Clinical Review

Update on acute rheumatic fever

It still exists in remote communities
Sharen Madden

MD CCFP FCFP

Len Kelly

MD MClinSc CCFP FCFP

cute rheumatic fever (ARF) remains a disease of

First Nations residents of northwest Ontario, despite
a declining incidence in developed economies. This
review article was prompted by 5 unrelated cases seen over
36 months in our regional community hospital. We hope that
it will remind physicians working in remote areas of Canada
that ARF remains a part of our clinical vocabulary.

Quality of evidence
A literature review was undertaken; we searched MEDLINE,
EMBASE, and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
from 1996 to 2007 using MeSH terms rheumatic fever and
rheumatic heart disease for articles focusing on prevention,
epidemiology, or disease management. The abstracts of 600
papers were read, and 60 key articles (either comprehensive
reviews or from established journals) were read in full. Most
were reviews, outbreak descriptions, treatment descriptions,
or secondary prevention program descriptions (levels II and III
evidence). There were no recent randomized controlled trials
owing to the known virulence of the illness, and the only level
I articles were a meta-analysis and a systematic review. Case
series data from medical records at the Sioux Lookout Meno Ya
Win Health Centre in Ontario were also used. Ethics approval
for the case series was obtained from the Sioux Lookout Meno
Ya Win Health Centre Research Review Committee.

Main message
Literature review. Two distinct schools of literature exist
for ARF: studies and commentaries from North America and
Europe that view rheumatic fever as a rare disease and discuss the limited efficacy of screening for streptococcal sore
throat, ARFs presumed precursor; and literature from the
developing world and international aboriginal literature that
documents a robust discussion of the presentations, epidemiology, and control of rheumatic fever and its sequela, rheumatic heart disease (RHD), which is of ongoing relevance.
In a meta-analysis of antibiotics for the primary prevention of ARF in patients with documented pharyngitis (N = 7665),
Robertson et al found a protective effect (relative risk 0.32, 95%
confidence interval 0.21 to 0.48) for a reduction in risk of almost
70% (level I evidence).1 Interestingly, inclusion of randomized
controlled studies done in the 1950s by the US Army might
make such overviews less informative, as they were done in an
era of endemic group A streptococcus (GAS) and ARF.1

Abstract
OBJECTIVE To remind physicians who work with
aboriginal populations of the ongoing prevalence
of acute rheumatic fever and to review the recent
evidence on presentation, treatment, and secondary
prophylaxis.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, MEDLINE, and EMBASE
were searched from 1996 to 2007 with a focus on
prevention, epidemiology, and disease management.
Case series data from medical records at the Sioux
Lookout Meno Ya Win Health Centre in Ontario were
also used.
MAIN MESSAGE Acute rheumatic fever is still a
clinical entity in aboriginal communities in northwest
Ontario. Identification, treatment, and secondary
prophylaxis are necessary.
CONCLUSION Acute rheumatic fever is not a
forgotten disease and still exists in remote areas of
Canada.

Rsum
OBJECTIF Rappeler au mdecin qui travaille avec les
populations aborignes que le rhumatisme articulaire aigu est toujours prsent, et revoir les donnes
rcentes sur son tableau clinique, son traitement et la
prophylaxie secondaire.
SOURCES DE LINFORMATION On a consult la
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, MEDLINE
et EMBASE entre 1996 et 2007, en ciblant surtout la
prvention, lpidmiologie et le traitement de cette
maladie. On a aussi utilis les donnes dune srie de
cas du centre de sant Sioux Lookout Meno Ya Win
en Ontario.
PRINCIPAL MESSAGE Le rhumatisme articulaire
aigu est toujours prsent dans les communauts
aborignes du nord-ouest de lOntario. Dtection,
traitement et prophylaxie secondaire sont ncessaires.
CONCLUSION Le rhumatisme articulaire aigu nest
pas une maladie oublie et il existe toujours dans les
rgions recules du Canada.

This article has been peer reviewed.

