Plate 11. A
row of flute casts is located in the center-right portion of the outcrop. The individual
casts are fan-shaped and only poorly or incipiently developed.
Channels
A well-developed scour channel is located near the left margin of the photograph
(Plate I). The channel has a minimum length of 2 ft. and apparently extends below the
210
outcrop surface. Near the upcurrent end, it is only a few inches across but it flares out
to 12 inches at the downcurrent termination. It is triangular in cross-section with the
depth of the channel ranging from 1-3 inches.
Cusp cast
A feature not previously described in the literature and first seen on the Mulholland
Drive outcrop is hereby termed a cusp cast. This feature may be formed by current
vortices, although the possibility of plastic flow of the substratum cannot be eliminated.
These casts occur mainly in groups parallel to the current direction although isolated ones are also present. Individual cusp casts are round to oblong in outline but the
features are not symmetrical with respect to the current direction. The perimeter of
the cast on one side of the flow direction merges gradually with the sandstone sole,
whereas the other half of the feature is steeply undercut. A train of these casts is
shown on Plate 111. This asymmetry about the line of current flow may impart a
directional significance to cusp casts but a bztter understanding of the origin of these
markings is needed to evaluate this possibility.
Cusp casts differ from the flute casts in that they lack a deeper upstream end and are
not elongated in a downstream direction. Like flute casts, however, cusp casts do form
rows or trains of several individuals and apparently merge to form major cusp casts.
ORIENTATION OF MARKINGS
Seven types of sole markings in the outcrop reprzsenting several mechanisms of formation have directional significance. Cross-cutting and deformational relations indicate that not all types were formed simultaneously. If specific types of features are
associated with certain phases of the marking current, shifts in current direction with
time could result in different mean orientations for different types of sole markings. To
test this possibility, orientation data for each type of feature were obtained for each
of the 20 sectors and the entire outcrop. Orientation measurements for 2,106 such
features were made. These data are listed in Table I.
The relative abundance of the various markings is shown by the totals for the outcrop. Approximately 50 % of the features are bounce marks and prod marks account
for 30 % of the total. The other types of tool markings are less abundant, brush marks,
13 %, and groove marks, 6 %. Slightly more than 1 % of the directional features are
scour markings, including cusp casts.
Four levels of comparison of statistical directional data for the sole markings were
made, (1) the variation in average direction for each type of marking within a sector
and between sectors, (2) comparison between sectors of the mean orientation direction
of all markings within a sector, (3) the composite directional data for each type of
marking for the entire outcrop and (4) the orientation of all markings for the whole
exposure.
TABLE I
ORIENTATION DATA OF SOLE FEATURES
(Showing number of features and mean direction for each type of sole marking in sectors of outcrop; see Fig.3)
~
Sector
no.
~~~
Groove
casts
no.
dir.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
10
7
6
9
5
6
8
7
11
2
12
20
9
5
3
4
1
1
3
2
Total
131
Mean
dir.
12"
8"
8"
14"
17"
7"
5"
13"
12"
15"
12"
7"
7"
11"
9"
14"
24"
21"
3"
17"
Bounce
casts
no.
dir.
76
85
52
58
55
64
60
54
21
29
57
102
64
126
70
16
8.
7
33
10
12"
12"
12"
13"
19"
15"
12"
13"
13"
14"
14"
15"
14"
16"
15"
9"
13"
13"
11"
19"
1,047
10"
~~~
Prod
casts
no.
dir.
Brush
casts
no.
dir.
40
70
17
22
8
15
10
8
35
46
39
33
41
36
11
10
31
50
34
54
59
20
3
5
17
2
9'
13"
9"
14"
16"
11"
10"
15"
16"
5"
14"
10"
13"
13"
14"
10"
11"
12"
9"
23"
636
14"
13
5
8
10
25
25
27
24
32
9
12"
8"
no.
dir.
10"
19"
13"
12"
12"
16"
4"
13"
9"
1
5
8"
lo"
33"
1
1
17"
32"
21"
cusp
no.
dir.
-2"
5
11"
-1"
3"
1
1
21"
6"
21
3
2
4
16"
-3"
4"
8"
144
184
102
129
109
117
122
103
53
51
127
200
137
213
165
50
14
10"
13"
17"
13"
11"
14"
14"
11"
14"
12"
11"
15"
12"
11"
14"
13
59
14
14"
11"
19"
11"
11'
3
F
E
Z
fi
8
3
1
$
5
4
m
2,106
15
5"
Sector valud
Total
Mean
no.
dir.
casts
29"
8
10"
5"
13"
4"
14"
37"
Flute
casts
no.
dir.
11"
8"
264
12"
Skip
cmts
8"
13"
Sector values include total number and mean direction of all features within a sector of the outcrop. Mean directions are measured clockwise from the
vertical grid lines of the outcrop photograph (approximatedip direction).
c!
212
For variations within a sector, several sectors have too few features to obtain significant results. Scour and skip marks are not sufficiently abundant in any one sector on
this level to be evaluated statistically. For the remaining sole marks, there is a high
degree of preferred orientation in all sectors (Fig.2). The maximum variation in direction within any sector is in sector 15 where there is a 9" range. A study of the deviation
of each mark type within a sector and between sectors indicates a remarkably consistent orientation pattern. In other words, there is no persistent deviation in average
direction of any type sole marking from any of the other sole markings in any one
sector or over the entire outcrop.
A comparison between sectors of the combined average orientation of all sole
markings within one sector shows little variation from sector to sector. At this level
of comparison, the combined average values of all sectors are statistically significant.
The uniformity of these orientations is illustrated in Fig.2. The small variation in
orientation pattern of all sole markings is apparently random about the flow direc-
Fig.4. Orientation of fractures, sand grains and sole features, Topanga Sandstone, Mulholland Drive
outcrop; * = miscellaneoussole features: flute, skip and cusp casts.
213
tion, and is not related to any consistent variation in direction of current across the
outcrop face.
A study of the relationship between the orientation of different markings for the
entire outcrop shows similar well-oriented patterns. At this level of comparison, skip
marks are still insignificant but the scour marks provide relatively more significant
data than for the sector-to-sector relationship. These data are listed in Table I and the
results are plotted in Fig.4 which shows the frequency distribution of direction for
each type of mark relative to a composite diagram of all marks for the entire outcrop.
The shapes of the frequency polygons for groove, bounce, prod and brush marks are
all similar. The flute and cusp marks indicate a slight directional deviation (6") from
the composite for tool marks. It does not appear, therefore, that the current changed
direction during the interval of current-marking on the sea floor. The polygon for all
markings shows skewness toward the clockwise direction and this pattern is repeated
for each principal type of tool mark.
