NEBOSH International Diploma in Occupational Health and Safety

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Version 1.3a (18/02/2013)

Element - IC3: Workplace Fire Risk Assessment.

Learning outcomes.
On completion of this element, candidates should be able to:

Explain the processes involved in the identification of hazards and the assessment of
risk from fire
Describe common fire detection and alarm systems and procedures.
Outline the factors to be considered when selecting fixed and portable fire-fighting
equipment for the various types of fire.
Outline the factors to be considered in the provision and maintenance of means of
escape.
Explain the purpose of, and essential requirements for, emergency evacuation procedures.

Minimum hours of tuition 6 hours.

1.0 - Fire Risk Assessment.

Identification of common flammable solids, liquids and gases.
Small quantities of dangerous goods can be found in most workplaces. Whatever they are
used for, the storage and use of such goods can pose a serious hazard unless basic safety
principles are followed, especially if you use one particular group of dangerous goods flammable and explosive substances.
There is an enormous variety of flammable substances to be found in the workplace. They
range from the obvious, e.g. petrol, paint thinners, welding gases and heating fuels, to the
not so obvious, e.g. packaging materials, dusts from woodworking and dusts from foodstuffs
such as flour and sugar etc.
Three ingredients are needed for a fire: a fuel at the right concentration, a good supply of air,
and a source of ignition. If you control these ingredients, fires can be prevented.

1.1 - Safety Principles.

By applying the following five principles, you will be well on the way to making sure that you
are working safely with flammable substances.
Ventilation
Is there plenty of fresh air where flammable liquids or gases are stored and used? Good
ventilation will mean that any vapours given off from a spill, leak, or release from any process will be rapidly dispersed.
Ignition
Have all the obvious ignition sources been removed from the storage and handling areas?
Ignition sources can be varied and they include sparks from electrical equipment or welding
and cutting tools, hot surfaces, open flames from heating equipment, smoking materials etc.
Containment
Are your flammable substances kept in suitable containers? If you have a spill, will it be contained and prevented from spreading to other parts of the working area? Use of lidded con-

tainers and spillage catchment trays, for example, can help to prevent spillages spreading.
Exchange
Can you exchange a flammable substance for a less flammable one?
Can you eliminate flammable substances from the process altogether?
You may be able to think of other ways of carrying out the job more safely.
Separation
Are flammable substances stored and used well away from other processes and general
storage areas? Can they be separated by a physical barrier, wall or partition? Separating
your hazards in this manner will contribute to a safer workplace. Think about the flammable
substances you have in the workplace and apply these five principles wherever possible.
Tell workers, and others who need to know, about the hazards and how they should control
them.

1.2 - Specific materials.

The following sections deal with specific types of flammable substances. The precautions
mentioned need to be considered in addition to the VICES principles just described.
Flammable liquids.
Flammable liquids can give off large volumes of flammable vapours at room temperature.
These vapours, when mixed with air, can ignite, often violently. Spilled flammable liquids
can, if not contained, flow a long way to an ignition source, and then flash back to the source
of the leak. Spills on clothing can represent a serious risk of injury if ignited. To help control
these risks:

store flammable liquids in a separate storage area, or in a purpose-made bin or cupboard;

dispense and use them in a safe place where there is good ventilation and no source
of ignition;
keep containers closed when not in use. If possible, use safety containers which
have self-closing lids;
dispense liquids over a tray and keep some non-flammable absorbent material handy
to mop up spills;
dispose of contaminated materials safely or call in disposal experts.

Flammable dusts.
Finely-divided flammable dusts dispersed in the workplace atmosphere can, if ignited,
explode violently and cause a lot of damage. If you handle flammable dusts, you need to
remember the following:

Keep plant dust-tight.

Keep the working area dust-free by regular cleaning and vacuuming spillages as they
occur.

Some dust-handling plant has special safety features built in. The purpose of these needs to
be properly understood, and they should be maintained in good working order.
Flammable solids.
Some types of plastic foam, packaging materials, polyester wadding and textiles will ignite
easily and burn fiercely, giving off a lot of dense black smoke. Remember:

Do not store these materials close to heaters or electrical equipment which could run
hot and act as a local ignition source.
Make sure that gangways and exits from storage and working areas are kept clear of
packaging materials, finished products containing flammable solids etc. In the event
of fire, gangways and exits could become obscured by smoke, so the easier they are
to find, the better.

Flammable gases.
Gases in cylinders are often stored at very high pressures, and so their uncontrolled release
can be physically dangerous. A small amount of released gas can fill a large area with a
potentially explosive mixture. This is particularly true of liquefied gases such as LPG.
The following points need to be considered:

Stored cylinders need to be suitably restrained and their valves protected from impact damage.
Gas cylinders may need special valves, fittings and hoses.
Always check the manufacturers' or suppliers' instructions and fit the correct equipment.
Protect hoses from potential causes of damage that could cut, scuff or weaken them.
Examine them regularly and replace them if they show signs of damage or wear that
could give rise to a leak.

Oxygen.
Although oxygen is necessary for life and is an essential ingredient in controlled burning,
such as in a gas fire or oxy-fuel gas welding and cutting, its misuse can lead to serious
consequences. Materials that ordinarily will burn only slowly will burn very vigorously in an
oxygen-enriched atmosphere. Others, such as greases and oils, may burst into flames in
this kind of atmosphere. As well as the precautions outlined above for flammable gases, the
following points should be remembered:

Never use oxygen instead of compressed air.

Never use oxygen to sweeten the air in a working area or confined space.
Never use grease or oil on equipment containing oxygen.

Reactive chemicals.
Some products contain chemicals, such as organic peroxides, which can explode if they are
not stored and handled correctly. Other substances can react vigorously with incompatible
materials or contaminants. For example, oxidising chemicals can cause flammable materials
to ignite, and some substances, such as sodium, react violently with water and can ignite.
The following points need to be considered:

Storage and process temperatures may need to be carefully controlled to prevent

dangerous decomposition or reaction.
Check labels and safety data sheets for physical properties and incompatibility with
other materials.

1.3 - Identification of fire hazards and assessment of risk.

It is an organised look at what, in your work activities and workplace, could cause harm to
people. This will allow you to weigh up whether you have taken enough precautions or

should do more to avoid harm. The important things you need to decide are whether a hazard is significant and whether you have covered it by satisfactory precautions so that the risk
is acceptably low.
Hazard
A hazard is something that has the potential to cause harm
Risk
A risk is the chance, high or low, of that harm occurring
Before Starting Your Risk Assessment:
Check whether any of the fire safety arrangements in your workplace have previously been
approved under other fire safety, licensing or building legislation. If this is the case, an assessment of the fire precautions required under that legislation will have been made at the
time by, or in consultation with, the fire authority or the building control authority.
Regardless of any previous approval, you still need to carry out a fire risk assessment. However, if the previous approval covered all the matters required by the Fire Regulations, and
conditions have remained unchanged, e.g. numbers of people present, work activity etc,
then your fire risk assessment may well show that few, if any, additional precautions are
needed.
Your risk assessment may identify additional matters which need addressing if the previous
approval was given according to an out-of-date standard of fire precautions, or the approval
was under legislation which does not cover all the requirements of the Fire Regulations. If
you are not sure, your local fire authority will be able to advise you.
A fire risk assessment will help you determine the chances of a fire occurring and the dangers from fire that your workplace poses for the people who use it. The assessment method
suggested shares the same approach as that used in general health and safety legislation,
and can be carried out either as part of a more general risk assessment or as a separate
exercise.
A risk assessment is not a theoretical exercise. However, much work can be done on paper
from the knowledge you, your employees or their representatives have of the workplace. A
tour of the workplace will be needed to confirm, amend or add detail to your initial views.
For fire risk assessments there are five steps that you need to take:
Step 1
Identify potential hazards in the workplace.
Step 2
Decide who (e.g. employees, visitors) might be in danger in the event of a fire in the workplace or while trying to escape from it, and note their location.
Step 3
Evaluate the risks arising from the hazards and decide whether your existing fire precautions
are adequate, or whether more should be done to get rid of the hazard or to control the risks
(e.g. by improving the fire precautions).
Step 4
Record your findings and details of the action you took as a result. Tell your employees
about your findings.
Step 5

Keep the assessment under review and revise it when necessary.

Nobody knows as much about your business as you and the people who work with and for
you. Try to use your own knowledge and experience, and that of your colleagues and staff.
Talk to your employees and listen to their concerns.
The safety representative (if there is one) and your employees will have a valuable contribution to make. They can help you identify key issues and may already have practical suggestions for improvements.
Proper planning of your assessment, and any changes necessary because of it, includes
consulting the workforce and their representatives. This can help ensure that any changes
are introduced more easily and accepted more readily. However, remember that risk assessment is essentially a matter of applying informed common sense. You need to identify
what could reasonably be expected to cause danger. Ignore the trivial and concentrate on
significant hazards.
It is important that you carry out your fire risk assessment in a practical and systematic way.
It must take the whole of the workplace into account, including outdoor locations and any
rooms and areas which are rarely used. If your workplace is small, you may be able to assess the workplace as a whole. In larger buildings, you will often find it helpful to divide the
workplace into rooms or a series of assessment areas using natural boundaries, e.g. process areas, offices, stores, workshops as well as corridors, stairways and external routes.
If your workplace is in a building shared with other employers, you and all the other occupiers and any other person who has control of any other part of the workplace will need to discuss your risk assessments. This will help to ensure that any areas of higher risk, and the
need for any extra precautions, are identified.
If you know, or think, that your workplace is subject to a fire certification or licensing regime,
as well as the Fire Regulations, you will need to check that any changes you propose as a
result of your risk assessment will not conflict with this other regime. You need to do this before making any changes. In these cases, you should consult the local fire authority. They
will consider your proposals and advise you if they are acceptable. They will also advise you
if any other legislative approvals have to be obtained. For instance, if you propose structural
alteration or material change of use (in Scotland, any changes) to a building, approval under
relevant building legislation will be required.

1.4 - Identification of fire hazards and assessment of risk. Cont.

Steps 1 and 2 will have helped you to identify what the hazards are and who may be at risk
because of them. You now need to evaluate the risk and decide whether you have done
enough to reduce this or need to do more by considering:

the chance of a fire occurring and whether you can reduce the sources of ignition/minimise the potential fuel for a fire;
the fire precautions you have in place and whether they are sufficient for the remaining risks and will ensure everyone is warned in case of a fire;
the means people can use to make their escape safely (or put the fire out if it is safe
for them to do so).

To be able to assess whether people will be at risk in the event of a fire, it helps to have an
appreciation of the risks posed as it develops. Most people will be familiar with a fire

outdoors, such as a bonfire, from which people can move back as it grows. If the wind is
blowing the smoke towards them, they can move right away from the fire to a place of safety
because they have a choice of escape routes not affected by heat or smoke.
Fires in enclosed spaces, such as buildings, behave differently from fires in the open air. The
smoke rising from the fire gets trapped by the ceiling and then spreads in all directions to
form an ever-deepening layer over the entire room or space. During this process, the smoke
will pass through any holes or gaps in the walls, ceiling or floor and eventually into other
parts of the workplace. The heat from the fire also gets trapped in the building, greatly
increasing the temperature.
If you employ five or more employees, you must record the significant findings of your risk
assessment, together with details of any people you identify as being at particular risk. You
will probably find it useful (unless your assessment is very simple) to keep a written record of
your fire risk assessment as you go round. This will help you plan the actions you need to
take in the light of the findings of your risk assessment.
This record might take the form of a simple list, or you could use a plan of the layout of the
workplace, or a combination of both of these.
Having completed your assessment and put your fire precautions in place, it can be useful to
record details of maintenance and testing work carried out on them. It is also helpful to
record details of the instruction and training you give to employees and when they took
place. Such records can assist you, particularly when reviewing your assessment. They also
show the relevant enforcing authorities the actions you have taken to comply with the
Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005.
Sooner or later, you may introduce changes in your workplace which have an effect on your
fire risks and precautions, e.g. changes to the work processes, furniture, plant, machinery,
substances, buildings, or the number of people likely to be present in the workplace. Any of
these could lead to new hazards or increased risk. So, if there is any significant change, you
will need to review your assessment in the light of the new hazard or risk.
Do not amend your assessment for every trivial change or for each new job, but if a change
or job introduces significant new hazards, you will want to consider them and do whatever
you need to keep the risks under control. In any case, you should keep your assessment
under review to make sure that the precautions are still working effectively.
If a fire or 'near miss' occurs, then your existing assessment may be out of date or
inadequate and you should reassess. It is a good idea to identify the cause of any incident
and then review your fire risk assessment in the light of this.

1.5 - Identification of fire hazards and assessment of risk. Cont.

The following is an example of a risk assessment format that could be used in most organisations:

1.6 - Identification of fire hazards and assessment of risk. Cont.

1.7 - Identification of fire hazards and assessment of risk. Cont.

1.8 - Identification of fire hazards and assessment of risk. Cont.

1.9 - Identification of fire hazards and assessment of risk. Cont.

1.10 - Description of control of ignition, fuel and oxygen sources.

It helps to have a fire safety policy for your workplace which promotes good housekeeping
and reduces the possibility of a fire occurring. Carelessness and neglect not only make the
outbreak of a fire more likely but also inevitably create conditions which may allow a fire to
spread more rapidly.
Maintenance of Plant and Equipment.
Plant and equipment which is not properly maintained can cause fires. The following
circumstances often contribute to fires:

Poor housekeeping, such as allowing ventilation points on machinery to become

clogged with dust or other materials - causing overheating.
Friction heat (caused by loose drive belts, bearings which are not properly lubricated
or other moving parts).
Electrical malfunction.
Flammable materials used in contact with hot surfaces.
Leaking valves or flanges which allow seepage of flammable liquids or gases.
Static sparks (perhaps due to inadequate electrical earthing).