Cet article a fait lobjet dune rvision par des pairs.
Can Fam Physician 2009;55:475-8
VOL 55: MAY
t
MAI 2009

Canadian Family Physician t Le Mdecin de famille canadien

475

Clinical Review

Update on acute rheumatic fever

A Cochrane review by Del Mar et al looked at the

benefit of antibiotics for sore throats (N = 2835) and
found that they reduced ARF by more than two-thirds
(relative risk 0.22, 95% confidence interval 0.02 to 2.08),
although in developed societies most patients would
derive no benefit given the low incidence of ARF (level I
evidence).2
Natural history. Repeated GAS infections are thought
to occur and prime the immune response before the
first episode of ARF.3 Symptoms of arthritis, carditis, erythema marginatum, subcutaneous nodules, or chorea
usually present 1 to 3 weeks after GAS pharyngitis (level
II evidence).4 In recent outbreaks in the United States,
affected patients reported only mild pharyngitis, for
which only a few sought medical attention (level II evidence).4,5 The subsequent outcome, RHD, might be the
first presentation: 46% of RHD patients in the Northern
Territory of Australia, for example, had no known prior
diagnosis of ARF (level II evidence).6
Risk factors are poorly understood but likely include
host factors such as susceptibility to the immune
response to GAS (limited to 3% to 6% of the population);
housing and overcrowding remain important considerations (level III evidence).2,7 The Jones criteria, established in 1944, were revised in 1965 and 1984, then
updated in 1992 and 2002 to provide diagnostic guidelines for clinical diagnosis.8-10 They require 2 major or 1
major and 2 minor criteria and evidence of prior streptococcal infection (throat culture positive for the bacteria, positive rapid antigen detection test results, or
elevated antistreptolysin O titre [ASOT]). Major and
minor criteria are outlined in Box 1. Echocardiogram
is not part of the criteria but is often part of the cardiac
workup.
Disease frequency. In Canada ARF is not a reportable disease. Available data place Canadian, American,
and Western European incidences at 0.1 to 2 cases per
100 000 persons (level II evidence).11,12 Isolated cases can
occur anywhere from time to time. A series of 3 cases in
Nova Scotia was reported in 1998 (level II evidence).13,14
Another 3 cases were reported in a UK teaching centre
during a 6-month period in 2000 (level II evidence).15
Acute rheumatic fever is now generally seen as a disease of emerging economies, indigenous communities,

Levels of evidence
Level I: At least one properly conducted randomized
controlled trial, systematic review, or meta-analysis
Level II: Other comparison trials, non-randomized,
cohort, case-control, or epidemiologic studies, and
preferably more than one study
Level III: Expert opinion or consensus statements
476

Canadian Family Physician t Le Mdecin de famille canadien

Box 1. Jones criteria for diagnosing acute rheumatic

fever: Diagnosis requires 2 major, or 1 major and 2
minor, criteria and evidence of streptococcal infection
or chorea alone.
Major criteria
r Carditistissue inflammation or new changing murmur
r Polyarthritismigratory pain in limb joints
r Choreaabrupt, purposeless movements with or without
emotional changes
r Erythema marginatumnonpruritic rash, spares face
r Subcutaneous nodulespainless, firm, on bones or tendons
Minor criteria
r Fever
r Arthralgia
r Previous acute rheumatic fever or rheumatic heart disease
r Acute-phase reactantserythrocyte sedimentation rate,
C-reactive protein, leukocytosis
r Electrocardiogramprolonged PR interval
Evidence of streptococcal infection
r Throat culture positive for the bacteria
r Positive rapid antigen detection test results
r Elevated antistreptolysin O titre
r Scarlet fever
and tropical regions, with incidences in these settings of
10 to 20 cases per 100 000 persons (level II evidence).12
Hot spots, such as Northern Australia, have rates of
more than 50 cases per 100 000 persons (level II evidence).16 According to W. De Groote, MD, among aboriginal children presenting to a Winnipeg, Man, referral
centre serving northwest Ontario and Manitoba, ARF
remains the most common underlying cause of cardiac
murmurs (level III evidence) (written communication,
March 2008). Despite this, no association with ethnicity
has been identified in the literature (level III evidence).3
Changing epidemiology of GAS infections. Only rheumatogenic strains of GAS result in ARF (level II evidence).17 The endemic strains seen during World War
II had particularly high ARF rates (3%).17 By the 1970s
those streptococcus M antigen serotypes (which confer
resistance to phagocytosis) had virtually disappeared in
North America, although there was little change in the
rate of endemic streptococcal sore throat (level II evidence).4 Lower incidence of ARF had more to do with
changes in virulence and improvement in socioeconomic conditions than with use of antibiotics (level II
evidence).4
By the 1980s a resurgence of the streptococcus M
antigen subtype 5M occurred, along with outbreak
reports in Utah and Colorado identifying more than 30
cases annually (level II evidence).5 The epidemiology of
ARF in aboriginal communities in Australia challenges
the historical belief that streptococcal skin infections
cannot cause the disease. In these communities pyoderma is the most common manifestation of GAS, and