Finally a summary rose diagram plotted with 5" class intervals for all sole features
is illustrated in F i g 5 With reference to the dip direction the structures are mainly
restricted between 5" counterclockwise to 30" clockwise, i.e., a range of 35". The mean
direction is approximately 13" clockwise. The range in orientation for individual
features spans 70", even though statistically the over-all pattern is very well-oriented.
The strong preferred orientation indicates a fairly constant direction of current flow
during the formation of the sole features; the wide angular range in individual features probably results from turbulent motion within the essentially unidirectional current.
GRAIN ORIENTATION
Dimensional grain orientation on fifteen oriented samples from the outcrop was measured to determine the relationship between sole features and depositional current
direction. The angular relationship between linear sole features and orientation of
long axes of sand grains in turbidity current sandstones has been reported by SPOTTS
(1964). This study showed that there was a fairly consistent angular divergence between sole features and grain orientation indicating that the earlier marking phase of
the current diverged by approximately 45" from a later depositional phase throughout
the deposition of 100 ft. of thinly bedded Miocene sands in the Point Fennin area of
the Los Angeles Basin. The abundance of linear sole features in the Mulholland
outcrop offered another excellent opportunity to examine these angular relationships
further.
The location of the samples examined for grain orientation is indicated in Fig.2 by
the position of the center of the doubly-barbed arrows which show mean grain orientation. The samples were collected so that thin sections could be obtained stratigraphically above the grooves and other sole features but still within the sand bed which
contains the features. The orientation of sand grains within the casts may be affected
by the micro-relief of the bottom at the time of deposition and this material was
214
ORIENTATION
OF
YO6
SOLE
FEATURES
COMPOSITE
GRAIN
I5 SAMPLES
ORIENTATION
?+I8 GRAINS
I'
1 3 0
ORIENTATION
wN
FRACTURES
OF FRACTURES
uo
CLOILD
91
FRACTURES
Fig.5. Directional features of Topanga Sandstone, Mulholland Drive outcrop, Santa Monica Mountains, California.
215
avoided for directional measurements. Thin sections were cut parallel to bedding and
the orientation of the long axes of approximately 500 sand grains per section was
measured. The mean grain orientation was determined by the method described by
CURRAY
(1956)for statistical analysis of two-dimensional directional data. In addition
to grain orientation parallel to bedding planes, sand grain imbrication was measured
for several samples by examining thin sections perpendicular to bedding. Imbrication
sections were cut parallel to mean grain orientation in the bedding plane and normal
to the bedding plane. S P O(1964)
~
and MCBRIDE
(1962)have shown that maximum
imbrication in turbidity current sands is parallel to grain orientation in the bedding
plane. Imbrication sections were measured in the same manner as the bedding plane
sections.
Grain orientation in the bedding plane is summarized in Fig.6.The orientations are
plotted in the bedding plane, i.e., the resultants have not been rotated into the vertical
APPROXIMATELY
BRAINS
..A
PER
500
SAMPLE
0
R
i.
Fig.6. Preferred grain orientation of fifteen samples of Topanga Sandstone. See Plate I for sample
locations. Orientations plotted in plane of bedding.
216
plane. Mean orientations range from 8"-51" counterclockwise from the strike direction as viewed from the stratigraphic bottom; n.b., the outcrop is overturned. There
is a strong clustering of resultants at approximately 40" but the asymmetrical distribution of the entire group shifts the mean grain Orientation of all the samples to
approximately 35" counterclockwise from the strike.
The distribution of resultants as illustrated in Fig.2 shows a weak tendency for
samples toward the left end of the outcrop to be oriented closer to the strike direction.
The variations within fairly narrow limits show no specific trend across the outcrop.
The composite grain orientation (7,518 grains), i.e., a single orientation diagram
constructed from all the grain orientation data for the entire outcrop, shows a mean of
36" counterclockwise from strike (Figs), which compares closely with the 35" mean
for the 15 resultants for individual samples. The asymmetrical or skewed distribution
of means is also shown by the composite fabric (Fig.5).
GRAIN IMBRICATION
Imbrication of sand grains, i.e., the angle of inclination between long axes of grains and
the bedding plane, was determined for 6 samples. Imbrication studies were restricted
to samples for which the bedding could be accurately defined (k2-3"). Sections were
cut normal to bedding, parallel to the direction of orientation in the bedding plane and
the trace of the bedding plane was used as the reference direction for measurement of
imbrication. Approximately 500 grains per sample were measured.
Sand grain imbrication is inclined downward in an upcurrent direction as deterSTRATG
I RAPHC
I
TOP
CURRENT
'
r STRATISRAMIC
TOP
PER BAMCLL
Fig.7. Imbricationof sand grains in six sections perpendicular to bedding and parallel to preferred
grain orientation in bedding plane.
217
mined from the asymmetry of numerous sole features that indicate current sense as well
as direction. The circular diagram in Fig.7 indicates the imbrication in a vertical plane
with reference to stratigraphic top and structural dip. The outcrop sketch shows the
present structural orientation and the imbrication attitude. Imbrication data show a
mean imbrication of 14" inclined downward in an upcurrent direction with a range
from -6-22" in an upcurrent direction. This imbrication attitude is the "negative angle
of attack" described by RUSNAK
(1957) and others as the position of maximum grain
stability with respect to continuing fluid movement.
Similar imbrication results are described by SPOTTS(1964) in a detailed study of
Miocene turbidity current sands near Point Fennin, in the Los Angeles Basin. Hydrodynamic theory and the experimental results of RUSNAK(1957) and SCHWARZACHER
(195 1) also indicate downward inclination in the upcurrent direction. Imbrication
data from modern and ancient sediments show both types of imbrication and the complications appear related to grain size and size distribution and the environment of
deposition or depositing medium.
ORIENTATION OF FRACTURES
Another striking feature of the outcrop is a well-developed fracture system. The major
fractures are shown in the photograph (Plate I), and the outcrop sketch (Fig.2) illustrates the details of the fracture system. There are two types of fractures present in the
outcrop, open and closed (see Plate III). The closed fractures are generally shorter,
more numerous and show a more diffuse, branching pattern. Most closed fractures
show a small amount of offset, usually less than an inch. The upthrown side of most of
the closed fractures or minor faults is toward the lower right as the observer faces the
outcrop. The relative movement of the upthrown blocks is considered to be toward
the stratigraphic top and thus away from the observer, n.b., the strata are overturned.