You may need to put a planned maintenance programme in place to make sure plant and
other equipment is properly maintained (or review your programme if you already have one).
Storage and Use of Flammable Materials.
Workplaces in which large amounts of flammable materials are displayed, stored or used
can present a greater hazard than those where the amount kept is small.
Wherever possible:

quantities of flammable materials should be reduced to the smallest amount necessary for running the business and kept away from escape routes;
highly-flammable materials should be replaced by less flammable ones;
remaining stocks of highly-flammable materials should be properly stored outside, in
a separate building, or separated from the main workplace by fire-resisting construction;
employees who use flammable materials should be properly trained in their safe
storage, handling and use;
stocks of office stationery and supplies and flammable cleaners' materials should be
kept in separate cupboards or stores - if they open onto a corridor or stairway escape

route, they should be fire-resisting with a lockable or self-closing fire door.

Flammable Liquids.
Flammable liquids can present a significant risk of fire. Vapours evolved are usually heavier
than air and can travel long distances, so are more likely to reach a source of ignition. Liquid
leaks and evolution of vapours can be caused by faulty storage (bulk and containers), plant
and process - design, installation, maintenance or use.
Ignition of the vapours from flammable liquids remains a possibility until the concentration of
the vapour in the air has reduced to a level which will not support combustion. The following
principle should be considered:
The quantity of flammable liquids in workrooms should be kept to a minimum, normally no
more than half a day's or half a shift's supply.
Storage in the workroom.
Flammable liquids, including empty or part-used containers, should be stored safely. Up to
50 litres of highly-flammable liquids can be stored in the workroom if in closed containers in
a fire-resisting (e.g. metal), bin or cabinet fitted with means to contain any leaks.
Quantities greater than 50 litres should be stored in a properly-designated store, either in the
open air (on well-ventilated, impervious ground, away from ignition sources) or in a suitablyconstructed storeroom.
Where large quantities of flammable liquids are used, they should, where possible, be
conveyed by piping them through a closed system. Where a connection in such a system is
frequently uncoupled and remade, a sealed-end coupling device should be used.
Flammable liquids should not be dispensed within the store. Dispensing should take place in
a well-ventilated area set aside for this purpose, with appropriate facilities to contain and
clear up any spillage
Container liquids should always be replaced after use, and no container should ever be
opened in such a way that it cannot be safely resealed.
Flammable liquids should be stored and handled in well-ventilated conditions. Where
necessary, additional properly designed exhaust ventilation should be provided to reduce the
level of vapour concentration in the air.
Storage containers should be kept covered and proprietary safety containers with selfclosing lids should be used for dispensing and applying small quantities of flammable liquids.
Rags and cloths which have been used to mop up or apply flammable liquids should be
disposed of in metal containers with well-fitting lids and removed from the workplace at the
end of each shift or working day.
There should be no potential ignition sources in areas where flammable liquids are used or
stored and flammable concentrations of vapour may be present at any time. Any electrical
equipment used in these areas, including fire alarm and emergency lighting systems, needs
to be suitable for use in flammable atmospheres.

1.11 - Video: Fire Risk Assessment.

http://www.sheilds-elearning.co.uk/file.php/4/videos/FRA1.flv

2 - Fire detection and alarm systems and procedures.

Description of common fire detection and alarm systems and procedures:
Factors in design and application of fire detection and alarm systems.

Principal components of systems.

Detection and signalling.
Manual and automatic systems.

2.1 - Fire detection and fire alarms.

To establish the 'best' methods of detection and alarm, fire risk assessment should be undertaken which takes into account the type of building, construction, type of use and even
the abilities of the people using the building.

2.2 - Automatic fire detection.

The type of detection system should be arrived at from the risk assessment and take into
account the environment in which the detection units will be fitted. Three types are

heat sensitive,
ionisation and
optical detection.

Ionisation Detectors are sensitive to free-burning fires with flames.

Optical Detection is more effective at detecting slow-burning fires e.g. overheated electrical
wiring.
Heat detection can be used in a fume-laden or dusty environment (but may not be
appropriate for the rest of the protected premises).
N.B. With more and more flame-retardant treatments used in building materials and
furniture, photoelectric (optical) smoke detectors tend to be the most popular choice in
domestic applications.
The earliest possible warning of fire would be provided where automatic fire detectors are
installed throughout all rooms and spaces in a building. As a minimum, escape routes,
corridors and circulation areas should be provided with automatic fire detection.

2.3 - Categories of fire alarm and detection systems and their objectives (BS5839, Part
1).
Systems are designed to protect property or life, and are divided into categories:
P1 and P2 for property protection.
Life protection is divided into categories L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 and M.

These categories determine what type of detection equipment is used and where it is
placed. Also sounder positions and quantities within the premises are a consideration within
these categories.

2.4 - Sub division of categories.

Category P systems are automatically-activated fire detection systems designed to protect
property.
These systems are then sub-divided into:

Type P1 Fire system installed throughout building.

Type P2 Fire system only installed in a defined part of the building.

(Objective: to summon the fire brigade in the early stages of a fire)

Category L systems are automatically-activated fire detection systems designed to protect
life. These systems are then sub-divided into:

L1 Fire system installed throughout building.

L2 Fire system only installed in a defined part of the building.
L3 Fire system only installed for the protection of escape routes.
L4 This Category is one in which detectors are only installed within escape routes. A
Category L4 system is, therefore, equivalent to a Category L3 system without detectors in rooms opening onto escape routes.
L5 This Category is one in which the protected area(s) and/or the location of detectors is designed to satisfy a specific fire safety objective (other than the objectives of
other sub-categories of Category L systems).

Thus, a Category L5 system may be used, for example, to address specific requirements
emanating from a fire risk assessment.
(Objective: To protect people from loss of life or injury)
Common places of work,
such as offices, shops,
factories, warehouses and
restaurants.

M or P2/M or P1/M

A Category M system
normally satisfies the
requirements of legislation. It
is, however, often combined
with a Category P system to
satisfy the requirements of
insurers, as company policy
for protection of assets, or to
protect against business
interruption.

Hotels and hostels.

L1 or L2

In bedroom areas, the design

requirements are usually
based on the
recommendations for a
Category L3 system.
Detectors are, however,
typically installed in most
other rooms and areas, as a
fire in almost any area of the
building could pose a threat

to sleeping occupants; the

system Category is,
therefore, at least L2. In
practice, few, if any, areas
are left unprotected and the
system Category is
effectively L1, except that a
variation from the
recommendations applicable
to a Category L1 system may
apply to the siting of heat,
smoke or carbon monoxide
detectors in bedrooms; this
often follows the
recommendations of 22.3e
for detectors in a Category L3
system.
Large public houses.
(No residential
accommodation)

Public houses with residential L2

accommodation.

Schools, other than small

single storey schools with
fewer than 160 pupils.

M or M/P2 or M/P2/L4 or
M/P2/L5

System Category is normally

based on a fire risk
assessment. In many
schools, a Category P
system is installed to combat
the hazard of arson. In
schools that are partly
occupied at certain times
(e.g. during evening classes
or community use), a
Category L4 or L5 system is
sometimes considered
appropriate.

Hospitals.

L1 (with possible minor

variations)

Detailed guidance on areas

to be protected and possible
variations is given in HTM 82.

Places of assembly, (e.g.

M
cinemas, theatres,
L1 to L4
nightclubs, exhibition halls,
museums and galleries,
leisure centres and casinos).
Small premises (e.g.
accommodating fewer than
300 persons).
Other premises.

L1 systems are often

provided in large or complex
buildings.

Transportation terminals.

M/L5

Covered shopping centres.

L1 to L3

The exact design needs to be

"tailor made" and often forms
part of a fire engineering

solution.
Residential care homes.

L1 to L3

L1 is regarded as appropriate
for large premises.

Prisons.

M/L5

Phased evacuation buildings. L3

Buildings in which other fire

precautions, such as means
of escape, depart from
recognised guidance.

Automatic fire detectors are

sited in such a way as to
compensate for the lower
standard in other fire
precautions.

M/L5

Buildings with "inner rooms", M/L5

from which escape is
possible only by passing
through another ("access")
room, where there is
inadequate vision between
the inner room and the
access room.

Smoke detectors are sited in

the access room.

Buildings in which automatic

fire detection is required to
operate other fire protection
systems (e.g. magnetic door
holders).

Care is necessary to ensure

that automatic fire detectors
are sited such that cool
smoke cannot pass below the
level of the detectors that
cause release of the
magnetic door holders, and
through the (still open) doors.

M/L5

Situations in which fire could M/L4 or M/L5

readily spread from an
unoccupied area and
prejudice means of escape
from occupied areas.

Custom and practice does

not involve siting automatic
fire detectors in all
unoccupied areas, such as
plant rooms and storage
areas.

Any building in which

M/P1 or M/P2
automatic fire detection is
provided as a requirement of
a property insurer or to attract
an insurance premium
discount.

Ref. BRADFORD FIRE PREVENTION GROUP

Type M systems encompass all manually-activated fire systems.

Type M (Manual: Life Protection)

This is the basic and minimum requirement needed in all premises. It provides the facility for
manual operation of call points and depends on the presence of people to activate the system. Call points are typified by break glass switch.

2.5 - Fire Alarm Zoning.

To ensure accurate and expedient identification of the fire source, areas should be divided
into zones. When determining the area to be covered by a zone, consideration should be
given to accessibility, size, the fire routine determined for the premises and - particularly in
occupied premises - that each zone is accessible from the main circulation routes leading
from where the control panel is sited. Basic guidelines for the size of the zone should be observed:

If the total area of the building (i.e. the total of the floor areas of each floor) is not
greater than 300m, then the building need only be one zone, no matter how many
floors it has.
The total floor area of a zone should not exceed 2000m.
The search distance should not exceed 30m. The use of remote indicator lamps outside doors may reduce the number of zones required.
If the zone covers more than one fire compartment, then the zone boundaries should
follow compartment boundaries.
If the building is split into several occupancies, no zone should be split between two
occupancies.
If the detector in a zone becomes faulty or inoperable, it must not prevent the operation of detectors in the remaining zones. A single fault should not remove protection
from an area greater than that allowed for a single zone.

2.6 - Alarm Signalling.

The notification that a detection system has been activated falls into two principal headings,
aural and visual. Both types tend to be used in combination with each other.
As detailed in the section regarding disabled persons, each type is of specific use to certain
groups of people. Visual systems such as a strobe light should also be used in areas of high
noise, perhaps when ear protection is used. It should be noted that audio systems have
specified sound (or pressure) levels that are audible even in conditions of high noise.
Recent technology introduces tactile devices, such as radio alarm systems that are ideal for
people working in isolation, or for deaf people. The system consists of two parts - a transmitter linked into the fire alarm control panel and a receiver which is a vibrating pager. When
the fire alarm is activated, it automatically and immediately switches on the radio transmitter
that sends a digitally-encoded radio signal to each alerter in the building. The alerter vibrates
and displays the text fire message. Such systems are referred to in BS5839.

2.7 - Use of alarm receiving centres.

Both automatic and manual fire detection systems can be connected to an alarm receiving
centre; this connection is normally via a telephone line.

The use of such a monitoring system can provide significant benefits.

Such a system provides constant monitoring of the fire detection system, constant meaning
24 hours a day, 7 days a week. The majority of fires start after normal working hours, and a
long period of time could elapse before the fire was detected, if the building was unoccupied.
In an evacuation, when the principal objective is to get everyone out of the building, the need
to call the fire and emergency services can sometimes be overlooked. The person nominated to call the fire and emergency services might be unavailable or, worse still, could be
trapped by the fire.
Alarm receiving centres also provide the facility to contact the emergency services. They will
also call a named person, typically a nominated key holder or premises owner.

2.8 - Factors to be considered in the selection of fire detection and fire alarm
systems.
As detailed in previous sections (Categories of fire alarm and detection systems), there are
two principal reasons for installing a fire detection and alarm system; these are the protection of life and the protection of property. Each needs separate consideration for a system's
design and selection of appropriate equipment. In the majority of premises, there is a need
for both life and property protection in differing degrees.
Fire risk assessment should be relied upon to arrive at the optimum balance of life and
property risk. Such a conclusion cannot be reached accurately in an arbitrary manner.
The prevention of loss of life should always take precedence, but as a view of property risk,
a good example would be a warehouse with high-value stock which only needed to be operated by a small number of people, added to which the design of the warehouse provided
good passive protection and means of escape. The 'shift' towards the system to protect
property is obvious.
The opposite of the this situation would be the scenario of a cinema or theatre ; the building
and assets would be of great financial value, but the prevention of injury or loss of life to the
occupants would be the overriding factor.
The sample scenarios in the previous paragraphs can be used to demonstrate the different
factors to be taken into account in the selection of detection and alarm system, as each scenario has separate requirements.
We can see that the types of premises and the classifications of detection are already established:

Warehouse (or similar), M or P2/M or P1/M system category

A Category M system normally satisfies the requirements of legislation. It is, however, often
combined with a Category P system to satisfy the requirements of insurers, as company
policy for protection of assets, or to protect against business interruption.

Cinema (or similar) M & L1 to L4 category systems.

Another factor to be taken into account is the reaction of any occupants:

"During fire emergencies, occupants engage in a range of behaviours, all of which require
time to complete. In order to assess the time required for escape, it is necessary to identify,
quantify and take account of a range of factors including: time to detection, time to warnings,
pre-movement time, and travel time. The time required for escape depends upon the
interactions of these variables and the developing fire scenario".
A point of interest, and relevant to social behaviour, is also detailed in the category and
premises table:
"System Category is normally based on a fire risk assessment. In many schools, a Category
P system is installed to combat the hazard of arson. In schools that are partly occupied at
certain times (e.g. during evening classes or community use), a Category L4 or L5 system is
sometimes considered appropriate."
This exemplifies the use of fire detection and alarm in protection life and property from 'other
persons'.
In statistics taken from the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (Fire Statistics United
Kingdom 2001), it is shown that in that period, there were 481,100 false alarms.
British Standard BS 5839 requires end users of an automatic fire alarm system to not only
log that there has been a false alarm on the system, but also categorise the type of false
alarm.
These (5) categories are:

Unwanted alarms - alarms caused by fumes from cooking, steam, tobacco smoke,
dust insects etc.
Equipment False Alarms - alarms due to faults with the equipment.
Malicious False Alarms - alarms arising from a malicious use of a call point.
False alarms with good intent - these occur when an individual suspects there is a
real fire and raises the alarm.
False alarms that do not fall into any of the categories listed should be entered in to
your Fire log book as Unknown.

