Geology and Engineering Geology

Pierre GERARD
Brussels Faculty of Engineering Academic Year 2015-2016

Outline
Part I. Introduction to geology
1. The origin of the Earth and the tectonic plates theory
2. Minerals and rocks
2.1. Minerals
2.2. Igneous rocks
2.3. Sedimentary rocks
2.4. Metamorphic rocks

3. Weathering, transport, burial and lithification

4. Stratigraphy
5. Structural geology
6. Geological map
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What is the Earths crust made of?

Earths crust = rocks

The rocks are made up of minerals

Minerals and Rocks

Examples of minerals

Quartz

Mica

Magnetite

Malachite

Feldspar

Olivine

Minerals and Rocks

Definition of minerals
Molecules

Minerals

Atoms

Defined by:
Chemical composition
Crystal structure (= orderly 3D geometric arrangements of atoms)

Example: halite = NaCl cubic system

Minerals and Rocks

Definition of minerals

Some variations of chemical composition allowed

Substitution controlled by cations size and charge
Example: Olivine: (Fe,Mg)2SiO2

Mineralogy = science of minerals

Petrology = science of rocks

Minerals and Rocks

Definition of minerals

Natural material (= not made by human)

>< Synthetic material

Formed by predominantly inorganic processes

>< Organic material that are made up from plants and animal bodies (C)

Minerals are solids

Specific chemical composition

Crystal system
>< Amorphous material (elements randomly distributed)

Minerals and Rocks

How do minerals form?

By crystallization of magma (cooling of magma at Earths surface or in Earth

crust)

By precipitation of liquids from an oversaturated solution (salt in water)

During solidification, atoms are arranged in a repeating, ordering 3D array

NaCl

Minerals and Rocks

7 Crystal systems

The structure depends on chemical bonds between elements

Plane faces are developed, always same angle between 2 faces for a mineral

Cubic

Rhomboedric

Minerals and Rocks

7 Crystal systems

Cubic

Rhomboedric

Diamond - C

Calcite CaCO3
Graphite - C

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Minerals and Rocks

7 crystal systems

Cubic

Rhomboedric

Diamond C
= = = 90
a=b=c

Graphite C
= = 90 - = 120
a=bc

Calcite CaCO3
= = 90 11
a=b=c

Minerals and Rocks

Rock forming minerals

4000 different minerals in the world

6 main minerals which account for 90 % of the minerals in Earth crust

Si, O, Al, Fe, Mg, Na, Ca, K = 98% of the atoms in Earth crust

Earths crust (%volume)

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Minerals and Rocks

6 main Rock forming minerals

Quartz
SiO2

Feldspar

Amphibole

(K,Na)AlSi3O8, CaAl2Si2O8

Ca2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH)2

Mica

Olivine

Pyroxene

KAl2(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2

Fe2SiO4 - Mg2Si2O4

(Fe,Mg)SiO3

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Minerals and Rocks

Classes of Rock forming minerals

Silicates class
92 % of Earth crust
Rock forming minerals contain Si and O bonded together
Silica tetrahedron (SiO4)4Silica tetrahedra can join together by sharing corner Oxygen atoms

Chain of silicates

Double-chain silicates
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Minerals and Rocks

Classes of Rock forming minerals

Silicates class
Positive metal ions are needed for charge balance
Examples:
Olivine

Pyroxene

Quartz

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Minerals and Rocks

Classes of Rock forming mineral

Carbonates (CO3)2Calcite CaCO3

Rhomboedric

Native elements

Sulfates (SO4)2-

Sulfides S2-

Oxides O2- bonded to metal atoms

diamond (C) and gold (Au)

Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O

Galena PbS
hematite Fe2O3
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Minerals and Rocks

How to identify minerals?

Macroscopic identification

list of criteria based on physical properties (cf. exercises)

Microscopic identification

thin sections (not the scope of this course)

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Minerals and Rocks

Physical properties of minerals
Mohs Scale of Hardness (1822)

1. Hardness
2. Density
3. Colour and Streak
4. Luster
5. Fizzing with acid
6. Cleavage

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Talc
Fingernail
Gypsum
Calcite
Fluorite
Knife blade
Apatite
Orthoclase
Quartz
Topaz
Corundum
Diamond (scratches all)

Glass

Hardness is a measure of the ease with

which the surface of a mineral can be
scratched
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Minerals and Rocks

Physical properties of minerals
1. Hardness
2. Density
Engineering implications?
3. Colour and Streak

4. Luster

Abrasiveness of rocks

useful for drilling tools and tunnel boring

machine

5. Fizzing with acid

6. Cleavage

Hardness of minerals

Hardness of minerals
Strength or rocks
(depends on the strength of aggregation)