There are fewer open fractures; they are longer and form a simpler network. Only a
few of the open fractures show a detectable offset. The open fractures are probably
tensional, relatively recent in age, and are probably related to near surface adjustments
during removal of overburden and erosional development of local topography. The
closed fractures are apparently older and may be related to the adjustment of a sloping
sea bottom to a rapidly deposited sediment load or tectonic activity.
The orientation pattern for all the fractures (Fig.5) indicates a fairly strong but bifurcated maximum and another minor maximum at approximately 90". The bifurcated
maximum shows peaks at 15" and 35" counterclockwise from the strike and a Small
maximum at 65" clockwise. This pattern represents a total of about 130 fractures.
The pattern for the orientation of closed fractures only is generally similar, however,
it does not contain the minor maximum n o m l to the major trend. The closed fractures show the bifurcated major trend in precisely the same position as for the entire
fracture system. The sketch in Fig.2 shows that the closed fractures primarily constitute one set with the major trend as outlined above. The open and apparently later
218
fractures show two well-developed sets, one of which coincides with the closed set and
another which is in a perpendicular position that accounts for the minor maximum at
65" clockwise from the strike line. It is obvious that the sole features have had little
effect on the fracture orientation because there is no tendency for fractures to follow
linear sole structures either on an individual or overall statistical basis.
Each of the three types of directional features (sole features, fractures, and grain orientation) that have been studied show a relatively high degree of preferred orientation.
A comparison of the angular relationship between the preferred directions provides
some clues to the possible genetic association between the various features (Fig.4, 5).
The mean grain orientation divergesfrom the mean sole marking orientation by approximately 45" counterclockwise. Turbidity currents can be divided into an earlier,
sole marking phase and a later phase when the bulk of the sand was deposited. If the
grain orientation is indeed parallel to the direction of the later phase of the current,
then the earlier phase of the current flowed in a distinctly different direction. Similar
results were obtained by SPOTTS
(1964) for groove and flute casts and grain orientation
in Miocene turbidites (Mohnian) in the southwestern part of the Los Angeles Basin.
The divergence for these Mohnian schist sands was 40-50" but clockwise rather than
counterclockwise (from groove to grain direction) for the strata restored to remove
structural dip. It appears likely that earlier and later phases of the same current at
some locations diverge possibly as a consequence of local submarine topography,
however, we have not been able to work out sufficient topographic details to explain
observed angular relationships precisely. Turbidity current flow is probably faster
during the earlier or marking phase and the direction is more strongly controlled by
inertial forces than the later, slower phase of the same current. The different phases
would react differently to submarine topographic features and the slower phases
might be much more susceptible to changes in direction due to submarine relief.
The divergence observed between grain orientation and sole features may also be
due to a divergence between normal current circulation in the basin and turbidity
currents. Under these conditions, the scour and tool marks would be cut by normal
oceanic currents that prevailed at the depositional site between relatively short,
sporadic periods of turbidity current activity. This might explain the divergence in
directional features that persisted throughout 100 ft. of section in Miocene turbidites
in the Los Angeles Basin (SPOTTS,1964). However, it is not likely that the depressions
in the fine-grained sediment that generally preceded the casts could be cut by normal
currents. These currents were apparently depositing clay and silty clay between the
periods of turbidite deposition. These currents apparently could not move particles
large enough to have cut the grooves and other marks. The size of the tools observed
and the apparent force of impact of the tools on the bottom indicate erosion by vigorous currents such as a dense, heavily laden, fast-flowing turbidity current.
219
The range of influence of Corioli's force on turbidity currents at different stages has
been suggested as another possible cause of the angular relationship. The implication
is that Corioli's effects would depend on the velocity, relative density, and possibly the
dimensions of the turbidity current and thus might change with time. Corioli's forces
may have observable effects on current directions but these are difficult to assess precisely because of our lack of knowledge concerning the three main factors listed
above. Corioli's forces are not the most significant factor responsible for the divergence because the marking-phase currents at Point Fermin and Mulholland Drive
outcrops were flowing in the same general direction and sense and yet subsequent
depositional features diverge in opposite directions, clockwise at Point Fermin and
counterclockwise at Mulholland Drive.
The fracture patterns for closed fractures and the entire fracture system show an
interesting general parallelism with the preferred grain orientation. The mean fracture
direction is approximately 30" counterclockwise from the present strike and the mean
orientation direction is 36" in the same direction. The close angular relationship suggests a genetic relationship between the two features. Three-dimensional orientation
of the sand grains suggets that directional grain orientation is a primary depositional
feature of this sandstone and that it has not been greatly affected by tectonism, even
though the beds are overturned. This evidence would indicate that the fracture
orientation is a consequence of grain orientation. The relatively strong grain orientation in the sand produces an inherent directional "grain" or anisotropic distribution
of rock strength so that fractures will tend to develop parallel to the grain orientation.
The shear strength in a granular medium with preferred orientation of elongate grains
is less in directions parallel to the orientation than transverse to it.
MCBRIDE
and YEAKEL
(1963) in a study of the relationship between parting lineation
and rock fabric show that the lineations are parallel to preferred grain orientation.
Parting lineation, as the term implies, are partings or microfractures with strong linear
orientation that are observed on bedding surfaces. Statistical analyses of two types of
sandstones, a lithic sandstone from the central Appalachians, Bald Eagle (Oswego,
Upper Ordovician) and a calcarenite from the Oakville Formation (Miocene) from
central Texas show parallelism of long axes of grains and parting lineation in individual beds even though parting lineations differed as much as 60" between beds. The
grain fabric imposes an anisotropic strength to the sandstone bed so that the direction
of partings or microfractures are strongly influenced.
The possibility that the grain orientation is a secondary or deformationzrl feature
must be considered. Strata that have undergone sufficient tectonism to be steeply overturned might show some internal rotation and rearrangement on a grain-to-grain
scale. Petrographic and petrofabric evidence for the Topanga Sands at this locality do
not support any explanation based on grain rearrangement. If the grain rearrangement
occurred in a nonlithified state, the delicate sole features would certainly have been
deformed or destroyed. No evidence for significant grain fracturing or chipping,
rolling or rotation was observed in thin section. The imbrication data, which agree
very well for the sense of current movement, are probably the strongest evidence
220
J. H. SPOTFS A N D 0. E. WESER
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are very grateful to F. F. Sabins and E. A. Zubak for the photographs used in this
report.