Listing the category of false alarms in the Fire system log book will aid investigation as to the
cause.
Fire risk assessments should take into account the potential for false alarms and allow for
preventative measure to be used.
As part of fire risk management, the companies who maintain the automatic detection
system need to be informed of any changes or change of use within the premises, as the
risk may have altered.
Single detectors or zones can be isolated during any work which could result in a false
alarm.

2.9 - Requirements for disabled persons.

The requirements for deaf and blind persons must be taken into account when selecting the
alarm method. Strobe lighting (or a beacon) is typical of a method of alarm for people who
are deaf. However, for something like a care home or even the home of a deaf person where

they may be asleep, such a visual system would not be appropriate. Research has shown
that vibration is the most reliable way to wake a deaf person from deep sleep, so the use of
a vibrating pad under a pillow while the person is sleeping would alert the person to the fact
that the alarm was activating.
This vibration method can also be used to good effect by deaf-blind people. As well as a design that fits under a pillow, there are self-contained (radio) units that can be worn by the
person and vibrate when the system activates.
Disabled persons can also be supplied with push button or pull cord alternatives to break
glass call points.
A source of further reference is Part M of the Building Regulations (Access and facilities for
disabled people).

2.10 - Requirements for maintenance and testing of fire alarms.

Summary of the Maintenance Requirements of BS5839-1: 2002 provided by the BFPSA:
This summary has been made available to assist readers of the booklet entitled "A Guide to
the reduction of false alarms from fire detection and fire alarm systems" published by the
Office of the Deputy Prime Minister.
Note 1: BS5839-1, Code of Practice for fire detection and fire alarm system design, installation, commissioning and maintenance, was revised and updated by the British Standards
Institution in 2002 and came fully into force in July 2003. The previous version was published in 1988 and was formally withdrawn by BSI in July 2003.
This summary relates to the 2002 version.
Note 2: This information is provided for the general guidance of fire detection and fire alarm
system users. As it is a summary, it omits much of the information included in the clauses
listed below. It Is therefore not intended to be a replacement for the detailed recommendations included within BS5839 1.
Clause 44 routine testing.
Clause 44.1 Commentary.

It is vital for a regular test to be undertaken to ensure that there has not been a major
failure of the entire fire detection and fire alarm system that may otherwise go unnoticed.

Clause 44.2 Weekly testing by the user.

Test a manual call point during working hours to check that the control panel and
alarm sounders operate satisfactorily.
Each week, a different manual call point should be tested.
Voice alarm systems should be tested weekly in accordance with BS5839-8 Note: If
the system is connected to an Alarm Receiving Centre (ARC) for calling the fire brigade, it is very important that the ARC is notified before testing commences and
when it is completed.

Clause 44.3 Monthly attention by the user

Testing of any automatically-started generator used for the fire detection and fire
alarm system.
Inspection of any vented batteries used as a standby power supply for the fire detection and fire alarm system.

Clause 45 Inspection and Servicing

Clause 45.1 Commentary
The inspection and servicing should be undertaken by organisations with the appropriate
competence.
This can be assured by the use of organisations that are third party certificated, by a UKAS
accredited certification body, specifically to carry out inspection and servicing of fire
detection and fire alarm systems.
Clause 45.2 Quarterly inspection of vented batteries.
Vented batteries should be examined by a person with relevant competence and should be
topped up if necessary.
Clause 45.3 Periodic inspection and testing.

The period between visits to undertake inspection and service should he based upon
a risk assessment, but the maximum period between visits should not exceed six
months.
The log book should be inspected.
A visual inspection should be made to check whether structural or occupancy
changes have been made that require changes to the fire detection and fire alarm
system.
False alarm records should be checked and relevant action taken if necessary.
Batteries should be checked and tested.
Control panel functions should be checked and tested.
Fire alarm devices should be tested.
Facilities for automatic transmission of alarm signals to an alarm receiving centre
(ARC) should be checked after advising the ARC of the proposed actions.
All fault indicators and circuits should be tested and checked.
Printers should be tested.
Other checks and tests recommended by the manufacturer should be carried out.
Outstanding defects should be reported and the logbook completed and servicing
certificate issued.

Clause 45.4 Inspection and test of a system over a 12 month period.

The switch mechanism of every manual call point should be tested.

Every automatic fire detector should be examined and functionally tested. Note: this
includes, but is not limited to smoke detectors, re-settable heat detectors, optical
beam smoke detectors, aspirating fire detection systems, carbon monoxide fire detectors and flame detectors.
All fire alarm devices (both visual and audible) should be tested.
Certain filament lamps should be replaced.
Radio fire detection and fire alarm system signal strengths should be checked.
Visual inspection of readily accessible cable fixings should be undertaken.
The cause and effect programme should be checked.
The standby power supply capacity should be checked.
Other annual checks and tests recommended by the system component manufactur-

ers should be undertaken.

Outstanding defects should be reported and the servicing certificate issued.

Clause 46.4.4 Recommendations for action to address an unacceptable rate of false

alarms.

This Clause recommends that any false alarm investigation and subsequent modifications to the system takes into account the guidance provided in Section 3 of
BS5839-12002. Note: Any organisations undertaking false alarm investigations and
related remedial work should be able to demonstrate their competence to undertake
such work.
Section 3 of BS5839-1:2002.

This section contains comprehensive information on all aspects of limitation of false alarms.
The measures to limit false alarms are divided into eight groups:

Siting and selection of manual call points.

Selection and siting of automatic fire detectors.
Selection of system type.
Protection against electromagnetic interference.
Performance monitoring of newly-commissioned systems.
Filtering measures.
System management.
Regular servicing and maintenance.

3 - Fire-fighting.
In most smaller workplaces, portable fire extinguishers will probably be sufficient to tackle
small fires. However, in more complex buildings, or where it is necessary to protect the
means of escape and/or the property or contents of the building, it may be necessary to
consider a sprinkler system.
Sprinkler systems are traditionally acknowledged as an efficient means of protecting
buildings against extensive damage from fire. They are also now acknowledged as an
effective means of reducing the risk to life from fire. Systems are being developed which
may be suitable for use in workplaces with residential areas, such as care homes and
houses in multiple occupancy.
Sprinkler systems need to be specifically designed and installed to the appropriate hazard
category in accordance with an approved code of practice.
This will ensure that that the operation of the system will effectively limit/control the effects of
the fire with minimal failures or unwanted operations (these are usually due to inappropriate
use or poor maintenance).
Further information on the requirements for sprinkler systems, and their benefits, can be
obtained from your local fire authority.
In many industrial and commercial premises, fires can pose a serious threat to the safety of
employees working in or adjacent to areas involving:

Process machinery.

Electrical switchgear and transformers.

Control - and data - processing equipment.
Flammable materials storage.

Fires involving these risks can effectively be dealt with by the installation of fixed fire-fighting
systems that may be either automatically or manually operated. For example, process
equipment and machinery which handles flammable substances (e.g. printing machines,
rolling mills, or oil-filled switchgear), may be protected by extinguishing systems, using dry
powder, foam, carbon dioxide or other inert gas. However, recent developments using water
mist technology mean that these systems may also be useful, especially in food-processing
areas.
Similarly, protection of control- and data-processing equipment may be achieved by systems
designed to totally fill the room or the cabinets containing such equipment with a gasflooding extinguishing medium to a specified concentration. These types of systems use a
range of gas-extinguishing media. Where there is a possibility that these may discharge into
occupied areas, you need to ensure that the resulting concentration of the extinguishing
medium will not be harmful to anybody present.
Where necessary, protection of large-scale storage facilities of flammable materials,
especially in bulk tanks, may also be achieved by fixed deluge water or foam systems.
The design and installation of fixed fire-fighting systems requires a high level of expertise,
including the ability to carry out a thorough risk assessment and select the appropriate
system and fire-fighting medium. Such systems have to be specially designed, and can be
expensive. If you are considering installing such a system, you should liaise with the relevant
enforcing authority and consult a reputable company at an early stage. The British Fire
Protection Systems Association can supply you with a list of companies in your area that
undertake this type of work.

3.1 - Outline of portable fire fighting equipment.

Unfortunately, there is no universal fire extinguishing agent.Therefore, there is a possibility
that some fire extinguishers, if used on ignited materials or liquids, may make the fire worse
and potentially put the employee (or person tackling the fire) at greater or increased
risk.Under the British Standard EN-2, fires have been divided into broad classifications for
extinguishing purposes. This will assist in selecting the most effective extinguishing agent to
be used on the most appropriate types of fire and burning material:
Class A
Fires involving solid materials where combustion normally takes place with the formation of
glowing embers
Class B
fires involving liquids or liquefiable solids
Class C
fires involving gases
Class D
fires involving metals
Class F

fires involving cooking oils or fats

Class A

All solid materials, usually organic origin nature (contains compounds of carbon) and
generally produce glowing embers
Class B

All flammable liquids and solids, which can also be sub-divided into:
Non-miscible with water (i.e. petrol, oils, solvents, paints & waxes)
Class C

Fires involving Natural Mains Gas, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG - Butane & Propane etc),
Medical or Industrial gases.
Class D

Fires involving metals (where water is generally ineffective and / or dangerous).

Specialist Dry Powders are produced for certain Class D fires, particularly those involving
alkali metals such as Sodium and Potassium. These Dry Powders extinguish metal fires by
fusing the powder to form a crust, which excludes oxygen from the surface of the molten
metal. A specific agent is added to prevent the powder from sinking into the surface of the
molten metals.
Class F

New class specifically dealing with high temperature (360C) cooking oils used in large
industrial catering kitchens, restaurants and takeaway establishments etc. Cooking oil fires,
because of their high auto-ignition temperatures are difficult to extinguish.
Electrical Fires

Electrical fires are not considered to constitute a fire class on their own, as electricity is a
source of ignition that will feed the fire until removed. When the electrical supply has been
isolated, the fire can be treated (generally) as 'Class A' for extinguishing purposes. However,
you should always isolate the supply before fighting the fire; if this is not possible then a nonelectrical conducting extinguishing agent is to be used regardless of the power status on all
occasions.

3.2 - Extinguisher Quick Guide.

3.3 - Types of fire portable extinguishers.

The fire-fighting extinguishing medium in portable extinguishers is expelled by internal pressure, either permanently stored or by means of a gas cartridge. Generally speaking, portable
fire extinguishers can be divided into five categories according to the extinguishing medium
they contain:
1 Water
2 Foam
3 Powder

4 Carbon Dioxide
5 Vaporising liquids
Some fire extinguishers can be used on more than one type of fire. For instance, AFFF extinguishers can be used on both Class 'A' fires and Class 'B' fires. Your fire equipment supplier will be able to advise you.
The most useful form of fire-fighting equipment for general fire risks is the water-type extinguisher or hose reel. One such extinguisher should be provided for approximately each 200
square metres of floor space, with a minimum of one per floor. If each floor has a hose reel
which is known to be in working order and of sufficient length for the floor it serves, there
may be no need for water-type extinguishers to be provided.
Areas of special risk involving the use of oil, fats, or electrical equipment may need carbon
dioxide, dry powder or other types of extinguisher. If you are not sure what to provide in any
given circumstances, your local fire authority will be able to advise you. British Standard
5306: Part 3 provides advice about the selection and allocation of portable fire extinguishers.
Fire extinguishers should conform to a recognised standard such as British Standard EN 3
for new ones and British Standard 5423 for existing ones. For extra assurance, you should
look for the British Standard Kitemark, the British Approvals for Fire Equipment (BAFE) mark
or the Loss Prevention Council Certification Board (LPCB) mark.
Fire extinguishers may be colour-coded to indicate their type. Previously, the entire body of
the extinguisher has been colour-coded, but British Standard EN 3: Part 5 (which came into
effect on 1st January 1997) requires that all new fire extinguisher bodies should be red. A
zone of colour of up to 5% of the external area, positioned immediately above or within the
section used to provide the operating instructions, may be used to identify the type of extinguisher. This zone should be positioned so that it is visible through a horizontal arc of 180
when the extinguisher is correctly mounted. The colour-coding should follow the recommendations of British Standard 7863.
Fire extinguishers, if properly maintained and serviced, may be in service for at least 20
years. So there may be situations where a building will have a mixture of new and old fire
extinguishers with the same type of extinguishing medium but with different colour-coded
markings. In these cases and to avoid any confusion, it is advisable to ensure that extinguishers of the same type but with different colour-coded markings are not mixed, either at
the same location in single-storey buildings or on the same floor level in multi-storey buildings.
Old-style fire extinguishers must not be painted red to try and comply with the new standard,
as this would contravene British Standard EN 3 which covers technical changes during the
manufacturing stage.
Fire extinguishers should normally be located in conspicuous positions on escape routes,
preferably near exit doors. Wherever possible, fire-fighting equipment should be grouped to
form fire points. These should be clearly visible or their location clearly and conspicuously
indicated so that fire points can be readily identified. Where workplaces are uniform in layout, extinguishers should normally be located at similar positions on each floor.
If for any reason extinguishers are placed in positions hidden from direct view, the Health
and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996 require that their location should be
indicated by signs and, where appropriate, directional arrows.

3.4 - Hose reels and fire blankets.