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Minerals and Rocks

Physical properties of minerals
1. Hardness
2. Density

Usual values

3. Colour and Streak

Pb, Sn, metal :

density > 5-7

4. Luster

Fe, Mg :

density > 3

SiO2, CO3 :

2.65 < density < 2.75

with H2O :

low density

5. Fizzing with acid

6. Cleavage

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Minerals and Rocks

Physical properties of minerals
Colour of a mineral may be distinctive, but it is
not the most reliable clue to its identity

1. Hardness
2. Density
3. Colour and Streak

Quartz (SiO2)

4. Luster
5. Fizzing with acid
6. Cleavage

Si Al

white

CO2

Fe Mg

dark
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Minerals and Rocks

Physical properties of minerals
1. Hardness
2. Density
3. Colour and Streak

Streak refers to the colour of the fine deposit

of mineral dust left on an abrasive surface
(porcelain)

4. Luster
5. Fizzing with acid

Hematite (Fe2O3) = red streak >< Magnetite = black streak

6. Cleavage

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Minerals and Rocks

Physical properties of minerals
1. Hardness
2. Density
3. Colour and Streak
4. Luster
5. Fizzing with acid
Metallic luster in Pyrite (FeS2)

6. Cleavage

Luster is the way in which the surface of a mineral reflects light

-

Metallic luster

Non-metallic luster (vitreous, pearly, porcelaneous)

No luster

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Minerals and Rocks

Physical properties of minerals
1. Hardness
2. Density
3. Colour and Streak
4. Luster
5. Fizzing with acid
6. Cleavage

Calcite (CaCO3)

CaCO3 + 2HCl

Ca2+ + 2Cl- + H2O + CO2

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Minerals and Rocks

Physical properties of minerals
1. Hardness
2. Density
3. Colour and Streak
4. Luster
5. Fizzing with acid
6. Cleavage

Cleavage is the tendency of a crystal to break along

preferential flat planar surfaces (use of hammer)
Cleavage varies inversely with bond strength
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Minerals and Rocks

Physical properties of minerals
1. Hardness
2. Density
3. Colour and Streak
4. Luster
5. Fizzing with acid
6. Cleavage

1 direction: Mica (muscovite)

2/3 directions: Calcite (CaCO3)

Source: Understanding Earth

No direction: conchoidal fracture in

quartz (SiO2)
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Minerals and Rocks

Useful properties of minerals
Conductivity (electronic components): silver
High hardness (abrasive): quartz, diamond
Insulating (insulation material, electronic): mica, magnesium
Chemical reaction (fertilizer, construction plaster - cement): magnesium,
phosphate, gypsum, calcite
Raw materials: Fe (magnetite, goethite, chromite), Cu (chalcopyrite)

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Minerals and Rocks

From minerals to rocks
Rock = Naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals
Granite

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Minerals and Rocks

How to know the geological origin of rocks?

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Minerals and Rocks

The rock cycle

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Source : Press and Siever, 2001

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Minerals and Rocks

The rock cycle

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Minerals and Rocks

3 types of rocks

Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks formed by crystallization from a magma
Magma = a mass of molten rock that originates deep in the crust or upper
mantle

Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks formed by the deposit of sediments on Earths crust in
oceanic, marine or continental environment and their transformation into
solid rocks through physical, biological or chemical processes

Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks produced by recrystallization in solid state of
igneous, sedimentary or other metamorphic rocks when temperatures
and pressures are modified
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Minerals and Rocks

How to identify rocks?

2 main properties

Mineralogy = proportion of each mineral

Texture = size and shape of minerals

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Minerals and Rocks

Igneous rocks

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Source : Press and Siever, 2001

Minerals and Rocks

Igneous rocks
Formed by crystallization of magma

Criteria to identify igneous rocks

1.

Conditions of magma cooling

2.

Magma composition

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Minerals and Rocks

Identification of igneous rocks
1. Conditions of magma cooling/crystallization
2 possibilities
i.

Crystallization at great depth

slow solidification

ii.