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TURBIDITES
ARNOLD H . BOUMA
SUMMARY
Deposits of turbidity currents are reported from many areas all over the world, with
ages varying from Precambrian to Recent. The concept of turbidites is accepted by
most geologists. In spite of all the investigations carried out on this subject, a number
of problems is still under discussion, for instance, the initial type of movement, the
hydraulic properties of a turbidity current and its velocity and erosional power, the
formation of sedimentary structures, etc.
Turbidites are not restricted to flysch, nor to a certain petrographical composition,
a specific phase of an orogeny, nor to a certain age, nevertheless many turbidite series
belong to a flysch unit, are pre-orogenic and built up by alternating layers of graywackes and shales. These deposits play an important role in the paleogeographic
reconstruction of many areas. Some turbidite formations are important as oil bearing
rocks. Continued research on ancient turbidites and on recent deep-sea sands will be
necessary to obtain acceptable answers to many disputed questions.
INTRODUCTION
In this paper the author will attempt a synthesis of some of the results given in the
present volume by Kuenen, Stanley and Bouma, Rizzini and Passega, KelBng,
McBride, Marschalko, Ten Haaf, Plessmann, Meischner, Van Straaten, Bourcart,
De Raaf, and Spotts and Weser. In the following, references will be made to papers
appearing in this book as well as to works published elsewhere. Therefore, when the
authors name is not followed by a year of publication, his contribution can be found
in this book.
In the past, difficulties have been encountered in the interpretation of sediments
showing a rhythmic building pattern, and having coarse-grained beds alternating with
fine-grained deposits. The coarse material was supposed to be deposited in shallow
water and the fine sediments in deep water. It is hardly possible to accept the idea of
basins repeatedly changing from shallow to deep in geologically very short times. By
several steps the idea of re-deposition of sediments by a type of density current became
introduced into the geological literature. BAILEY (1930,1936) described the phenomena
248
ARNOLD H. BOUMA
METHODS
Much work has been done already on ancient turbidites, for example on current
directions, sedimentary structures, fossil content, grain size distributions, sand/clay
ratios and petrographical analyses. Excellent contributions exist (see KUENEN
and
HUMBERT)
on these points, as well as on the forming of sedimentary structures and on
the paleogeography of many parts of the world. Research will continue, more data
will be obtained and other interpretations will be given.
But more detailed observations require many data, and the comparison of groups of
properties becomes time-consuming. Data can be represented in a descriptive way,
or reduced to formulas (BIRKENMAJER,
1959), or graphs (DOEGLAS,
1959; BOUMA
and
NOTA,1961; BOUMA,1962; VAN DER LINDEN,1963), or by a combination of these
methods. The graphical representation is a very useful method but may take too much
time for long sections. Especially in large areas or in regions where several types of
sediment belong to a single group (for example in flysch series), the investigator may
obtain too many data for easy handling. Depending on the type of work several
methods can be used. One is the facies model as introduced by POTTER(1959) and
developed for turbidites by BOUMA(1962). This idea is also used by STANLEY
(1963)
TURBIDITES
249
Turbidites are not restricted to one stratigraphical age. They are known from Precambrian to Recent (see KUENEN,
pp. 17-18). KELLING
reports Precambrian and Paleozoic
turbidites from Britain, MCBRIDEfrom various stratigraphical units between Precambrian and Pliocene for the United States, while VANSTRAATEN
describes a Recent
one from the Adriatic.
KUENEN
erglains that component minerals, grain size distribution and fabric are no
positive criteria, but that the term turbidite formation is purely genetic and invokes
a specific transport and deposition mechanism. Some turbidite formations consist of
alternating arenaceous to pelitic material and pelagic sediments. Sometimes both contain fossils (e.g., NATLAND
and KUENEN,
1951), while others are nearly sterile. Also,
series are known without positively identifiable pelagic deposits (BOUMA,
1962). The
gravel, sand, silt and clay content may vary within an area, or from area to area, without changing the turbiditic character. Some calcareousturbidites are known (KuE
and TENHAAF,1956; TENHAAF,1959; MEISCHNER,
1962, this volume). MEISCHNER
uses a number of criteria to designate his allodapic limestones as turbidites, and they
are more or less the same as were used by other authors to determine non-calcareous
formations as turbidites. Meischner uses the type of sequence, characteristics of the
ideal bed, graded bedding, the absence of shallow-water features, the pelagic intercalations in between non-pelagic detrital limestones, and the presence of some sole
markings like flute and groove casts. PLESSMANN
reports turbidites with different
petrographical aspects, from one geosynclinal basin.
The many sedimentary structures, known from turbidites, are not absolutely
decisive (see e.g., KUENEN;KELLING;
DE RAAF;SPOTTS
and WESER),because many of
them are also reported from non-turbidites. To which extent such structures are
really the same or may have minor, but characteristic, differences is not yet known.
More detailed work will be necessary and other methods, like radiography (HAMBLIN,
1962; CALVERT
and VEEVERS,1963; BOUMA,1963), might be useful to gather the
required information.
250
ARNOLD H. BOUMA
The similarity between deep-sea sands and turbidites was noted long ago (see KUENEN
and references given on pp.5-7; BOURCART),but not well proven. VAN STRAATEN
reports convolute lamination observed in a core collected in the Adriitic.
The present author collected oriented rectangular samples in some submarine
canyons off southern California and off the southern tip of Baja California, Mexico
(BOUMAand SHEPARD,
1964). The samples obtained from the axes of the canyons
commonly present a rhythmic succession of coarse sand or gravelly sand and pelites.
The most common sedimentary structures are parallel lamination, current ripple
lamination, minor scour and fill structures, animal burrows, locally graded bedding
in thin layers (up to 5 cm), internal load casts and slump structures. Most of these
and SCRUTON
(1957) and by GORSLINE
and
structures have been described by MOORE
EMERY(1959). In spite of the presence of some sedimentary structures known from
turbidites, the characteristic succession of the intervals of the turbidite facies model
has not been reported. The single occurrence of one interval of the facies model is not
common in ancient turbidites. From this the conclusio? can be drawn that the presence of some of the above-mentioned sedimentary structures does not represent a
true interval of the model.
Laterally from the canyon axes, the sediments are mostly clayey and locally contain
thin sandy or silty beds. Sedimentary structures are normally not visible by eye, but
radiographs show mainly burrows and slump structures.
The present writer collected only one sample from a small channel in the outer fan
of the La Jolla canyon off southern California, at a depth of 562 fathoms (1,029 m).