Where hose reels are provided, they should be located where they are conspicuous and always accessible, such as in corridors.
Fire blankets should be located in the vicinity of the fire hazard on which they are to be used,
but in a position that can be safely accessed in the event of a fire. They are classified as either light-duty or heavy-duty. Light-duty fire blankets are suitable for dealing with small fires
in containers of cooking oils or fats and fires involving clothing. Heavy-duty fire blankets are
for industrial use where there is a need for the blanket to resist penetration by molten materials.
Hose reels and fire blankets should conform to relevant British Standards.
If you are unsure about the number or type of portable fire-fighting equipment or hose reels
you need, you should check with the local fire authority before purchasing any such equipment.

3.5 - Allocation and Siting of Extinguishers.

For the home a fire blanket and a 2kg dry powder extinguisher in the kitchen, would be considered satisfactory for most situations. The domestic tap using a suitable container or a
hose reel is satisfactory for most of the class A fires in the home but remember if in doubt,
get out and always call the fire service out.
Commercial organisation's need to be more professional by conducting a survey to ascertain
the number and type of extinguisher that is required and a more substantial fire extinguishing capability will be required. As a rule of thumb you need one 9-litre water extinguisher for
every 200 sq metres of floor space with a minimum of two extinguishers. Special risks other
than Class "A" must be considered separately. Companies that are FETA approved should
be used and this will ensure the installation and maintenance is of the highest standard.
Extinguishers should normally be sited on escape routes and in similar locations on all floors
forming groups to create 'fire points'. They should be fixed in a location where the extinguisher can be reached quickly. The best place is near a door leading to a place of safety,
on an escape route or adjacent to a specific risk. They should be fixed where they can be
easily seen; fixing them inside cupboards or behind doors will only waste valuable time if a
fire breaks out. Do not place them over cookers or heaters or in places of extreme temperatures hot or cold.
The additional following factors should also be considered when siting fire extinguishers.

Extinguishers should be fixed at an elevated height so that the carrying handle is, 1m
from the floor for heavier units and 1.5m for smaller units.
For special risks they should be adjacent to the risk but not too close to prevent use
in the event of fire occurring.
They should be near the door, in shallow recesses, and away from extremes of temperature.
Ensure a maximum 30m travelling distance from a fire to an extinguisher.
The method of operation should be similar for all extinguishers, where possible.
The occupiers should be capable of handling all the types and sizes recommended.
Where different types of extinguishers for different risk types are sited together they
must be properly labelled to prevent confusion.
Extinguishers should be fitted with suitable jet or spray nozzles or flexible hoses to
suit the risk involved.

3.6 - Maintenance.
Extinguishers need to be serviced to the latest standard. The manufacturer's instructions will
tell you what you need to do to keep your extinguisher in good working order. After an extinguisher has been used, even if only partially, it must be recharged according to the manufacturer's instructions.
The extinguisher should be properly serviced once a year. You should use a company registered by the British Approvals for Fire Equipment (BAFE). BAFE is a Governmentrecognised national organisation. You can get details of approved products and advice from:
BAFE (British Approvals for Fire Equipment)
Bridges 2, The Fire Service College, London Road
Moreton in Marsh, Gloucestershire GL56 0RH
Tel: 0844 335 0897
Fax: 01608 653359

Note - they can also supply a list of companies approved by them to service portable fire extinguishers.
NORTHUMBERLAND FIRE AND RESCUE SERVICE
FIRE SAFETY - STANDARD HANDOUT
FIRE PRECAUTIONS FOR MARQUEES, TENTS,BOOTHS AND SIMILAR STRUCTURES FSSH 19
Siting and Layout.
The site chosen should not be in a congested position where easy access is not possible
and should be chosen so as to allow ample open space for all the occupants of the tent(s) to
get well clear in the event of a fire. Where a number of tents are to be erected, a plan of the
site should be discussed with the Fire Brigade.
Adequate space should be allowed between individual tents in order to prevent the spread of
fire. As a guide, a minimum of 6m should be observed. In the case of very large tents, e.g. a
big top, the minimum distance should be 12m.
The site should be arranged to allow for adequate access for fire engines and other appliances to within 45 - 50 metres of any structure, including fuel storage facilities. Access
routes should not be less than 3.7 metres wide, should have no overhead structure or cables
less than 4 metres above the ground, and should be capable of taking the weight of fire engines (about 17 tons) in all weathers. Where access routes to and within the site are accessible via bridges, the weight restrictions of the bridge should not be less than the weight of
the vehicle expected to use it. Turning facilities should also be provided in any dead-end access route which is longer than 20 metres.
Emergency vehicle routes within the site should be clearly marked to identify them as such,
and should be kept clear of obstruction at all times.
Access to hydrants and other water supplies should not be obstructed or obscured. They
should be clearly indicated.
Car parks should be sited away from marquees and large tents, and parking should not be
allowed on internal routes or between tents.

Occupancy.
The maximum number of persons admitted to the structure should be based on the following
formula:a) Standing audience - 36 persons per 10 square metres.
b) Closely-seated audience - 24 persons per 10 square metres.
c) Discotheque - 20 persons per 10 square metres.
These figures include an allowance for gangways and passages.
Means of Escape.
Every tent, booth or similar structure should be provided with exits which are sufficient for
the number of occupants in relation to their width, number and siting. No exit shall be less
than 1.1m wide.
Current practice is that where an event in a marquee or large tent is licensed for public entertainment, and more than 50 people are present, doors should be conventional (i.e. a fixed
frame and door set fitted with panic bolts or latches). Where such doors are provided, the
door frame sills and the ground in the immediate vicinity of the doorway should be levelled to
avoid the risk of people tripping.
However, where a traditional "pole" marquee is to be erected on uneven ground, a solid door
frame arrangement may not be suitable as the frame may become distorted and result in the
door jamming. Alternatives are to provide a suitable single-action opening device or a Velcro
fastening. The latter, under reasonable pressure, can allow the whole wall to open back,
providing a wide exit for all present.
The main criteria are, however, that the fastening is suitable for the occupant capacity, is
capable of being opened by one simple action requiring no manual dexterity, and is such
that people can easily and immediately escape.
The width of any final exit in relation to the number of occupants who may have to use it can
be determined by the following table:Minimum clear width of exit.
Suitable for not more than:

1.1m 160 persons.

1.65m 240 persons.
1.95m 320 persons.

Enclosures intended to hold more than 50 persons should in no case have fewer than two
exits.
From any part of an enclosure having more than one exit:
a) the travel distance to the nearest exit should not be more than 18 metres and
b) after the first 6.5m, the remainder of the route should lead in a different direction from the
route of any alternative exit.
In enclosures having only one exit, the travel distance should not be more than 6.5m.
Where enclosures are intended to hold more than 50 persons, an alternative allowance
should be made for the fact that one exit may be obstructed and not available because of

fire or smoke or other hazard.

At least one exit in excess of the number required by the above paragraphs should be
provided; exits should be evenly distributed around the structure so that genuine alternative
routes are available from all parts.
All gangways and exits from tents should be kept well clear of obstruction.
Exits should be clearly indicated.
Door flaps when down should hang loose and open outwards by parting in the centre of the
doorway. Flaps should not trail on the ground.
Where windy conditions make it necessary to keep door flaps down or loosely tied, an
attendant should be permanently on duty at each exit to open flaps in an emergency at all
times when the public is present.
The line of exit between the tent and the peg line should be fenced.
Seating.
There should in all cases be an unobstructed seat way or space at least 300mm measured
between perpendiculars between the back of one seat and the front of the seat immediately
behind.
The number of seats in a row should not exceed:a) seven seats where there is a gangway at one end only, providing that longer rows up to
11 seats may be allowed, subject to the seat way being increased by 25mm for each seat
over 7, and
b) fourteen seats where there is a gangway at each end, providing that longer rows up to 22
seats with a gangway at each end subject to the seat way being increased by 25mm for
each additional seat or pair of seats over 14.
Seats in an enclosed structure holding more than 30 people should either be securely fixed
in position or rigidly linked together in rows of not fewer than 4 seats. Where on a sloping
platform, seats should be fixed in position.
Gangways.
Gangways should be of sufficient width for the seats or area served but not wider than the
exits to which they lead. A gangway should not be less than 1.1m in width (i.e. minimum exit
width).

3.7 - Fire Fighting Equipment.

Portable fire fighting equipment should be provided throughout the site. Guidance on the
suitability, siting and maintenance of portable fire extinguishers can be found in B.S. Code of
Practice 5306: Part 3.
Where a piped water supply is laid on at the site and taps are fitted, a length of small bore
hose with a suitable adaptor and nozzle at each tap will also provide a useful means of fighting small fires.
Any natural water sources or static supplies which can be used should be clearly marked to

assist the Fire Brigade.

Equipment is best kept at fire points situated on main access lanes. Fire points must be conspicuous and notices should be posted explaining in concise terms how to use the equipment. In large work areas, fire equipment should be placed near to exits.
Fire Procedure.
Every enclosed structure should have a sufficient number of persons in attendance to direct
the public to safety in the event of an emergency. One person should be nominated to be in
charge of the structure. All persons in attendance should be instructed in their duties in case
of fire or other emergency.
In addition to the person in charge of the structure, the number of attendants should be:(i) 1 per 250 persons or part thereof over the age of 16.
or
(ii) 1 per 75 persons or part thereof under the age of 16.
Staff should be instructed on the following:(i) How to call the Fire Brigade.
(ii) How to evacuate tents in an orderly manner and in the shortest possible time.
(iii) How to attack a fire with the equipment provided whilst awaiting the arrival of the Fire
Brigade.
Regular patrols should be carried out by a responsible person.
Flame Retardant Treatments.
Fabrics and other sheeting used in the construction of tents, booths, stores and similar structures, roof coverings, weather protection covers, and all scenery, curtains, drapes and decorations used in or upon structures should be rendered flame-retardant and be maintained in
that condition.
Rigid linings, such as wall boards, used in structures should be not less than a Class 1 surface spread of flame quality, as described in British Standard 476: Part 7.
The event organiser should ensure a certificate of compliance is obtained from the supplier
of the equipment.
Smoking.
Smoking is prohibited in all workplaces and stores. Elsewhere it is advisable to discourage
smoking but, if it is not practicable to prohibit smoking, an adequate number of suitable
metal receptacles e.g. large trays of sand, should be provided and well indicated. A designated smoking area can be set up as long as it is 75% open.
Light, Power and Heating.
Adequate lighting should be provided inside the workplace and also outside when the site is
open to the public during the hours of darkness. Lighting should remain in operation until all
members of the public have left the site.
Lighting should be by electricity and provisions should be made for emergency power to be
available.

All electrical wiring and apparatus should so far as possible be carried clear of canvas and
positioned where it can not be tampered with.
Light fittings should not be placed within 450mm of any part of a structure where the heat
from the light fitting can cause fire.
Cooking appliances and flues should be positioned well clear of walls and roofs.
Where bottled gas is to be used, the cylinders should stand outside the workplace and
should be handled and charged only by someone fully conversant with the supplier's instructions. Precautions should be taken to prevent tampering with the cylinders and valves.
The use of burning appliances for lighting, heating or cooking is not recommended. If the
use of oil-burning appliances is unavoidable, supplies of oil should be kept well clear of the
main work area and other bulk stores. No fuel except that in the containers of the appliances
should be taken into the workplace.
Flammable liquids and all bulk stores of combustible materials should be sited away from
areas to which the public have access, and be kept in suitable bins.
Housekeeping.
Spaces beneath stands should be kept clear of paper and rubbish and should not be used to
store any combustible materials.
Metal receptacles should be provided for rubbish, especially where refreshments are served.
Refuse dumps should be sited well clear of work areas. The burning of rubbish should not
be permitted unless current environmental legislation has been checked, and what you are
burning is authorised to be burnt. Workplaces should ensure that arrangements are made
for the regular removal of rubbish from the site.
Reference.
Further details are available in the following books available from HMSO Bookshops or their
accredited agents.

"Guide to fire precautions in existing places of entertainment and like premises" ISBN 0113409079.
"Guide to Health, Safety and Welfare at pop concerts and similar events" - ISBN
0113410727.

3.8 - Fire Water Run-off.

Water is the most widely-used medium for fighting fires. It is cheap, plentiful and very effective; it not only extinguishes flames but also takes heat from the fire which helps reduce the
risk of radiated heat, structural damage and reignition. It also has the advantage that, in
most circumstances, it is non-hazardous. Large volumes of water are frequently used in fire
fighting and, although some will turn to steam in the heat, much will fall to the ground and
drain away from the site of the fire. This 'fire-water run-off' does not usually present a serious
risk to the environment.
If hazardous chemicals are involved, foam might be used to fight a fire rather than water but
there may still be a need for water to cool other property or plant nearby, to reduce the risk
of it becoming involved in the fire.

Water or foam used to fight fires at premises where chemicals are used or stored can become contaminated with the chemicals and become hazardous itself. (For example firewater run-off from a fire in Basle, 1986, resulted in major pollution of the river Rhine, extending many kilometres downstream and lasting many years; the fire at Allied Colloids, Bradford, in 1992 resulted in severe pollution of the Rivers Calder and Aire from fire-water, severely affecting aquatic life over 50 km.) In these circumstances due consideration must be
given to preventing it harming either people or the environment.

3.9 - Fire Precautions for Water Run-off.

The earlier a fire can be tackled, the greater the chance of successfully extinguishing it and
minimising the quantity of contaminated water. When considering automatic fire detection
(and possibly fire-fighting) equipment, seek advice from the supplier(s), the relevant enforcing authorities and the insurers as to its suitability. As well as its effectiveness, consider the
potential of any effluent (ie product carry-over and fire-fighting medium, whether foam or water) to damage the environment. The water from sprinkler or deluge systems must be treated
in the same way as any water applied by fire-fighters.
A well-designed active fire suppression system can reduce the amount of water which needs
to be applied to control/extinguish a fire and this in turn can reduce the scale and cost of
other facilities.