VOL 55: MAY
t
MAI 2009

Update on acute rheumatic fever

typical rheumatic strains are not present (level II evidence). 18 Researchers postulate that even non-GAS
infections (eg, group C and G streptococci) might play
a role in these high-incidence settings and note that the
high rates seen among Australian aboriginal children
parallel overcrowding and poor living conditions.19
Changing presentation of ARF. Acute rheumatic fever
is a clinical diagnosis for which presentations are highly
variable (level III evidence).20 Rheumatic carditis is associated with the murmurs of valvulitis and is more common
in children; arthritis predominates in adults (level II evidence).21 In the Utah outbreak of the 1980s, carditis was
seen in 80% of patients, arthritis in 70% of patients, and
chorea in 28% of patients (level II evidence).22 The arthritis is migratory, with pain often worse than physical findings would suggest; any one site might resolve within 2 to
5 days (level II evidence).23 Chorea occurring alone meets
the Jones criteria and typically presents 2 to 6 months
after the initial infection as purposeless movements of the
extremities, dysphonia, and possible emotional lability.20
Disease-related murmurs are most often caused by
mitral insufficiency; aortic insufficiency is the second
most common disease-related cause (level II evidence).15 Silent carditis is sometimes found during echocardiography (7% to 47% of cases).15 Mitral stenosis is a
delayed complication with increasing age (level II evidence).7 There is a natural improvement of the carditis
over several years, in the absence of ARF recurrences,
with more than 65% of patients demonstrating resolution or improvement (level II evidence).5 Disease recurrence, however, increases long-term risk and the degree
of valvular damage.5 Erythema marginatum and subcutaneous nodules are both infrequent, occurring in less
than 5% of presentations (level II evidence).7
Investigations. Investigations are useful mainly to confirm the existence of prior streptococcal infection by
elevated ASOT, to check for ongoing pharyngeal GAS
infection, and to assess erythrocyte sedimentation rate.
Echocardiography is not part of the diagnostic criteria,
but is generally done as part of the initial workup to
clarify cardiac involvement.
Prevention, treatment, and prophylaxis. Most cases of
ARF can be prevented by antibiotic treatment received
within 9 days of GAS pharyngitis (level II evidence).24
After onset of ARF there is no effective treatment for the
immune reaction. Salicylates and antibiotics for any current GAS infection remain the cornerstone for treating
most cases (level II evidence).25 Salicylates give relief
from fever and arthritis. They have no role in the treatment of carditis, which is addressed with bed rest (level
II evidence).1 Prednisone is not useful for arthritis but it
is the drug of choice for those patients who experience
chorea (level II evidence)1 (Box 2).

Clinical Review

Box 2. Treatment of acute rheumatic fever

Bed restfor carditis
Anti-inflammatoriesacetylsalicylic acid for fever and joint
pain and inflammation; steroids for chorea
Antibioticspenicillin; erythromycin for patients allergic to
penicillin
Secondary prophylaxis for prevention of new GAS
pharyngitis is warranted for all patients, as there is an
8% to 10% recurrence rate of ARF within 5 yearswith
an attendant increase in cardiac involvement (level II evidence).15 Oral regimens can be used, but the treatment of
choice remains intramuscular benzathine penicillin injections given monthly for 5 years, until adulthood, or for
longer, depending on the severity of RHD or the existence
of frequent ARF in the community.26
No vaccine currently exists, although development
of a multivalent streptococcal M antigen vaccine is
under way.4
Disease in northwest Ontario. Our observation of 5
unrelated ARF cases out of 60 000 patient-years gives an
incidence rate of 8.33 cases per 100 000 persons. This
is a much higher rate than generally reported for developed countries (0.1 to 2 cases per 100 000), but lower
than rates seen in some indigenous communities of
Australia. Our rate of cultures positive for streptococcus
was in keeping with other general population studies
(about 25%), and there was a correlation between the
peak months of streptococcal throat infections and the
timing of ARF presentations (level I evidence).27
Presentations were generally similar to those reported
in the literature. We saw arthritis in 40% of cases and joint
symptoms in 60% overall (literature shows up to 80%).
Chorea was prominent as a presenting symptom, seen in
2 of 5 of cases (40%); both patients were female. The literature documents the increasing presence of chorea and
a nonclassic oligoarthritis that does not respond to acetylsalicylic acid (level II evidence).7,24,26 Each of the rare
manifestations (erythema marginatum and subcutaneous
nodules) was found in at least 1 patient.
Our cases differed in that cardiac presentations
were seen in 4 of 5 cases (literature suggests 40%).
Echocardiography documented valvular cardiac involvement in 3 cases and an innocent murmur in a fourth
case. The ASOT was positive in all cases, and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate was elevated in 4 of 5 cases,
consistent with literature rates of 80% or higher.