This sample is sandy at the bottom and grades upward into pelite; graded bedding is
just visible. A radiograph shows the lower three intervals of the complete turbidite
facies model. The upper two intervals of the model were present in the sample, but
were lost (Fig.1).
Information obtained from samples collected by means of gravity and piston cores
in submarine canyons and adjacent troughs (e.g., ERICSON
et al., 1952; EWINGet al.,
1958; GORSLINE
and EMERY,1959; EMERY,1960; SHEPARD,
1961; SHEPARDand
EINSELE,
1962), together with the two above-mentioned samples, may prove the existence of recent turbidites.
The relation with submarine canyons is not yet completely understood. Observations in canyon heads (e.g., DILL,1964) indicate that turbidity currents do not start at
TURBIDITES
,-E
251
Fig.1. Radiograph of a Recent turbidite, collected from a channel in the outer fan of La Jolla Canyon off southern California, at a depth of 562
fathoms (1,029 m). Only the lower three intervals of the turbidite facies model as given by BOUMA(1962, fig.8) are present. The upper two intervals were lost during removal of the sample from the sampler. The re-worked pelite on top is due to re-deposition because of wrong handling
during storage of the sample. The three white spots on the photograph represeiit clay pebbles.
252
ARNOLD H. BOUMA
shallow depths (< 85 m). Dill measured sediment movements, even fast ones, and
Wing and emptying of parts of the canyon heads. Strong earthquakes do not have
influence on these processes (Dill, personal communication, 1963).
From all this the conclusion may be drawn that Recent turbidity currents will
initiate in the shallower parts of the submarine canyons where sufficiently steep
slopes provide enough energy to start a turbidity current. The data available at the
present time make it probable that their deposits can only be found where the bottom
slope is nearly absent, as on the outer parts of submarine canyon fans and in the
adjacent troughs.
Material not transported by a real turbidity current and presumably deposited on
the higher parts of the submarine fan may form the so-called fluxoturbidites (DzuLYNSKJ et al., 1959) or undaturbidites (RIZZINI
et PASSEGA,
p.71-72).
PALEOGEOGRAPHY
Many geologists are using turbidites in flysch series, for obtaining data on paleogeography, post-depositional processes such as sliding, or basin conditions.
One of the problems is the directional relationship between source area and the
deposits of turbidity currents. Did this transport occur in a longitudinal direction or in a
transverse direction, compared with the shape of the basin (KUENEN,
1957b; ULLING;
MCBRIDE;
MARSCHALKO;
TENHAAF)
? Sole markings only indicate the local direction
of transport of the turbidity currents. Fluxoturbidites often do not show sedimentary
properties from which current directions can be obtained. Even if a longitudinal
direction has been measured on several structures, a transverse supply cannot be
253
TURBIDITES
excluded, because sediments transported by a turbidity current and coming from the
side will move into the direction of the main axis of the basin. Petrological investigations may give a solution to such a problem. Practically all turbidites known are deposited in the marine environment, but in fresh water environments like Lake Mead
(GOULD,1951) and Lake Geneva identical transport possibilities are known to occur.
For the Alpes Maritimes in France (KUENEN
et al., 1957b; STANLEY,
1961; BOUMA,
1962; STANLEY
and BOUMA,fig.14) a transverse filling of the basin seems more likely
than a longitudinal one. However, the present author found, for the area south of the
Argentera-Mercantour massif, that this east-west trending part of the basin can be
divided intc depressions elongated north-south. In each depression the turbidity currents moved in a longitudinal direction, form a source area in the south.
Two contributions of this volume (STANLEY
and BOIJMA;
BOURCART)
give a nice
example of relief reversal during time. In late Eocene time turbidity currents obtained
their load from the Maures-Esterel-Tyrrhenide chain and deposited it in a northern
direction into the area south of the Argentera-Mercantour massif. This source area is
partly submerged now into the Mediterranean. At the present time (BOURCART),
these
turbidites and other sediments from the east part of the French Alpes Maritimes,
together with crystalline rocks of the Argentera-Mercantour massif, form the source
area for turbidity currents running in a southerly direction and depositing their load
in the Mediterranean.
Paleogeographical investigations like the ones given in this volume can be of
economical value, especially when turbidite series are oil bearing (MCBRIDE,
p. 103).
CONCLUSIONS
Of all sediments known the turbidites form an important group. Turbidites are found
throughout the whole stratigraphic record fossil as well as recent (VANSTRAATEN;
BOURCART).
They are not synonymous to flysch, in spite of often being part of flysch
and flysch-like deposits in geosynclines; they can vary in mineralogical composition
although the majority are graywackes and some are limestones (MPISCHNER),
but they
are characterized by a certain transport and deposition mechanism. Sediments comparable to turbidites may also be deposited in a shallow basin. On the other hand
sediments are known which present a number of turbidite properties without being
turbidites (KUENEN,
pp.18-20; DE RAAF).Part of this last-mentioned group may be
called fluxoturbidites and undaturbidites (RIZZINIet PASSEGA).
The lack of shallowwater characteristics (KUENEN;
KELLING)
and the conformity to a turbidite facies
model (BOUMA,
1962; STANLEY,
1963; MEISCHNER),
together with other properties
recognized from turbidites, may give enough information to determine a sediment as
a deposit from turbidity currents. If turbidites form part of geosynclinal sediments,
the geosyncline is not only filled by shallow water deposits (MCBRIDE,
p. 103).
As mentioned, turbidites are often part of geosynclinal sediments. For paleogeographic and tectodc reconstructions they may be of great help. TENHAAFwas able to
254
ARNOLD H. BOUMA
distinguish two differential processes in the flysch series of the northern Apennines,
both due to gravity influences-longitudinal re-sedimentation and transversal sliding.
PLESSMANN
mentions four types of turbidites, based on differences in petrography,
that played a part in the development of the geosyncline east of the river Rhine.
MCBRIDE
describes two depositional basin types for the United States in which turbidity currents have deposited their load -the linear Appalachian and Ouachita geosynclines and the small steep-walled basins of California. MARSCHALKO
points out the
importance of sedimentological studies in the Central-Carpathian flysch because it
has not been affected by strong folding. This enables him to make detailed studies of
the source area and its relationship ro the adjacent flysch deposits. For this area he describes the longitudinal filling from one side by turbidity currents and the submarine
slides (wild flysch) along the steepest slopes, transverse to the main axis of the basin.
A unique outcrop in the Topanga Formation in California is described by SPOTTS
and WESER,in which they observed seven types of tool and scour markings. Based on
many measurements, they found that grain orientation is not parallel to the orientation obtained from linear sole features. A parallelism between sand grain orientation
and the major fracture set suggests a genetic relationship.