3.10 - Environmental Hazard Identification.

The type and extent of the measures implemented at a major hazard installation to protect
the water environment from the effects of an accident will depend on the likelihood of an accident occurring and the likely consequences. The likelihood of an accident occurring depends on the nature and quantities of the hazardous substances on site, the activities carried out on site and existing accident prevention measures. The environmental consequences of an accident will depend not only on the severity of the accident but also on the
nature of the environment in terms of the flora and fauna which it supports and its ability to
recover if damaged.
It is essential to assess the risk that major hazard installations pose to the environment on a
site by site basis. Installations where similar activities are carried out may pose different
risks, depending on the environment around them. Accidents may also cause environmental
damage a significant distance away from the installation; all possible routes of transport of
contaminants should be identified, for example drains and ditches.
The health and safety of people is always paramount and it is important to consider indirect
risks to people. Environmental contamination may result in long-term exposure to hazardous
substances, which may enter the food chain via the air, water or soil. Decisions may have to
balance the risks due to airborne pollution if a fire is allowed to burn and risks to the environment if water is used to control it.
It is important to assess the routes by which contaminants can be carried significant distances away from the site, where they may cause serious environmental contamination, for
example drainage systems and rivers and it is important that suitable 'water maps' are prepared showing the location of all drains, water supplies and water courses. Smoke plumes
may carry significant quantities of pollutants away from the site; knowledge of prevailing
weather conditions, including mean wind speeds and directions is required to assess this
effect.

Even if it can be demonstrated that the likelihood of a major accident is very low or that the
environmental consequences of a major accident would be negligible, normal precautions
for the safe use, storage and transport of dangerous substances still apply. If, however, one
or more dispersion mechanisms are likely to cause serious environmental damage then appropriate measures should be adopted to control the risk.
The National Rivers Authority (NRA) or, in Scotland, the River Purification Boards (RPB)
should be consulted about the assessment since they hold factual information about
neighbouring water resources, ecotoxicology and water quality criteria and should be able to
provide information about the location, type, nature, importance and sensitivity of all water
resources at risk. These authorities may be able to offer practical advice on the range of
strategies and equipment available to protect the environment and their suitability in particular circumstances.
The nature of risks posed to the environment and details of that environment should be described in the safety report.
Consideration of the pollution risks to water resources from contaminated fire-water
should include:

The sources of release of dangerous substances in the event of a fire and the potential consequences;
The properties of the substances present on site, for example toxicity, flammability
etc, and the potential for adverse reactions between them;
The environmental behaviour of the substances such as solubility, volatility, persistence, potential to bioaccumulate in the food chain and environmental toxicity. Consider also products formed as a result of complete or incomplete combustion of substances in fire or degradation in water. These may be more persistent and harmful
than the parent compounds;
Information about the location, inventories and process conditions, with reference to
facilities such as bunding, entry points to storm and foul water drains, protective
equipment associated with them, and the routes of water flows to containment and
treatment plants;
Information about the type and vulnerability of relevant water sources (obtained from
the NRA/RPB) which will include:
sites within river catchments above public water supply intakes and/or reservoirs
where the discharge following an incident is likely to lead to levels above agreed acceptable maxima for drinking water abstraction (time of travel to intake, the importance of the intake and other similar factors may need to be considered);
Sites in close proximity to aquifers or close to water courses that flow to, and can
contaminate aquifers, particularly those used for public water supplies;
Sites which pose a threat to waters of particular ecological value such as sites of
special scientific interest (SSSls);
Sites where surface water, contaminated with hazardous substances, discharges into
a foul sewerage system. This could either damage the filter.
Beds of any receiving treatment works or, where receiving treatment works do not
have sufficient storage capacity to contain the fire-water run-off, result in its diversion
directly into the water environment, causing significant environmental harm.
The NRA/RPB is able to offer advice and assistance to HSE inspectors and manufacturers on assessing the potential risks of the site to the water environment

3.11 - Containment Systems.

If the assessment shows that the fire-water run-off is likely to cause serious damage to the
environment, means to minimise the risk should be provided. This should comprise ar-

rangements for containing the run-off, although in certain circumstances alternative approaches to remove or minimise the risk might be more appropriate. Some of these are discussed later but decisions should be taken only after full discussion with all the appropriate
authorities; there is rarely, if ever, a single correct solution.
Containment systems.
There is a variety of containment measures which may be employed, ranging from permanent structures to temporary systems. The following paragraphs are intended to assist occupiers select the most appropriate measures for their particular sites.
To size any containment system, knowledge of the anticipated quantity of run-off from a fire
is required and although this cannot be calculated with any precision it should still be estimated. The size of the bund needs to be considered on a site-specific basis having regard to
the size of fire that is possible. Advice on this and the fire-fighting arrangements in general
should be obtained from the Fire Authority. In discussing these matters, take account of the
flammability of the building structure and contents as well as any fire detection/suppression
system; to tackle a small fire may require only a few tens of cubic metres of water whereas a
large fire may require in excess of several thousand cubic metres of water.
It may be concluded that the provision of a permanent containment system is the appropriate solution to deal with the run-off expected from a small fire. This would also provide sufficient time to put in place larger, temporary, containment measures in the event of a major
fire. Provision for such temporary measures would, of course, have to be previously agreed
and arranged.
When deciding on suitable control measures to prevent or limit environmental damage it is
important to consider not only their effectiveness and cost but also their compatibility with
operator health and safety, ease and cost of maintenance, how their installation will affect
the overall safe running of the plant and how they will be emptied if they ever need to be
used. It is important that the contents of a containment facility can be disposed of safely after
an accident, without posing further risks to people or the environment. Where it is proposed
to use pumps to transfer run-off water, consider back-up power supplies in case normal
power is interrupted as a result of an accident.
A potential benefit of a permanent containment system is that it is possible the water may be
reusable to tackle the fire, though this requires prior discussion with the Fire Authority to determine any restrictions and whether there is a need for any special equipment. It may also
be necessary to arrange for this water to be monitored for its suitability. This should be detailed in the on-site emergency plan.

3.12 - Bunds.
It is a sensible precaution to store environmentally hazardous chemicals in bunded areas.
Bund sizes need to be considered on an individual basis, taking into account industry guidance such as British Wood Preservers and Damp-proofers Association (BWPDA) guidance
on timber treatment. The floors and walls of bunded areas should be substantially impervious and provide for the localised containment of spills irrespective of whether there is a fire
or not, for example failure of a container.
Ideally the capacity of the bund would be sufficient to take the entire inventory of the chemicals stored within it, plus the foam or water from initial fire-fighting or fire protection activities,
but this may not always be achievable. An additional 10% of the nominal chemical inventory
may be adequate to provide for coverage of the chemical with foam or water in a drum storage area, for example, but much more than this could be required in other circumstances

and a bund sized to take 110% of the entire chemical inventory would not provide sufficient
capacity to prevent fire-water run-off. However, it may provide sufficient time for emergency,
temporary containment measures to be brought into operation.
There are a number of situations where such sizing of the bund to take the entire inventory
is not normal practice, nor perhaps, reasonably achievable. For example bunds enclosing a
number of storage tanks will usually only have a capacity equivalent to 110% of the largest
tank present. Similarly in the case of very large storage tanks the bund capacity may be less
than that of the tank. In such cases particular consideration is required for dealing with firewater run-off and would be expected to include the provision of permanent containment
measures to prevent pollution. In these or other unusual or difficult circumstances, further
advice may be sought from the relevant enforcing authority.
Particular attention should be paid to the ability of the bund walls to withstand the hydrostatic
pressure from the contained liquids and resist attack by the chemicals as well as their structural integrity under fire conditions. Shallow bunds may be provided with sloping kerbs to
allow access by fork lift trucks.
It is essential that bunds are properly maintained. This includes keeping drain valves closed,
except for regular draining of rainwater, as well as checks on the physical structure. Consider the possibility of the presence of dangerous levels of toxic or flammable gases in confined spaces between high bund walls and tanks before anyone enters the bund.

3.13 - Lagoons and Tanks.

Permanent provision for the containment of large quantities of fire-water run-off, typically
several thousand cubic metres and above, may be achieved by lagoons and tanks. These
can be remote from, and may serve, several storage areas, receiving the run-off via a gravity
flow or pumped" drainage system.
Lagoons should be provided with an impermeable surface membrane to prevent pollutants
soaking into the ground. They cover a relatively large area, enhancing evaporation and the
settling out of suspended solids.
Tanks have the benefit of providing a relatively large storage volume in a small area, though
they are expensive compared to lagoons, particularly for the larger volumes. Where
available, an economical option might be to make use of a redundant or spare tank.
Where there are a number of sites in close proximity it may be possible to install shared
facilities and reduce the cost.
In the event of an incident necessitating the use of a lagoon or tank it is important that the
emergency procedures ensure that any outlets from these, such as surface water, sewer or
foul/trade effluent, are isolated.

3.14 - Emergency Temporary Containment.

Emergency temporary containment of fire-water run-off may be provided by a sacrificial
area, site containment or portable flexi-tank. As discussed previously, the provision of bunds
should always be a prime consideration, but if reliance is placed on any of the following
emergency systems, bunds would be considered essential to provide sufficient time for
these secondary containment measures to be made ready.
Sacrificial areas might be natural depressions, or ones specially created to fulfil this function,
for example a car park. They may be designed to have inherent containment provision, or be
readily adaptable in an emergency, for example by the use of booms and similar devices. An
aspect to consider is the permeability of the ground and how to minimise soaking of the pol-

lutant into it. Discharge to the area may be by gravity or pump1.

Site containment may be achieved by either a low kerb around the entire site, or just the
sensitive area. It essentially serves as a secondary containment system to the bunding,
should this overflow. The possible effects of this containment on process operations and
emergency services will need to be assessed.
Portable flexi-tanks range in size from about 10m3 up to around 250m3. Important matters
to consider include the compatibility of the tank material with the chemicals it will contain, the
time it takes to bring it into use and the location of the tank and pumping arrangements. All
these factors should be detailed in the on-site emergency plan. Regular examination and
maintenance of such tanks is essential. Consideration might also be given to whether the
collected water can be re-used to tackle the fire.
With respect to sacrificial areas and site containment systems, particular consideration
needs to be given to how surface water, sewers and foul/trade effluent systems will be
sealed off, to prevent run-off water getting off site.

3.15 - Other containment systems.

Other containment systems which may be used include those below. All have limited capacity, and their use needs to be discussed with the Fire Authority beforehand to ensure they
would have sufficient capacity in the event of fire:

Catch-pits and interceptors provide for the rudimentary separation of solids and also
aqueous from non-aqueous solutions. They may also be used to provide transitional
containment for water-miscible products. They may be used singly or as a series.
Separators provide a specified design performance for removal of named nonmiscible hydrocarbons from water, allowing the subsequent discharge of the water.
Booms can be used to provide total containment, either by themselves, or to fill gaps
in other containment areas. They may be used as flotation devices to contain lighter
non-water-miscible hydrocarbons.
Drain seals can be used to cover or block a drain, allowing the site sewer system, or
part of it, to be sealed and thus employed as an emergency containment system.
Sand bags while effective, have limited use. They are often not available and take
time to deploy.

3.16 - Alternatives to Containment.

There may be cases, depending on the location of the site, where it may be appropriate to
allow a fire to burn under control. This option may minimise the risk of a major environmental
accident resulting in contamination of the water environment but may cause other risks.
There are a number of highly sensitive issues to consider and forward planning is essential.
Decisions on controlled burning should be taken in consultation with relevant parties which
will include the manufacturer and their insurers, Fire Authority, Environmental Health Authority, HSE, NRA/RPB, HMIP, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) and others.
Factors to consider will include the effects on local populations, the risk of fire spreading to
nearby property and the impact of deposition from the smoke plume. Where controlled burn
is considered to be appropriate the criteria for the decision should be described in the emergency plans. It must be remembered that some application of water is likely to be required to
ensure that the fire burns in a controlled manner and adequate provision should be made to

contain the estimated run-off.

In certain circumstances, especially in areas where the risk of serious damage to the water
environment is identified, the re-location of any environmentally hazardous chemicals to an
alternative site may be worthy of serious consideration. However, the advantages from this
have to be balanced against the risks involved in the transport operation.

4 - Means of escape.
Factors to be considered in the provision and maintenance of means of escape.

Means of escape in case of fire means the provision of a safe route(s) from any part
of a building to a final exit or place of safety, enabling the person to escape from fire
or smoke by his / her own unaided efforts.
Approved Document B is substantial and gives a wealth of information on both protection of the structure, adjacent buildings and perhaps most importantly, means of
escape from buildings that may be on fire.
Building Control has the responsibility to ensure that all new buildings are provided
with adequate means of escape.

In the document Fire Safety: An employer's guide, the technical definition of means of
escape is given as:
"The principle on which means of escape provisions are based is that the time available for
escape (an assessment of the length of time between the fire starting and it making the
means of escape from the workplace unsafe) is greater than the time needed for escape
(the length of time it will take everyone to evacuate once a fire has been discovered and
warning given).
Regardless of the location of a fire, once people are aware of it they should be able to
proceed safely along a recognisable escape route, to a place of safety. In order to achieve
this, it may be necessary to protect the route, i.e. by providing fire-resisting construction. A
protected route may also be necessary in workplaces providing sleeping accommodation or
care facilities.
The means of escape is likely to be satisfactory if your workplace is fairly modern and has
had building regulation approval or if it has been found satisfactory following a recent
inspection by the fire authority (and in each case you have not carried out any significant
material or structural alterations or made any change to the use of the workplace). However,
you should still carry out a risk assessment to ensure that the means of escape remains
adequate.
If, as a result of your risk assessment, you propose making any changes to the means of
escape, you should consult the fire authority (in Scotland you must seek the agreement of
the building control authority) before making any changes.
When assessing the adequacy of the means of escape you will need to take into account:

the findings of your fire risk assessment;

the size of the workplace, its construction, layout, contents and the number and width
of the available escape routes;
the workplace activity, where people may be situated in the workplace and what they
may be doing when a fire occurs;
the number of people who may be present, and their familiarity with the workplace;

and their ability to escape without assistance.