Crystallization at the surface

fast solidification

Ability of magma to move toward the surface depends on the presence of preferential
pathways or fractures
Earth crust not very deformable

majority of magma never reaches the surface

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Minerals and Rocks

Identification of igneous rocks
1. Conditions of magma cooling/crystallization
Extrusive igneous rocks

Formed from
cooled magma
that erupts at the
surface through
volcanoe

><

Intrusive igneous rocks

Crystallization
at great depth
in Earths crust

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Minerals and Rocks

Identification of igneous rocks
1. Conditions of magma cooling/crystallization
Intrusive igneous rocks
Slow cooling (~ thousands y.)
Coarse-grained / Granular texture
All the minerals are well crystallized (visible to naked eye)

Granite

Massive and mechanically strong rocks

Rise to the surface because
Erosion or uplift
Less dense than surrounding rocks (for granite

batholits)

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Minerals and Rocks

Identification of igneous rocks
1. Conditions of magma cooling/crystallization
Extrusive igneous rocks

Basalt

Fast cooling (~ few seconds to several days)

More often Micro-crystalline / Fine-grained texture
Only the embryos of minerals can form, because not
enough time to grow
Sometimes amorphous rocks (similar to glass)
= atoms are randomly disseminated
If lava contains a lot of gas

vesicular texture

Obsidian
pumice

In many extrusive igneous rocks well-formed minerals in

matrix : they come from first crystallization in the magma
chamber before eruption

Pumice

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Minerals and Rocks

Identification of igneous rocks
1. Conditions of magma cooling/crystallization
Extrusive igneous rocks
Extrusive rocks are linked with eruptions and so with tectonic plates theory
Divergent plates : 73% (in volume)
Subduction zone : 15% (in volume)
Hotspot : 12% (in volume)

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Minerals and Rocks

Identification of igneous rocks
2. Magma composition

Why different magma composition?

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Minerals and Rocks

Identification of igneous rocks
2. Magma composition
1st process : Magma generation
Magma is generated when a rock is subjected to a temperature increase
or a pressure decrease
Magma composition depends on rock composition
2nd process : Partial melting
All the minerals do not melt at the same temperature
rock melts gradually and selectively T (C)
1st melting: quartz, mica

1200

Last melting: olivine, pyroxene

1000

Partial melting is possible

when T < 1200C

800
600

Minerals which are molten

All molten
Olivine, pyroxene, Ca-rich
plagioclase
Amphibole, Ca/Na- plagioclase
Quartz, feldspar, Naplagioclase, micas
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Minerals and Rocks

Identification of igneous rocks
2. Magma composition
Felsic / Acid Magma
Si >>
Fe <<

Quartz (SiO2),
Feldspar (NaAlSi3O8),
Mica (KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH,F)2)

T <<

><

Mafic / Basic magma

Si <<
Fe, Mg, Ca >>

Olivine (Mg2SiO4),
Pyroxene (CaMg(SiO3)2)

T >>

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Minerals and Rocks

Identification of igneous rocks
2. Magma composition
Felsic / Acid Magma

Light colour

Granite (quartz, mica,

feldspar)

><

Mafic / Basic magma

Dark colour

Gabbro (pyroxene,
olivine, feldspar)

Basalt
Rhyolite

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Minerals and Rocks

Identification of igneous rocks
2. Magma composition

Intrusive igneous rocks

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Minerals and Rocks

How does the tectonic plates theory influence the nature

of igneous rocks?

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Minerals and Rocks

Magmatic configuration
Mid-ocean ridge: magma comes from the mantle
T
rich in Mg, Fe
mafic magma
gabbro, basalt

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Minerals and Rocks

Magmatic configuration
Subduction zones : magma comes from the melting of oceanic crust, but in
contact with continental crust
rich in Si
felsic magma
granite

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Minerals and Rocks

Magmatic configuration
Hotspots: magma comes from the mantle
rich in Mg, Fe
mafic magma
basalt

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Minerals and Rocks

Fractional crystallization
Different minerals have their own crystallization temperatures ( melting T)
BUT all the minerals dont grow separetely and dont coexist
Reaction beetween already-formed minerals and residual magma
of new minerals the first minerals are partially/totally resorbed

formation

Temperature at which
melting starts

1200C

750C
Bowens Reaction series

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Minerals and Rocks

Fractional crystallization
It explains why:
Quartz and feldspar are the most common mineral on Earths surface
(continental crust)
Olivine is unusual on continental crust, but encountered on oceanic crust

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Minerals and Rocks

Use of intrusive igneous rocks

Massive and mechanically strong

Widely use in construction

Diorite Track ballast

Granite House Bretagne (France)

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Minerals and Rocks

Use of extrusive igneous rocks
Not widely use in industry, except basalt
Some lavas for roofing slabs

Basalt aggregates
Basalt Cathedral in Saint-Flour (France)
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Minerals and Rocks

The igneous rocks around the world

Extrusive
igneous
rocks

Intrusive
igneous
rocks
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Minerals and Rocks

The igneous rocks in Belgium?
Few igneous rocks in Belgium
Intrusive : Quenast, Lessines
Extrusive: Rocroy, Stavelot

Quenast quarry
Diorite

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