In this volume some new terms are introduced (RIZZINIand PASSEGA;
SPOTTS
and
WESER).More uniformity in the nomenclature would seem desirable, and can be promoted by reviews of certain aspects of turbidites and associated formations all over
and WALTON
(in preparation) on the sedimentary
the world, such as DZULYNSKI
structures associated with flysch and graywackes.
Methodology and paleogeography in flysch units are important as a combination as
more and more sediments in the geological record are found to exhibit typical flysch
characteristics (STANLEY
and BOUMA).
This is shown also by RIZZINI
and PASSEGA
who
distinguish three orogenetic .phases, to which the sedimentation of the MarnosoArenacea basin is related, by using the granulometric characteristics presented in CM
diagrams to find different basin conditions.
Though some problems are still under discussion, the study of turbidites has already
led to useful applications in various kinds of geological investigation. The variety of
the contributions in the present volume will help to show some of the directions in
which this new field of research is so rapidly expanding.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wants to express his gratitude to Dr. E. ten Haaf for critically reading this
manuscript.
REFERENCES
BAILEY,
E. B., 1930. New light on sedimentation and tectonics. Geol. Mug., 67 : 77-92.
TURBlDlTES
255
BAILEY,
E. B., 1936.Sedimentation in relation to tectonics. Bull. Geol. SOC.Am., 47 : 1713-1726.
BIRKENMAJER,
K., 1959.Classification of bedding in flysch and similar graded deposits. Studia Geol.
Polon., 3 : 1-133.
BOUMA,
A. H., 1962.Sedimentology of some Flysch Deposits. A Graphic Approach to Facies Interpretation. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 168 pp.
BOUMA,
A. H., 1963.A graphic presentation of the facies model of salt marsh deposits. Sedimentology,
2 : 122-129.
BOUMA,
A. H. and NOTA,D. J. G., 1961. Detailed graphic logs of sedimentary formations. Intern.
Geol. Congr., 21st, Copenhagen, 1960, Rept. Session,Norden, 23 : 52-74.
BOUMA,
A. H. and SHEPARD,F. P., 1964. Large rectangular cores from submarine canyons and fan
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R.A., 1936.Origin of submarine canyons. Am. J. Sci., 31 :401420.
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D. S. and EMERY,
K. O., 1959.Turbidity-current deposits in San Pedro and Santa Monica
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J. T..1958.The Tongaporutuan sedimentation in Central Hawkes Bay. New Zealand J. Geol.
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PH. H., 1937.Experiments in connection with Dalys hypothesis on the formation of submarine canyons. Leidse Geol. Mededel., 8 : 327-335.
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PH. H., 1950. Turbidity currents of high density. Intern. Geol. Congr., 18th, Landon, 1948,
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PH. H., 1957. Longitudinal filling of oblong sedimentary basins. Verhandel. Koninkl. Ned.
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PH. H., 1960.Turbidites in Makara Basin, New Zealand. Koninkl. Ned. Akad. Wetenschap.,
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PH.H.,
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ARNOLD H. BOUMA
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In connection with the data about the facies model (section Methods), recently E.
Mutti (Milan, Italy) kindly provided me with a paper by SIGNORINI
(1936). In this
publication, the Italian author had already described the five sedimentary intervals of
the turbidite facies model, types of bedding contacts, and the break in grain size.
INDEX
Aberystwyth, 15,86,88
- Grits, 80
Abyssal, 192
-depths, 18
- floor, 6
-plain, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 17,22, 23, 24,
25, 142, 148, 152, 154
- floor, 101
Basins, 5
- of California, 91,96, 103
Basins ( c h i m e d )
-off Southern California, 5, 12,14,29
Basses Alpes, 26
Bathyal, 4,15,22,26,192, 197,198
- depths, 18,20
Bathymetry, 52,85,90, 181
Beach, 11, 13,23,27
-deposits, 22
-structures, 16
Beisinghausen, 163
Belemnites, 171
Benthonic fauna, 13,143
- Foraminifera, 13,14,15
Benthos, 156, 169, 171, 178,184
Berleburg, 138, 139
Benvyns-Bala arch, 86
Bio-facies, 156, 169
Biohems, 22
Bio-sounder, 26
Biostromes, 16, 22
Biozones, 14
Bird tracks, 18.26, 195,197
Biscay plain, 6
Black shales, 85,86,90
Blown sand, 21
Bluemud, 12
Borderland, 89
Bordighiera, 149
Bottom fauna, 7
Bounce casts, 16,199,204,207,208,211
-marks, 208,210,213
Brachiopods, 139,161,169,180
Brackish, 21
Branisko massif, 107, 108
'
Bray Series south of Dublin, 15
Break in grain size, 81
Brecciola, 130, 135
Brilon, 177, 180
British Columbia, 6
Brush casts, 199,208,209,211
-marks, 208,210,213
Bryozoa, 161
Bundnerschiefer, 16
Burrowing organisms, 7
Burrows, 15,16,21,27,138,143,162,195,250
CaCO,, 7,146,162
Caledonian geosyncline, 79
-orogen, 76, 88
Caledonoid trend, 76
California, 100,101, 199,207,250,251,254
Camargue, 152
258
INDEX
structure, 23
- -rose diagram, 121
-velocity, 166, 168
Cusp casts, 199,207,210,21 I
- marks, 213
Cycle, 28
Cyclothems, 20
Czechoslovakia. 187
115,116,119,121.122
219
Computer, 36,39,51,63,249
Conglomerate beds, 103
Conglomeratic flysch, 108, 110, 112, 113, 114,
115,118,119,121,
Congo River, 18
Conodonts, 171
Continental Borderland, 103
-rise, 148
-shelf, 23, 101, 148, 150, 151
- s I o ~ ~ , 8, 148, 149, 150, 151
-terrace, 6, 123, 124
contorted slump, 21
convolute bedding, 156, 159
- lamination, 11,14, 16, 21, 27,47, 66, 71, 76.