4.1 - What is a Means of Escape?

The phrase 'means of escape' is seemingly self-explanatory; however, the variables involved
with properties and structures in achieving the 'best means of escape' result in no singular
answer. Some of the variables to be considered appear as you work through other sections
of this element.
Given the exact nature of some of the information, in particular date and calculations, the
information is directly extracted from regulation and legislation sources or guidelines for such
documents.
As a 'working' definition, this narrative is widely accepted:
Means of Escape is a structural means, whereby a safe route is provided for persons to
escape in case of fire, from any point in a building to a place of safety, clear of the building,
without outside assistance.

4.2 - The principles of means of escape and general requirements.

Legislation requires that all buildings must be provided with adequate means of escape, so
that, in the event of fire, occupants of the building can escape to a place of safety beyond
the building. To achieve this, the structural measures that constitute the means of escape
(escape routes, staircases and fire exits) must be supported by other measures, such as
emergency escape lighting, fire warning systems and fire safety signs
Wherever practicable, people should be able to turn their back on any fire and walk away
towards a place of safety. Ideally therefore, from any location, there should be at least two
directions of escape leading to different exits that are unlikely to be affected by the same
fire. Where this is not possible (e.g. small rooms with one exit, buildings with a single staircase and corridors that form 'dead ends'), it is necessary to impose certain additional restrictions.
It is necessary to consider the following when planning the means of escape:

The maximum distance between any point and the nearest exit.
The number of people for whom exits must be provided.
The capacity of exits and staircases.

Travel distance is the maximum distance that people need to walk between any point in a
storey of the building and the nearest exit from the storey. All design codes limit travel
distance. In offices, where there are two alternative escape routes, the maximum travel
distance is typically 45m. However, this is reduced to 18m if there is only one direction of
escape.
The number of exits from any storey, and their width, affects the total time taken to evacuate
the storey. Similarly, the number and width of staircases will affect the speed with which
people on upper floors reach the ground floor level. Design codes, such as BS 5588-11,
provide guidance on the number and width of exits and staircases, based on the number of
people who will occupy the building.

For people on the upper stories of a building, there will be three stages of escape, involving:

travel within rooms;

horizontal travel to an exit from the storey;
vertical travel down staircases.

4.3 - Alternative escape routes.

There is always the possibility of the path of a single escape route being rendered
impassable by fire, smoke or fumes.
In certain conditions a single direction of escape (a dead end) can be accepted as providing
reasonable safety. These conditions depend on the use of the building and its associated fire
risk, the size and height of the building, the extent of the dead end, and the numbers of
persons accommodated within the dead end.
The basic principles for the design of means of escape are:
1. that there should be alternative means of escape from most situations;
2. where direct escape to a place of safety is not possible, it should be possible to
reach a place of relative safety, such as a protected stairway, which is on a route to
an exit, within a reasonable travel distance.
In such cases, the means of escape will consist of two parts, the first being unprotected in
accommodation and circulation areas, and the second in protected stairways (and in some
circumstances protected corridors).
In the event of fire in a building, it is the smoke or fumes from the fire that can pose the
greater threat. In particular during evacuation, people will have moved or be moving away
from the place of the actual fire. We have just mentioned the provision of protected areas; a
fundamental aspect of such areas is ventilation.
"The ultimate place of safety is the open air, clear of the effects of the fire. However, in
modern buildings which are large and complex, reasonable safety may be reached within
the building, provided suitable planning and protection measures are incorporated."

4.4 - Stairwell Ventilation.

Ventilators may be installed within a stairwell to create a safe exit route for occupants and a
safe means of entry for fire-fighters.
In most residential applications, corridor ventilation, lobby ventilation and stairwell ventilation
work together to provide maximum smoke protection.

'Image 1'
Vents shown in red.
The two illustrations depict ventilators that have automatically opened and essentially a
chimney effect is created in the ventilation shaft.
Ventilators on other floors remain closed to inhibit the spread of smoke.

'Image 2'
Lobby Ventilation - vents shown in red
Ventilators may be installed into the walls at the end of corridors, which automatically open
in the event of a fire.
With enclosed corridors and lobbies, a combined system of smoke dampers, ducting or
smoke shafts and natural ventilators can be required instead.

4.5 - Maximum travel distances.

Travel distance is measured from any point in the building to a place of safety (i.e. relative or
ultimate). Travel distance will depend on how quickly people will react and make their escape and how long it will be before the fire prevents that movement to the escape route.

4.6 - Places of Relative Safety.

It is often necessary to devise a temporary place of safety, such as when evacuating high

buildings. This may be defined as a place of comparative safety and includes any place
which puts an effective barrier (normally 30 minutes fire resistance) between the person escaping and the fire.
Examples are as follows:
1. A storey exit into a protected stairway or to the lobby of a lobby approach stairway.
2. A door in a compartment wall or separating wall leading to an alternative exit.
3. A door which leads directly to a protected stair or a final exit via a protected corridor.
A staircase which is enclosed throughout its height by fire resisting structure and doors can
usually be considered to be a place of comparative safety. In these cases, the staircase can
be known as "a protected route".

4.7 - Places of Ultimate Safety.

Ideally, this should be in the open air where dispersal away from the building can be
achieved. Escape routes should never discharge finally into enclosed areas or yards unless
the dispersal area is large enough to permit all the occupants to proceed to a safe distance.
Total dispersal in the open air therefore constitutes ultimate safety. When inspecting any
building, it is important always to follow the escape route to its ultimate place of safety.

4.8 - Travel Distance in one direction only.

Travel Distances.
Occupancy.

Escape In One Direction

Only.

Escape In More Than One Direction.

Residential Institutions
Old Peoples Homes
Hospital Wards
Hotels
Offices
Shops
Factories
Storage / Warehouse

15m
9m
15m
15m
25m
18m
25m *
18m

32m
18m
32m
32m
45m
30m
45m *
45m

Notes:
* Distance varies with the risk attached to the process carried out or the materials involved, etc.

'Image 1'
If there is only one exit, then a person may have to travel towards the fire. (Escape in one
direction only)

'Image 2'
If a room or compartment has two or more exits, (escape in more than one direction) then a
person escaping can turn their back on the fire.

4.9 - Occupancy Calculations.

In establishing the basic occupancy of a building, principal factors are the number of persons
who would 'normally' be in the building, the variable factor of whom may also use the building.
The number of occupants for an existing building with a reasonably fixed population may be
ascertained by questioning the responsible person. In ascertaining the occupancy of a building such as a theatre or sports ground, the number can be arrived by counting the number of
seats.
In unoccupied buildings, the occupancy figure is arrived at by the density factor.
Density factors vary dependent upon the use of premises i.e. domestic, retail, restaurant etc.
Density factors are specified in the following documents:

Guide to Fire Precautions in Existing Places of Entertainment and Like Premises.

Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds.
Also in the BS 5588 series of documents.
Building Regulations 2000 - Approved Document B Extract shown below:

'Image 1 Floor Space Factors'

To ascertain the maximum numbers of people, you need to calculate the floor space, delete
the area of permanent features, i.e. stairs, toilets, lifts, escalators, corridors and other circulation spaces. What is left is the usable floor space and this is divided by the density factor,
giving you the number of person able to occupy that area.
You should also consider that most premises and indeed a storey of a building will probably
be made up of areas of more than one use. So using the density factor table and setting an
example of an exhibition hall, the candidate should also consider that within the exhibition
hall there could also be a sales area and a conference room.
As different parts of the exhibition centre are put to different uses, it is therefore necessary to
use different density factors.

'Image 2'

4.10 - Time of evacuation.

Time of evacuation is derived from building construction and occupancy
The construction of buildings is divided into three basic types:

Class A - complete non-combustible construction, i.e. elements of structure, floors

and walls. Supporting structure of brick or concrete.
Class B - traditional construction, i.e. non-combustible walls with combustible floors.
Class C - combustible construction, i.e. timber floors and walls.

Based on these classes, arbitrary evacuation times were decided upon and generally accepted as:

Class 'A' construction - 3 minutes.

Class 'B' construction - 2.5 minutes.
Class 'C' construction - 2 minutes.

These are provisional times, and can be extended or reduced according to the particular circumstances.

4.11 - Exit Widths.

The width of exits required depends on the number of occupants, rate of flow and the 'flow
time', and is expressed by the formula:
U = N / (40 x T)
U = number of units required
N = number of occupants
40 = standard rate of flow and is applied in two calculations
T = Flow time ( i.e. 3 minutes for Class 'A', 2.5 minutes for Class 'B' and 2 minutes for Class
'C')
When the number of units is less than a whole number and the fraction is greater than or
equal to 0.3, it should be rounded up.

4.12 - Number of Exits.

The minimum number of exits depends upon the number of units of exit width required and
the maximum size of any particular exit, and is demonstrated by the formula:
E=U/4+1
E = number of exits
U = number of units of exit width (from exit width formula)
4 = size of largest exit permitted.
1 added to ensure there would always be at least one unit.
The candidate should now calculate widths and number of exits using the exhibition hall example. It may be of interest to the candidate to research how standard rate of flow was arrived at.

4.13 - Requirements for escape stairs, passageways and doors.

This subject is dealt with in great detail in The Building Regulations 2000 Fire Safety Approved Document B 2006 edition Amended 2007 and contains finite and detailed calculations as required for escape stairs.
Overview.
Within the various building regulations, there are in principle two defined types of stairway,
the accommodation stairways ( a stairway, which is provided for the convenience of occupants) and the type with which this element is more concerned, Escape stairs or Protected
stairway, defined as a stairway which is adequately protected from fire in adjoining accommodation by fire-resisting construction and either discharges through a final exit or a protected route leading to a final exit.

'Image 1'

'Image 2'
Another aspect associated with escape stairs is the method of phased evacuation:
"Where it is appropriate to do so, it may be advantageous to design stairs in high buildings
on the basis of phased evacuation.
In phased evacuation, the first people to be evacuated are all those of reduced mobility and
those on the storeys most immediately affected by the fire, usually the floor of fire origin and
the floor above. Subsequently, if there is a need to evacuate more people, it is done two
floors at a time. It is a method which cannot be used in every type of building, and it depends
on the provision (and maintenance) of certain supporting facilities such as fire alarms. It
does enable narrower stairs to be incorporated than would be the case if simultaneous
evacuation were used, and has the practical advantage of reducing disruption in large buildings"

'Image 3'
B1 GENERAL PROVISIONS extract from the main article
Construction of escape stairs.
6.19 The flights and landings of every escape stair should be constructed of materials of limited combustibility in the following situations:
a. if it is the only stair serving the building, or part of the building, unless the building is of two

or three storeys and is in Purpose Group 1(a) or Purpose Group 3;

b. if it is within a basement storey (this does not apply to a private stair in a maisonette);
c. if it serves any storey having a floor level more than 18m above ground or access level;
d. if it is external, except in the case of a stair that connects the ground floor or paving level
with a floor or flat roof not more than 6m above or below ground level.
e. if it is a fire fighting stair

4.14 - Passageways and doors.

Passageways or corridors and doors form part of the escape route(s) in a building and have
similarities with details in previous sections in that there are two classifications, protected
and unprotected.
Protected Escape Routes are corridors leading to the open air, that are entered by fire
doors.
Unprotected Escape Routes are normally corridors linking parts of a building, sometimes
connecting to protected escape routes.

'Image 1'
This is also a dead-end corridor meaning that entry and escape can only be by one route
The situation depicted by this diagram shows an unprotected corridor joining the main corridor, itself an unprotected route.
Looking at the diagram, we can see that fire-resistant doors and fire-resistant walls are
marked in red, and that the fire doors have self-closing mechanisms (SC).
Fire doors are provided in buildings to protect escape routes from the effects of fire so that
occupants can safely reach the Final Exit, and also to protect the contents and/or the structure of the building by limiting the spread of fire.

Fire doors provided to protect the Means of Escape should:

be capable of achieving a minimum Fire Resistance (FR) for integrity of 30 minutes;

smoke at ambient temperature - by use of smoke brushes etc.
give limited smoke at medium temperatures - by intumescent seals etc.

4.15 - Protection of escape routes.

Protection in this sense is provided by the materials and construction of doors, walls, divisions and ceilings etc along the fire route and the ability of such to resist combustion. The
term applied is Fire Resistance and the minimum time requirement to qualify as fire resistant
is as quoted "Generally, a 30-minute standard is sufficient for the protection of means of escape".
Any internal glazing within the escape route must be kept to a minimum. In cases where this
is unavoidable, the glazing will need to be of 30 minutes' fire protection.
In an earlier section of this element we covered compartmentation. The same methods of
stopping fire spread and combustion are applied in the protection of escape routes; the escape routes in this aspect are in fact compartments.

4.16 - Emergency lighting and signs.

One of the fundamental requirements of fire safety and fire safety legislation is to ensure that
persons within the building can evacuate safely in the event of an emergency.
Overriding all these factors is the usability of the escape route when required. This relies on
occupants of the building being able to find the escape route and, as far as possible, safely
traverse the route to a place of safety.
It is inappropriate to depend on natural lighting as not all emergencies occur during daylight
hours; also, many buildings are not properly lit internally by daylight.
Mains lighting power can be lost during a fire and the cable serving the lighting circuits may
be destroyed. The electrical system may also be 'isolated' or turned off to remove the threat
of electrocution.
For this reason, a lighting system should be available in an emergency such as in the event
of a fire.
The requirement for emergency lighting, its type and location, is defined through the carrying
out of a risk assessment.
Definitive information and specifications for emergency lightning systems are subject to British Standards, which are:BS EN 50172:2004 Partially replaces BS 5266-1:1999.
BS EN 50172:2004 specifies requirements whereas BS 5266-1 is a code of practice giving
recommendations
Emergency lighting units should be sited to cover specific areas, such as intersections of
corridors, at each exit door, near each staircase so that each flight of stairs receives direct
light, close to a change in floor level and outside each final exit.
Also, close to fire-fighting equipment and fire alarm call points, by exit and safety signs that
are required elsewhere subject to the risk assessment.
Two categories of emergency lighting systems are available :

Maintained; and
Non Maintained

4.17 - Maintained and Non-maintained.

