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Output stage
Ideally, the voltage amplifier should be able to supply an infinite amount of current to the
load connected to it. In other words, it should be an ideal voltage source. Since this is not
possible the output stage is generally modelled as a Thevinin equivalent source which
includes an ideal controlled voltage source of the appropriate value in series with a
Thevinin equivalent resistance, Ro.
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Resistive input
Thvenin equivalent output circuit
Thvinin voltage is a "dependent" voltage source the magnitude of which depends
upon the input voltage
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Operational Amplifiers
Circuit Symbol
Properties
An 'ideal' operational amplifier has:
infinite voltage gain
zero output impedance
infinite input impedance
infinite bandwidth
Its normal implementation is in the form of an integrated circuit.
'Real' operational amplifiers have a
voltage gain of around 50,000
input impedance of megohms or hundreds of megohms
output impedance of hundreds of ohms
open-loop 3 dB bandwidth is around 50 Hz, a far cry from the
ideal value of infinity.
Negative feedback is often used to make the characteristics of real operational
amplifier circuits closer to those of the ideal operational amplifier.
Note
The circuit symbol for an operational amplifier normally does not show the
connections to the dc power supplies required to make the amplifier operate.
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Ideal Voltage
Amplifier
Infinite
Infinite
Zero
Infinite
Zero
Most of the "real" operational amplifier characteristics become closer to the "ideal"
amplifier characteristics if negative feedback is used.
741 OP-AMP OPEN-LOOP FREQUENCY RESPONSE
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Rule (1): the difference in voltage between the two input terminals of the op-amp is very
small and can be neglected
Rule (2): the signal current that flows into the op-amp terminals is very small and can be
considered to be equal to zero.
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INVERTING AMPLIFIER
(also called parallel voltage feedback).
The currents through Z1 and Z2 are i1 and i2 , respectively, and V+ = 0.
Rule 1 gives V- = 0.
Rule 2 gives i1 + i2 = 0, because the signal currents into the amplifier terminals are
negligible. Thus,
(Vi - V-)/Z2 + (Vo - V-)/Z1 = 0 from Kirchoff's current law or
(Vi - 0)/Z2 + (Vo - 0)/Z1 = 0
The circuit gain with feedback (Vo/Vi) is then,
A = -Z1 /Z2.
The circuit input impedance (defined as Vi /i1) is equal to Z2. The circuit output impedance is
approximately (ZoZ1)/(AolZ2),
where
Zo is the amplifier output impedance without feedback.
Aol is the open-loop gain of the amplifier, and
(Z2/Z1) is the feedback factor
(This result is not obvious. However, there is a table in the Week 5 notes giving formulae
for the input and output impedances of inverting and non-inverting amplifiers.).
Inverting Amplifier
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Non-inverting Amplifier
The input impedance of this circuit is of the order of one hundred megohms and the output
impedance is reduced by the factor (1 + Aol) to Z0/(1+ a), where = Z2/Z1.and a = openloop gain of the amplifier
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SUMMING AMPLIFIER
In general, there can be any number of inputs.
Rule 1 gives V- = 0.
Rule 2 gives the algebraic sum of all the currents at the inverting input = 0.
Thus, we have the result that V1/ R1 +V2/ R2 +..+Vx/Rx +V0/ RF = 0.
The output voltage is then given by the weighted sum of the inputs, with weighting factors
given by the ratio of the feedback resistor to the appropriate input resistor.
-V0 = (RF / R1)V1 + (RF / R2)V2 + ..... + (RF / Rx)Vx
Or
V0 = -RF.[(V1/R1) + (V2/R2) + ..... + (Vx/Rx)]
Summing Amplifier.
[Note that the notation is different to that in the course text. However, the circuit is a more
general circuit, and the equations are valid. The summing amplifier is seen later in the
course, when data acquisition circuits are studied Digital-to-Analogue Converter (DAC or
D/A), and Analogue-to-Digital Converters (ADC or A/D)]
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