Conclusion
A low but substantial rate of ARF is present in the First
Nations population of northwest Ontario. A Cochrane
review recognizes its presence in emerging economies,
implicating socioeconomic factors. Physicians would

VOL 55: MAY
t
MAI 2009

Canadian Family Physician t Le Mdecin de famille canadien

477

Clinical Review

Update on acute rheumatic fever

be well served to consider ARF when arthritic, cardiac,

choreiform, or other Jones criteria symptoms occur and
to assess for possible history of GAS infection by measuring ASOT.
The rationale for disease identification and secondary
prophylaxis is 2-fold. Valvular damage from an acute
attack can be minimized, and those with 1 episode
of ARF have an increased susceptibility to recurrence,
which is associated with greater cardiac involvement.

EDITORS KEY POINTS

r

r

Dr Madden is an Assistant Professor and Dr Kelly is an Associate Professor in

the Division of Clinical Sciences at the Northern Ontario School of Medicine in
Sioux Lookout, Ont.
Contributors
Drs Madden and Kelly contributed to the literature review, selection and
review of studies, and preparation of the manuscript for publication.
Competing interests
None declared

r

Correspondence
Dr S. Madden, Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Box 489, Sioux Lookout,
ON P8T 1A8; e-mail smadden@slmhc.on.ca
References
1. Robertson KA, Volmink JA, Mayosi BM. Antibiotics for the primary
prevention of acute rheumatic fever: a meta-analysis. BMC Cardiovasc Disord
2005;5(1):11-20.
2. Del Mar CB, Glasziou PP, Spinks AB. Antibiotics for sore throat. Cochrane
Database Syst Rev 2006;(4):CD000023.
3. Carapetis JR, Currie BJ, Mathews JD. Cumulative incidence of rheumatic
fever in an endemic region: a guide to the susceptibility of the population.
Epidemiol Infect 2000;124(2):239-44.
4. Stollerman GH. Rheumatic fever in the 21st century. Clin Infect Dis
2001;33(6):806-14. Epub 2001 Aug 13.
5. Veasy LG, Tani LY, Daly JA, Korgenski K, Miner L, Bale J, et al. Temporal
association of mucoid strains of streptococcus pyogenes with a continuing
high incidence of rheumatic fever in Utah. Pediatrics 2004;113(3 Pt
1):e168-72.
6. Central Australian RHD Steering Committee. Central Australian Rheumatic
Heart Disease Control Program, Commonwealth report. Alice Springs, Australia:
Department of Health and Community Services NT Government; 2002.
7. Carapetis JR, McDonald M, Wilson NJ. Acute rheumatic fever. Lancet
2005;366(9480):155-68.
8. Jones TD. The diagnosis of rheumatic fever. J Am Med Assoc 1944;126:481-4.
9. Special Writing Group of the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis
and Kawasaki Disease of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young
of the American Heart Association. Guidelines for the diagnosis of rheumatic
fever: Jones criteria, 1992 update. JAMA 1992;268(15):2069-73. Erratum in:
JAMA 1993;269(4):476.
10. Ferrieri P; Jones Criteria Working Group. Proceedings of the Jones criteria
workshop. Circulation 2002;106(19):2521-3.
11. Djani A. Rheumatic fever. In Braunwald E, editor. Heart disease: a textbook
of cardiovascular medicine. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Company; 1997.
p. 1769-75.
12. WHO Study Group. Rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. World
Health Organization technical report series 764. Geneva, Switz: World Health
Organization; 1988.
13. Wong D, Bortolussi R, Lang B. An outbreak of acute rheumatic fever in
Nova Scotia. Canada Commun Dis Rep 1998;24(6):45-7.
14. Hoey J. The disease that bites the heart and licks the joints. CMAJ
1998;158(10):1335 (Eng), 1336 (Fr).
15. Williamson L, Bowness P, Mowat A, Ostman-Smith I. Difficilties in
diagnosing ARFarthritis may be short lived and carditis silent. BMJ
2000;320(7231):362-4.
16. Richmond P, Harris L. Rheumatic fever in the Kimberely region of Western
Australia. J Trop Pediatr 1998;44(3):148-52.
17. Stollerman GH. The changing face of rheumatic fever in the 20th century.
J Med Microbiol 1998;47(8):655-7.
18. McDonald M, Currie BJ, Carapetis JR. Acute rheumatic fever: a chink in the
chain that links the heart to the throat? Lancet Infect Dis 2004;4(4):240-5.
19. Currie BJ, Brewster DR. Rhematic fever in Aboriginal children. J Paediatr
Child Health 2002;38(3):223-5.
20. Stollerman GH. Rheumatic fever. Lancet 1997;349(9056):935-42.
21. Singh M, Malhotra P, Thakur JS. Rheumatic heart disease in developing
countries. Lancet 1997;349(9066):1700.
22. Centers for Disease Control. Acute rheumatic feverUtah. MMWR Morb
Mortal Wkly Rep 1987;36(8):108-10,115.
23. Rullan E, Sigal LH. Rheumatic fever. Curr Rheumatol Rep 2001;3(5):445-52.
24. Cilliers AM. Rheumatic fever and its management. BMJ
2006;333(7579):1153-6.