In a maintained system, individual luminaries each incorporate a battery that is charged from
the mains lighting supply. For example, when the mains power is fully restored following an
interruption, the luminaries' emergency lighting batteries are fully recharged from the mains
power supply.
In a non-maintained system, individual luminaries incorporate a power back-up supply independent of the mains supply.
The basic principles of an emergency escape lighting system are that escape routes are
clearly identified, the illumination along escape routes is sufficient to allow safe movement
towards the final exits and to ensure that fire alarm call points and fire-fighting equipment
can be readily located.
Examples of lighting units or luminaries:

4.18 - Emergency Signs.

Emergency signs are covered in 'The Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996' (Statutory Instrument 1996 No. 341)
The following is a prcis of the requirements:
"The Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996 require employers to
provide specific safety signs whenever there is a risk that has not been avoided or controlled
by other means, e.g. by engineering controls and safe systems of work.
Where a safety sign would not help to reduce that risk, or where the risk is not significant,
there is no need to provide a sign".
There are specific requirements for the shape, colour and pattern of safety signs:
Any sign must contain a symbol or pictogram and be of a specified colour which clearly defines its meaning. Supplementary text may also be used to aid understanding but text-only
signs are not permitted.
Where signs are used, employers must ensure that:

signs are maintained and any defective or faded signs should be replaced;
unfamiliar signs are explained to employees to ensure they understand the meaning
and actions to be taken in connection with them.

4.19 - Examples of emergency signs.

7.19.1 Safe Condition signage.

The regulations state that all fire exit safety signs must contain a symbol e.g. the running
man

4.20 - Fire Equipment Signs (location of).

4.21 - Fire Action Signs.

4.22 - Design for progressive horizontal evacuation.

The candidate should refer to the regulatory document to become familiar with the different
requirements based on the type of building for which the route is to be designed. The BS
5588 series of codes are also a source of information for other specialised buildings not
listed in The Building Regulations 2000 Fire Safety Approved Document B 2000 edition

The Building Regulations 2000 Fire Safety Approved Document B 2000 edition - Volume 1 - Dwellings
The Building Regulations 2000 Fire Safety Approved Document B 2000 edition - Volume 2 - Buildings other than Dwellings

The following sections are intended to provide the candidate with an overview of
horizontal evacuation.
"The general principle to be followed when designing facilities for means of escape is that
any person confronted by an outbreak of fire within a building can turn away from it and
make a safe escape".
Horizontal movements refers to the evacuation of persons from one floor or storey of the

building; if applied to the ground floor of a building, this would probably result in the
evacuation route going directly to the point of final exit, whereas on other floors including
basement areas, the horizontal route would be to the vertical evacuation routes and/or a
place of safe refuge.
The following section is an extract of the method used by a large hospital.
The evacuation method employed in the hospital is that of 'Progressive Horizontal
Evacuation', the principal of which is to move the patients from an area affected by fire,
through a fire-resisting barrier to an adjoining area (refuge) on the same level. The refuge is
designed to protect the occupants from the immediate dangers of fire and smoke while the
fire is dealt with or decisions are made with regard to further evacuation if necessary.
In the first instance, patients should be moved from the room affected by fire in the most
expedient way possible. This may involve moving the beds, transferring patients to
wheelchairs or simply encouraging and assisting ambulant patients to leave.
Once the initial evacuation has taken place, the need for further movement can be
assessed.
In most instances, there will be no need to progress the evacuation further; however,
if the need arises the following points should be considered:

Does the refuge have the necessary facilities for a prolonged situation?
Do you have to pass an area of higher risk on route?
Does the refuge offer the opportunity for further evacuation if necessary?

The candidate should consider that horizontal evacuation is the initial part of the overall
evacuation plan, and the intent purpose is to move occupants away from risk in an
expeditious manner. It may result in further stages of evacuation, but not necessarily so.

4.23 - Management actions to maintain means of escape.

Once the means of escape have been identified within a building, there remains an outright
obligation on the management of the premises to maintain the evacuation routes. This potentially requires a number of aspects:

Initially, awareness of - and then training in - the use of the means of escape.
The evacuation routes should be clearly indicated and the routes, refuges and exits
should be kept clear of obstacles and combustible materials.
Emergency lighting should be checked for effectiveness on a scheduled basis.
Evacuation tests should be carried out periodically, to asses the time taken and determine the cause of any problems, and to familiarise the occupants with the means
of evacuation.
Any signs must be checked and replaced if necessary.
Regular audits of the premises should include the routes of evacuation.

4.24 - Means of escape for disabled persons.

A significant source of research and information is the British Standards (BS) BS 5588 Fire
Precautions in the design and construction of buildings

Part 8: Code of practice for means of escape for disabled people

The introduction for this document states that "management systems are an essential part of
means of escape for disabled people.
"It is envisaged that those responsible for the management of existing buildings would adopt
the principles underlying this standard and its recommendations as part of their routine administrative procedures"
Dependent upon the needs of the disabled person or type and severity of the disability, various methods can be used to assist the means of escape.
With evacuation lifts, the general rules are that the lift should be located in a well-protected
enclosure. It should have a switch enabling a supervisor to override the landing call buttons
and take the lift to floors from which disabled people need to be evacuated.
Guidance on safeguarding evacuation lifts is given in BS5588: Part 8
This suggests that there are two types of lift that can be used for escape:

Evacuation Lift
Fire fighting Lift

"Unlike a normal passenger lift, it is essential that any evacuation lift can continue to operate
safely when there is a fire in the building. Although it is not necessary to provide a lift for the
escape of disabled people, a fire fighting lift (which is provided principally for the use of the
fire service in fighting fires ) may be used for the evacuation of disabled people prior to the
arrival of the fire service, who will then assume responsibility of any remaining persons."
The document says that if you have an evacuation lift, then it should always be used.
In order to facilitate this:

Liaison with the fire service is necessary.

Operation of the lift should be controlled by management of the building.
In work places, staff should be trained.
The lift car should only be taken to appropriate levels.
Only disabled people should use it.
Senior staff should be designated to assist in the process.
Anyone planning to use a fire fighting lift for evacuation purposes should inform their
local fire service.

4.25 - Refuge (taken from BS5588).

A refuge is defined as an area that is enclosed with fire-resisting construction (other than
any part which is an external wall of a building) and served directly by a safe route to a storey exit, evacuation lift or final exit, thus constituting a temporary safe space for disabled
people to await assistance for their evacuation.
There is a note with this clause which states:
"Refuges are relatively safe waiting areas for short periods. They are not areas where dis-

abled people should be left indefinitely until rescued by the fire brigade, or until the fire is
extinguished. (This should not be confused with the use of refuges in progressive horizontal
evacuation, e.g. in hospitals)"

Clauses 13 -16 of the BS give advice to management as to how to provide suitable assistance.

Evacuation procedures should be pre-planned.

Staff training and knowledge of the implementation are vital.
Agreed procedures should be confirmed in writing.
These should be practised once or twice a year.
A practice fire drill, including disabled people, should be carried out at least once a
year (the fire brigade should be informed of this).

It suggests that extra training should be give to staff in buildings where the public are
present.
In buildings where an overnight stay is intended, people requiring assisted escape should be
encouraged to make themselves known to management during check-in procedures.
In assembly buildings, it is considered the number of disabled people requiring assistance
will be small. However, where a large group of disabled people is present, then the
organisers should discuss the emergency evacuation arrangements with the management.
Evacuation procedure for disabled people should start the minute the alarm is raised, even
in two stage evacuations.
In phase 1, they can be moved to a refuge. However, the document states that should a full
escape be necessary, they should be assisted to a place of safety.
A refuge can also be used for disabled people to rest whilst making their escape, and whilst
waiting for help to move from the refuge to the final exit point.
In certain buildings, during a small incident, it could be possible to utilise the passive fireresisting elements of the building, which might allow disabled persons to move horizontally
to the next fire compartment. It may then be possible to wait with a nominated person and
thereafter return to the area from which the person started out after the emergency has
ended.
For persons who are either (or both) visually or hearing impaired, special considerations will
be required in the way the evacuations are made known and evacuation routes are marked.
Hearing impaired persons can be notified of the need for evacuation by a specific flashing
light or strobe activated at the same time as an evacuation bell or klaxon etc. In a previous
section, we covered 'safe condition signage' and the requirement for graphic representation;
this is put to good effect in routes for the hearing impaired to follow.
Visually impaired persons would be notified by an alarm siren. This can also be
supplemented by a system utilizing an automated voice to broadcast information and
commands. The use of tactile signs using the Braille language should be incorporated along
evacuation routes to guide the person to points of safety.
For those persons who are both visually and hearing impaired, a simple solution is the use
of the 'buddy system' in which an able person is assigned to guide the disabled person via

the evacuation routes to points of safety. The buddy system can also be used to assist the
evacuation of persons mentioned in the two preceding paragraphs.
To decide upon the most appropriate system to assist in evacuation of disabled person, it
may be an advantage to engage the person at the planning stage. One way of doing this is
the use of a specific questionnaire; such a questionnaire as used by the University of St.
Andrews can be down loaded as a sample from here.

4.26 - Outline of requirements of the relevant legislation.

All offices, shops, railway premises, hotels and factories are subject to the Regulatory reform
(Fire Safety) Order 2005.
This order requires that the responsible person for the premises produce a fire risk
assessment (this replaces the need for the fire certificate previously issued by the local Fire
Brigade).
The fire risk assessment should be reviewed in the same circumstances as a risk
assessment would be,

at least annually;
if personnel change;
if new equipment/chemicals/substances are used on site or existing substances are
substituted;
if legislation changes;
if the working area/storage area is altered such as with the addition of/or a removal of
a wall;
after an incident/accident or fire.

With the introduction of the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005, all other fire
legislation was superseded and hopefully fire legislation and individuals responsibilities
became clearer.
The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 is divided into 5 sections:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

General.
Fire Safety Duties.
Enforcement.
Offences & appeals.
Miscellaneous.

Under Section 2 - Fire Safety duties, the following are noted:

duty to take general fire precautions;

risk assessment;
principals of prevention to be applied;
fire safety arrangements;
elimination or reduction of risks from dangerous substances;
fire fighting and fire detection;
emergency routes and exits;
procedures for serious and imminent danger and for danger areas;
additional emergency measures in respect of dangerous substances;
maintenance;
safety assistance;

provision of information to employees;

provision of information to employers of self-employed from outside undertakings;
training;
co-operation and co-ordination.

4.27 - The Means of Escape from Fire.

A means of escape is designed using a code of practice and in the case of existing offices it
is "Fire Precautions in Offices and Shops" issued by the Home Office. In new buildings, an
approved document is used and all structural fire precautions should be resolved at building
control stage, before you take occupancy. However, you may have to provide portable fire
extinguishers depending on the fire risks you introduce when you take occupancy. Further
advice can be obtained from the Fire Brigade, usually in the form of "Notes for Guidance" on
any fire precaution matters.
Other means for securing the means of escape.
Other means for securing the means of escape are for example, the provision of emergency
lighting. If the premises are used at night-time, and the mains electricity was to fail, escape
routes would not become impassable due to the darkness. Emergency lighting ensures a
minimum level of light will always be present, no matter what circumstances prevail. Another
example is the provision of fire exit signs to indicate the path to safety, as well as other signs
to ensure the means of escape is always clear of obstructions and available.

4.28 - Means of Fighting Fire.

All premises should be provided with adequate and effective fire fighting equipment. It
should be able to deal with any small outbreak of fire in any part of the premises.

4.29 - Means of giving warning in case of Fire.

This could be as simple as giving a warning verbally or the use of a manual gong, in a very
small premises, to a fully-blown electrical fire alarm system in a larger premises. It usually
means a break-glass fire alarm system with or without the means of detecting devices which
are required in certain circumstances.
In addition requirements may be imposed regarding:

maintenance of the means of escape;

training of employees and keeping of records;
occupancy numbers;
precaution relating to fire risk to persons.

4.30 - Maintenance of Means of Escape.

Your means of escape in case of fire has to be maintained and unobstructed. All fire doors
should be operating correctly and all doors must be available when the premises are occupied. Other requirements may be enforced, such as magnetic door catches released at cer-

tain times and checked to see if they are working satisfactorily.

4.31 - Training and keeping of records.

You will be required to carry out regular fire training and record the results of that training.
You will be required to keep records on other fire provisions like the testing of fire alarms,
fire extinguishers and fire alarm equipment.

4.32 - Occupancy Numbers.

In most cases, the means of escape is designed to evacuate all the occupants of the premises in the required time. However, on a number of rare occasions when the means of escape cannot cope with the maximum number of people who could occupy the premises, a
limit is placed on the premises. The occupancy number is recorded in the Fire Risk Assessment and it is illegal to exceed this number, if that is possible.

4.33 - Fire risk to persons.

If there is any risk considered to be higher that the normal risk to persons residing on the
premises, additional requirements can be included in the Fire Risk Assessment.

4.34 - Explosives or Highly Flammable Materials stored on premises.

These may be explosives, highly-flammable liquids, highly-flammable gases or highlyflammable solids.
Explosives are defined in Section 3 of the Explosives Act 1875 (TRU Ref L6.05.3.EX.01).
Highly Flammable Liquids are treated as falling within one of 2 groups, as follows:

Liquids with a flash point below 32 C.