79,81,117,146,160,162,172,184,250
210
-ripple
172,250
-_
24,25,29,30,
-trenches, 5
- troughs, 6
Deep-water fauna, 15
- shale, 14
deformational structures, 79
Delaware Basin, 94,96
- Mountain, 62
Delta, 21,24,29
Deltaic environments, 3, 198
Denbigshire-Montgomeryshire, northern
Wales, 77,88
Density, 25,26
Denundation, 133
Depositional slope, 124
Derbyshke, northern England, 77
Desiccation cracks, 21
Detrital limestones, 156,159,160, 173,249
Deviation, 101,212
Devilsbit Mountain, central Ireland, 77
Devon, 79, 81, 87
-and Cornwall, southwestern England, 77
Devonian, 15, 102, 138, 139, 140, 157, 163, 171,
177,183,186,187
259
INDEX
Diapirism, 131
Dielectric anisotropy, 101
Directional features, 214, 218
- properties, 43
-structures, 100
Diving saucer, 148,149,152,155
Dodona, 163
Drag marks, 21,118,165
Dune deposits, 22
- structures, 16
Durance, 152
Earthquake, 8,18,24,27,252
Eastern Liguria, 127,131, 132
Ebro basin, 198
Echinoids, 161
Elongate pebbles, 47,48
Emilia, 127
Emilian, 131, 134
Emsian, 138
Environment, 157,193,196,197,253
Eocene, 49, 52, 55, 56, 58, 61, 101, 107, 108,
112,122,130,132,133,134,193,196,253
Epiros, 186
Erosion, 166,168
Esterel Massif, 53,54
Esterel-Thyrrenide chain, 55
Eugeosynclines, 2
Euxinic phase, 87
-sediments, 87
Euxinic-volcanic suite, 87
Evaporitic conditions, 192, 196
Exotic blocks, 68,72
- flyKh, 131,132,252
Experiments, 4,25, 165
Fabric, 48,49
Facies, 50,169
- model (ideal bed), 248,250,251,253
Fan (submarine fan), 251,252
Fauna, 152
Figtree Series, 16
Fish bones, 208
Flank supply, 90
Flinz-facies, 177, 178
Flood plain, 21
Flow casts, 84
Flute casts, 15, 16,21,47,66,68,71,72,76,79,
80, 82, 83, 114, 118, 156, 164, 165, 172, 192,
194,195,199,204,209,211,218,249
- erosion. 82
-marks, 213
Fluvio-marine turbidites, 18
Fluxo-turbidites, 13,21,61,71,72,85,124,249,
252, 253
Flykhoid, 131
Foraminifera, 11, 14, 15, 26, 29, 103, 108, 116,
130, 146,148,151,161,171
Galestrini, 132,133
Gedinnian, 138
Genoa, 127,132
Geochemical study, 101
Geometry, 156
Georgia, 95
Geosynclinal axis, 79
- basin, 19,76,88
- sediments, 34,76,89
-trench, 3
Geosyncline, 75,88,90,100
Germany, 15
GiNan district. 79,88
-, southwestern Scotland, 77,85
Givetian, 138,139,140
Glacial varves, 27,28
Glauconite, 29,30
Globigerina ooze, 12,24
Golfe de Genes, 152,154
-du Lion, 152,154
Goniatites, 171,182,184,186,198
Graded bedding, 9,10,13,16,21,27,29,30,34,
--
260
INDEX
172,195, 199,204,208,211,218,249
-marks, 210,213
Gulf of Mexico, 6, 12
Gullies, 151
Gypsum, 73,193,197
Gyttja, 180
Hagen, 163,182
Hapalotectonic phase, 127
Harlech Dome, northern Wales, 15,77,78,80
Heavy minerals, 54,68,72
Hellenicflysch, 157, 186, 187
Hemi-pelagic, 14, 16
Herdringen, 163,182, 184
Horizontal grading, 156, 164
Hudson sub-sea fan, 10
Hydraulic conditions, 248
Iberia plain, 6
IBM computer programme, 249
Ideal bed (facies model), 159, 162, 164, 181,
182,249
KvaEany, 119
Laasphe, 139
Lagoon, 21
Laingsburg, South Africa, 28
La Jolla canyon, 250,251
Lake Bonneville, Utah, 94
Lake District, northwestern England, 77,88
- Geneva, 6,253
--Mead, 94,253
Larnellibranchiata, 169,180
Lamination, 9,11,24,27,29,172
Lanarkshire, mid Scotland, 77
Large rock fragments grains, 208
La Roya, 149,150
- Spezia, 127, 133,149
Lateral, 86
- derivation, 89
-filling, 119,121
- slopes, 8 1
- supply, 79,88, 130
Lenticular body, 156
Letmathe, 163, 182,184
Levee, 8
Leveed channels, 5
Liedena, 193,194,195,196,197
-Beds, 196,198
Limestone-turbidites, 137, 139, 140
Linear sole features, 199,200,213,254
Lineation patterns, 47
Liquefaction, 3,9. 18,24
Littoral features, 3
Llandoverian, 77
Llano uplift, 94,102
Lleyn peninsula, northern Wales, 77
Loadcasts, 14,66,71, 118, 121, 188
Loch Awe, western Scottish Highlands, 77, 78
Long axes of pebbles, 119
Longitudinal filling, 84,119,121,122
- resedimentation, 134
- ripples, 154
- supply, 79,88,130
-transport, 76, 79, 87, 89, 90,102, 130, 252,
253,254
Kentucky, 99
Killary Harbour, western Ireland, 77
Kilmory Bay, 78
Kirkcolm Group, 79,80
Kirkcudbrightshire, southwestern Scotland, 77,
Klenov, 124
Klenov-KvaEany-Such& D o h a , 113
Koblenz, 177
Konklisi, 186
Krifna, 115
Krosno Beds, 15
Machine processing, 36
Macigno, 15, 129, 130, 132,133,134,192
Magdalena River, 18
Malrn, 157,164,171,184
Manganese, 148,154
78,79
261
INDEX
Nice, 149,150,152,154
Non-flysch, 54,55,56,58
Non-marine deposits, 94
Nokturbidite, 249
Normal currents, 9
North American continent, 5
Nova Scotia, Canada, 99
Nummulites, 186, 197
Nusplingen, 184,186
Nuttlar, 163
169, 170
Ocean floor, 8
Ocean-floor topography, 5
Oceanic currents, 218
Ohio, 99
Oklahoma, 97,98,100,102
Oligocene, 13, 52, 55, 56, 107, 108, 122, 127,
130,133,192,193,194,195,196,197
Ondragovce, 119
Ooids, 156, 161
Open fractures, 199,202,203,207,214,217
Ophiolites, 129, 131