478

Canadian Family Physician t Le Mdecin de famille canadien

Although acute rheumatic fever (ARF) is relatively rare

in developed economies, it is much more common in
the developing world and among aboriginal populations. Higher rates of ARF might be related to overcrowded and poor living conditions.
Diagnosis requires 2 major, or 1 major and 2 minor,
Jones criteria, as well as evidence of previous streptococcal infection. Major criteria include carditis,
polyarthritis, chorea, erythema marginatum, and
subcutaneous nodules; minor criteria include fever,
arthralgia, previous ARF or rheumatic heart disease,
acute-phase reactants, and prolonged PR interval
on electrocardiogram.
Most cases of ARF can be prevented with antibiotic treatment received within 9 days of group A
streptococcal pharyngitis. After onset of ARF there
is no effective treatment for the immune reaction.
Salicylates provide relief from fever and arthritis,
prednisone can be used for patients who experience chorea, and carditis is addressed with bed rest.
Secondary prophylaxis to prevent recurrence is warranted for all patients.
POINTS DE REPRE DU RDACTEUR

r

r

r

Mme si rhumatisme articulaire aigu (RAA) est relativement rare dans les conomies dveloppes, il est
beaucoup plus frquent dans les rgions en voie de
dveloppement et chez les populations aborignes.
Des taux plus levs de RAA pourraient tre relis
la promiscuit et aux mauvaises conditions de vie.
Le diagnostic requiert 2 critres de Jones majeurs ou
1 majeur et 2 mineurs, en plus dune preuve dinfection antrieure au streptocoque. Les critres majeurs
incluent: cardite, polyarthrite, chore, rythme margin et nodules sous-cutans; les critres mineurs
comprennent: fivre, arthralgie, RAA ou cardite rhumatismale antrieurs, ractants de phase aigu et
prolongation de lespace PR llectrocardiogramme.
La plupart des cas de RAA peuvent tre prvenus
par un traitement antibiotique administr moins
de 9 jours aprs une pharyngite streptocoque du
groupe A. Une fois le RAA install, il ny a pas de
traitement efficace contre la raction immune. Les
salicylates procurent un soulagement de la fivre
et de larthrite, la prednisone peut tre utilise chez
les patients qui prsentent une chore, et la cardite
se traite par le repos au lit. La prophylaxie secondaire pour prvenir les rcidives est indique pour
tous les patients.

25. Lennon D. Acute rheumatic fever in children. Paediatr Drugs 2004;6(6):363-73.

26. Thatai D, Zoltan G. Current guidelines for the treatment of patients with
rheumatic fever. Drugs 1999;57(4):545-55.
27. Kelly L. Short Report: can mouth swabs replace throat swabs? A crosssectional research study of the efficacy of rapid strep swabs of the buccal
mucosa. Can Fam Physician 2007;53:1500-1.

VOL 55: MAY
t
MAI 2009