Ordovician, 15, 76, 77, 80, 81, 85, 86, 87, 88,
102
Organic hieroglyphs, 15
-matter, 169
- remains, 3
Orientation, 210,211,212,213,214,217
Orogenetic phase, 65,73,247
Orthogeosynclines, 197,198
Ouachita foldbelt, 94,97,102
- Mountains, 94,100,254
OvEie, 121
Oversteepening of depositional slopes, 18
02,
Palaeoapennine, 127,130,131,132,134
Paleobasin, 50
Paleocurrent, 41,43,51,100,102
-maps, 36
Paleoecologic studies, 73, 103
Paleogeography, 4,43,50,53,55,58,62,63,75,
102,157,175,200,203,248,252,253,254
Paleoslope, 35,44,52,61
Paleozoic, 15,19,76,78,88,100,249
Paillon, 150, 151, 154
Pamplona, 193
Paralic features, 3
Parallel lamination, 146,160,250
Parting lineation, 100
Peeblesshire, southeastern Scotland, 77,80
Peka Cava flysch, I92
Pelagic, 62, 85, 103, 111, 116, 142, 143, 156,
157, 174,249
-clay, 12
262
INDEX
Pelagic (continued)
-deposit, 7, 87
-fauna, 13
-sediment, 6,8,11,20,22,24,50
Punch cards, 36
Pyrenees, 18, 152
Quartz, 30, 146, 161, 162
Quicksand, 24
Radiocarbon dating, 13
Radiography, 249,250,251
Radiolarian cherts, 87
Radnorshire, Wales, 77
Rain pits, 16
Random sampling, 48
Ratios, 51, 53, 108
Recent, 247,249,25 1,252
Repeated grading, 10
Resedimentation, 127, 130, 131, 133, 134, 135,
184,254
Reworked fossils, 7
Reworking, 7,62,81,130,184
Rheinisches Schiefergebirge, 138,178,182,184,
188
Rhena, 163
Rhenish geosyncline, 157
Rhinns of Galloway, southwestern Scotland,
77, 79, 80, 86
R h h e delta, 6, 18
Ridge, 6
Ripple lamination, 9, 16, 146
-marks, 76,80,81,83, 197
River deposits, 16
- flood, 24
Rock fragments, 115
Romagna, 127
Roots, 21
-in situ, 16
Roiikoviany, 119
Roundness, 161
Rudites, 86, 87
Sables de Fontanelice, 66,68,71,72
Saline lagoonal deposits, 193
Salopian, 77, 88
- rocks, 80
Salt pseudomorphs, 16,197
Sand/clay ratio, 68,72,248
Sand dikes, 14
San Diego Trough, 62
Sand grain, 203
Santa Monica Mountains, California, 199,201,
202,204,207,214
INDEX
Seaweed, 208
Sedimentation balance, 23
Seiches, 9
Seismic prospecting, 22
Self-sustaining, 25
Sequence, 162,192
Shale pebble, 21
Shallow-neritic depths, 20
Shallow water, 26,29,156,193,247
Shallow-water benthonic Foraminifera, 7,8,12
- features, 3, 12,249,253
- graywackes, 26
- neritic fauna, 16
- turbidites, 16
Sheet floods, 3,18,26,196
Shelf, 29,140,177,182,186
- deposits, 22,50
- -edge sediments, 89
Shells, 7
Siegenian, 138
Sigsbee abyssal plain, 12
Silicified parts, 159
Silt, 14,15,173,180,182
Silurian, 15,76,77,78,79,80,87,88,89
Skip casts, 199,204,209,211
-marks, 209,212,213
Slide, 44,50, 61, 118, 124, 157, 180, 184, 252,
254
-bodies, 116, 119,123
- -conglomerates, 79,86,88
Sliding, 4,21,24,124,131
Slump balls, 11 3,114
Slumped beds, 49
Slumping, 3, 5, 8, 9,20, 21, 23, 53, 61,86, 103,
108, 114, 116, 117, 122, 123, 124, 151, 157,
164,165,168,171,174,175,182,184,
195
Slump overfolds, 113, 114,116,118, 122,124
- rolls, 114,123,124
-sheet, 9
- structures, 14,84,250
-Sole features,211,212,213,214,217,218,219
-markings, 16,21,27,47,51,76,80,
100,101,
118, 195, 200, 203, 207, 210, 211, 212, 218,
249,250,252
Sorting, 3, 10,27,110, 112, 113, 156, 161, 166,
167
Sourceareas, 35, 115, 118, 119, 123, 124, 130,
140,253,254
Southern California, 5
-Pyrenees, 192,193,196
- Uplands of Scotland, 15
Southwestern Murrisk, Mayo, western Ireland,
77
Spilitic effusives, 87
Spines of echinoids, 146
Spigsko-GemerskC Ore Mountains, 107, 115,
116,122
263
gtefanskA Huta, 1 1 1
Storm surges, 18
Striations, 47
Stromatoporoids, 139
Structural geology, 4
Subflysch, 110,111,112,118
Submarine cables, 8,24
- canyons,4,5,13,18,19,2324 89 101,103,
148,149,151,152,154,248,250,252
-fan, 101,103,124
- sliding, 108,123
- topography, 218
- valley, 123,124
Submergenic, 89
Sub-sea fans, 5, 6,7,9,13,23,24
Subsidence, 4
SuchA D o h a , 119,124
Sun cracks, 16
--spot cycle, 27,28,29
Surge-waves, 85
Suspension currents, 165,167,174
-flow, 44
Swabian Alb, 157,184
Swamp lignites, 22
Swamps, 16
Symbols, 37,39
Symmetrical sharp-crested wave ripple mark,
16
- ripples, 195
Tectonic displacement, 134
-uplift, 18
Tennessee, 99
Tertiary, 103,163
- Coast Ranges, 100
Texas,96,98,99,100,101,102,187,219
Tidal flat, 21
Tides, 7
Tool marks, 76,86,199,207,208,209,210,213.
218,254
Topanga Formation, 199,254
-Sandstone, 201,202,204,207,212,214,215.
219
Torrential bedding, 114,115, 118,119
Torridonian, 77
Toscana, 127,133
Toulon, 151
Tracks, 66
-of land animals, 16
Transport, 166,168
- direction, 88
Transversal sliding, 134
Transverse flow, 85
-structures, 85
-transport, 102,103,252,253,254
Triassic, 187
INDEX
Troika, 148,149,151,154
Trough, 250
- axis, 85
_ - facies, 132
Tsunami, 18
Tuff-turbidites, 140
Tuscan autochton, 132
Twigs, 11
Type of sequence, 156
Villafranchian, 130
Vintimille, 149, 150, 153
Virginia, 95
Visean, 77,89,183
Volcanic islands, 5