Liquids with a flash point of 32 C or higher, but below 65 C.

Highly Flammable Gases comprise any flammable gas other than a supply of gas covered
by the Gas Safety Regulations 1972, and include liquefied petroleum gas and, for purposes
of this Appendix, oxygen.
Highly Flammable Solids.
The United Nations use a system of classification of flammable solids by type of hazard
(Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods) and this system has been
adopted.
In addition to the above, the HSE 'Test of Hazard Assessment' is used to classify those
solids which fall outside UN categorisation.
By using both of the above methods, solids are divided into 2 groups, 'High Hazard' or
'Normal Hazard'.
Synthetic fibres and cellular foams
The use of these materials has increased greatly and their potential contribution to fire

hazard is now better understood. These materials are available in a wide variety of shapes
and forms, and often their physical form influences their behaviour in fire as much as their
chemical composition. The materials listed below are classed as 'High Hazard'.

Acrylic fibre.
Acrylic mixture.
Acrylic over locks.
Expanded polystyrene.
Flexible polyether.
Polyurethane foam.
Polypropylene sliver.
Rigid polyurethane foam (low density).

4.35 - Conditions of Use or Storage.

Three conditions of use or storage, as detailed below, will normally be found:

Materials regularly exposed to the atmosphere in connection with or as a result of

their use.
Materials kept in suitable containers but not in a separate fire-resisting store. (Gas
cylinders and containers, cylinders and canisters of liquefied petroleum gas, are not
regarded as being stored in this manner).
Materials consistently kept in vessels of a suitable type and in a separate fireresisting store not containing substantial quantities of other storage.

Criteria for Certification

The nature and quantities of materials exceeding those detailed below are considered to
constitute a serious additional risk to persons in the premises.
Condition of Storage
Material

Quantity
When Exposed in
Use

Quantity
Quantity When
When Kept in Kept in SepaClosed Con- rate Fire Retainer
sisting Store

EXPLOSIVES
As defined in Section 3 of Explosives
Act 1875 but not including shop goods
as defined in Order 16a made under None
that Act or Division 1 ammunition of
Class 6c in Order No 1 made under
that Act.

None

None

HIGHLY FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS

Flashpoint less than 32 C

15 litres

75 litres

500 litres

HIGHLY FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS

Flashpoint over 32 C but less than
65 C

30 litres

150 litres

1000 litres

HIGHLY FLAMMABLE GASES

N/A

200m

Unlimited

(Other than liquefied gases)

LIQUEFIED GASES
(Including LPG) other than in aerosol
containers

N/A

500Kg

2 tons

Aerosol containers in which the

amount of liquefied gas is greater than
N/A
45% by weight of the contents in total
quantity

20Kg

500Kg

HIGHLY FLAMMABLE SOLIDS

High hazard

10Kg

50Kg

250Kg

HIGHLY FLAMMABLE SOLIDS

Normal hazard

25Kg

125Kg

500Kg

Highly Flammable Gases comprise any flammable gas, other than a supply of gas covered
by the Gas Safety Regulations 1972.
Bibliography for section Explosives and Highly Flammable Materials

Fire Service Circular No 59/1976 (TRU Ref L6.12B.59.76)

Fire Precautions Act Circular No 23/1992 (TRU Ref L6.12D.23)
Dear Chief Officers Letter 8/1995 (TRU Ref L6.12C.08.95)
Guide to Explosives Act 1875 (TRU Ref L6.05.3.EX.01)

4.36 - Making changes.

A fire risk assessment contains detailed information on the type and location of fire safety
systems. If you are going to make any changes to your building that may affect your safety,
the appropriate authorities should be informed. You should do this before you:

make extensions or alterations to the building;

change the internal layout - this includes furniture and equipment, if it could affect the
means of escape;
make changes to, or alter, any fire protection installations; and
intend to store explosives or highly flammable materials.

This also applies to information about any new owners or occupiers in the building.
If you are thinking of making changes, prepare a plan showing details of your proposals. It
may help to superimpose these onto a copy of your fire risk assessment plan(s).
You can submit copies of these plans to your local fire service and ask them for any
additional advice and guidance. A fire safety officer may take a look at your proposals you
may let you know if they are satisfactory. They may also be notified of any requirements or
changes that are needed to maintain the fire safety standards.
Once you feel certain that your plans are sufficient you must also make sure the works are
carried out in a safe manner, e.g., the means of escape and other safety systems remain
available and unobstructed. If you think this may not be the case, contact your fire safety
officer for advice.

Once the alterations are complete you should inform visitors and staff of any changes in fire
safety arrangements which may affect them. If these are extensive, fire evacuation drills
should be carried out.

5 - Emergency evacuation procedures.

A major factor in fatalities caused by fire, in particular in non-domestic premises is the situation that the occupants did not know what to do (or where to go) during the incident.
By developing and implementing planned and rehearsed evacuation procedures, this factor
will be greatly reduced.
There is no single generic fire procedure, and procedures need to be developed for each
building, taking into account all aspects such as the purpose and use of the building, number
of occupants, disabled occupants, materials, environment. These points will be recapped
and others developed as you work through the element.
A requirement of the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 is that risk assessments of
the workplace are undertaken and the results of the risk assessment should be used to
equip that building with appropriate safety devices, in particular fire detectors, fire alarms
and fire-fighting equipment.
Procedures should then be developed that take into account the use of such provisions
along with any precautions and methods to be followed in the event of a fire.
The procedures aim typically at three principal groups:

The person(s) discovering a fire.

Persons who are to evacuate the premises only, meaning this group has no duties in
the event of evacuation.
Employees who have special duties to undertake when a fire warning is given.

Procedures must cater for the evacuation of able-bodied and disabled persons. (Procedures
for disabled persons are covered in more detail in a later section).
The fire procedure should be a formal document and be given to all employees; in addition,
the procedure should also be displayed at key points throughout the premises.
Copies could be placed at the pedestrian entry to the premises and a clearly defined area in
the works canteen.
Along with the written text, a copy of a simplified floor plan should be included which as well
as showing exits routes also shows no-go areas in case of evacuation; symbols such as the
no entry sign can be used to cater for people with reading difficulties and employees whose
first language is not English.
The text and the floor plan can be included in the employees' handbook; the employee's
signature of receipt for this serves as written confirmation that they have seen it.
In addition to the specific requirements of the procedures, it can also be an advantage to
include a 'general statement' which may help to engage employees with the need for such
procedure.

5.1 - Example of a general statement.

General Statement.
In the event of fire, the safety of life shall override all other considerations, such as saving
property and extinguishing the fire.
If a fire is discovered, the alarm shall be raised immediately by the operation of a breakglass call point or other appropriate method. This should be the first action taken on discovery of any fire, however small. The management does not support the view that the alarm
should be raised only in the event of a "large" fire.
All employees are authorised to take this action if they believe there is a fire; no permission
should be sought from any other person. The management will always support employees
who operate the fire alarm system in good faith, regardless of whether or not it is ultimately
determined that a fire existed.
The management does not require persons to attempt to extinguish a fire, but extinguishing
action may be taken if safe to do so. Guidance on the circumstances under which fire fighting should be avoided or discontinued will be included in staff fire safety training.
Immediate evacuation of the building must take place as soon as the evacuate signal is
given.
All occupants, on evacuation, should report to the pre-determined assembly points.
Re-entry to the building is strictly prohibited until the fire brigade officer in charge declares it
safe to do so. Silencing of the fire alarm system should never be taken as an indication that
it is safe to re-enter the building.
Employees should report any concerns regarding fire procedures, so that the management
can investigate and take remedial action if necessary.
The following are simplified examples of procedures and use the previously mentioned
groups as headings:

The person(s) discovering a fire.

Immediately operate the nearest fire alarm call point.

Do that First.

Ensure no one is in immediate danger.

Prepare to evacuate.
If you are competent to, attack fire with the correct appliance provided but without
taking personal risks.
Leave the building promptly.
Shut doors behind you where you can.
Observe any specific instructions about isolating equipment or services.
Use your nearest route.
If you find smoke blocking your route, then go a different way.
DO NOT use the lifts.
DO NOT block the exit.
Once you are out of the building, go to the assembly point.
Always move away from the building and keep the entrances clear for the Fire Brigade.

DO NOT go back into the building until you are specifically told to do so.

Helping others that you may encounter:

DO escort out any visitors, members of the public etc.

DO assist any disabled people who require assistance.
If there are disabled or injured people or others who cannot leave the building then
tell the Fire Wardens EXACTLY where they are. (Which Floor/Stairwell or Room
Number.)

Employees who have special duties to undertake when a fire warning is given.
Titles given to employees with special duties are commonly accepted as Fire Wardens and
Fire Marshalls. These titles should not be given to people in an arbitrary manner and must
be supported by appropriate training.
Fire Warden.
In the event of a fire or evacuation:

The Fire Wardens are responsible for ensuring that their areas are evacuated. On
completion of this task, the Fire Warden reports that their area is clear to the Fire
Marshal who is in overall charge and positioned at the Fire Assembly Point.
Fire Wardens must react immediately and be authoritative when getting people to
leave.
Undertake a systematic sweep of the building, which must include all areas that are
open and accessible to occupants, even toilets. When carrying out the sweep, doors
and windows should be closed - this is to prevent the spread of fire throughout the
building and aid fire fighters who may have to enter and deal with the fire.

Fire Wardens and (Marshals) could encounter people with mobility problems who may need
assistance and it is advisable that all Fire Wardens and Marshals are trained in using EVAC
chairs.
Above all, Fire Wardens must remain vigilant at all times and on no account place
themselves in any danger; if a fire is discovered and it is too big to deal with using the
correct fire extinguisher, then the building must be evacuated and the findings reported to
the Fire Marshal.

5.2 - The Duties of the Fire Warden.

The principal duties of the fire warden are to;

take appropriate and effective action if a fire occurs,

ensure that escape routes are available for use,
identify hazards in the workplace,
record and report their observations.

If a fire is discovered, the fire warden should:

ensure that the alarm has been raised,

check that manufacturing processes have been made safe,
evacuate staff from the building or area involved,
check that any staff or visitors with disabilities are assisted as planned,

call the reporting centre and give details of the location, severity and cause of the
fire, if known,
fight the fire if it is safe to do so.

When the evacuation signal is heard, the fire wardens should ensure that everyone leaves
the area as quickly and orderly as possible, ensuring that security measures, such as
closing fire-resistant safes, are undertaken, if this can be done without causing a significant
delay in the evacuation procedure. Electrical equipment should also be turned off and
windows shut if possible.
When the area for which the warden is responsible has been evacuated, a rapid, methodical
search should be undertaken to ensure that on-one remains in storerooms, toilets and
similar areas.
The warden should then go to the assembly point and take part in the roll call procedure
there. It may be the fire warden's or security officer's tasks to ensure that no-one re-enters
before the fire brigade officer gives permission.
All fire wardens have an important role to play in the fire risk assessment. Any changes to
work practices or modifications to existing processes may introduce unforeseen problems.
Similarly, changes in procedures may result in the introduction of additional sources of
ignition or different types of combustible materials. Any hazards that may be perceived
should be reported to the fire safety manager who should consider them, in the light of the
fire risk assessment, at the earliest opportunity.

5.3 - The role of the Fire Marshal.

The main role of the Fire Marshal is to conduct all operations until a safe conclusion is
reached, or until the arrival of the Fire Brigade. Basically, they are the person in charge and
their role consists of liaising directly with all the building Fire Wardens to ensure:

everyone in the building is accounted for;

investigating the cause of the incident;
ensuring the Emergency Services and University Security are informed;
directing Fire Wardens to assist in the situation;
liaising with the Emergency Services on their arrival;
coordinating contingency planning if the situation requires it;
ensuring the building is safe before anyone is allowed to re-enter;
compiling a Fire Related Incident Report.

The essential requirements of evacuation procedures are therefore to instruct all occupants
as to:

Action on discovery of a fire.

Action on hearing or seeing an active evacuation alarm.
Responsibilities of persons during an evacuation.
Assembly at required points.
Not returning to the building until instructed to.

It is essential that the performance of the evacuation procedures is checked and evaluated;
it may too be late to discover a flaw or failing of the procedure in the event of an actual fire
incident. To evaluate the effectiveness of an evacuation, it should be carried out under 'safe
conditions' i.e. with no fire threat present. To achieve this, Fire Drills should be undertaken.

The fire drill is separate to the testing of the alarm and detection systems, which should also
be tested separately to the fire drill.
The intent of the fire drill is to provide 'rehearsal' of an evacuation, the purpose being to
familiarise people with the routes and means of escape and to provide the owners or
management of the premises with information to facilitate improvements to the evacuation
scenario.
Fire drills should be carried out as a minimum at least once a year. In some premises, this
may need to be more frequent so that, for example, employees working on different shifts
are included in the drill.
In addition to the performance of the evacuation itself, an important aspect is to record the
performance. Typically, the records are entered into the fire logbook.
Key points to be recorded are:

The date of the drill.

Evacuation time.
Number of occupants or employees involved.
Any further actions or requirements identified as part of the drill.
Miscellaneous information, such as "N.B. I have intentionally blocked evacuation
routes at the time of drills to simulate certain conditions to see what actions would be
taken by the persons evacuating."

Example of roll call log:

A fundamental of the fire log, be it from a fire drill or an actual evacuation, is the information
from a roll call.
The roll call allows persons in charge and the emergency services to account for people who
were in the building prior to the evacuation, and also to ascertain if people may be left or
trapped in the building.
The information on the roll call is arrived at from the daily fire register, employee attendance
register or perhaps a 'person in - person out board'. Many electronic time and attendance
system make provision for such a daily register printout.
Often, it is the function of a Fire Warden to complete a daily register for the group assigned
to him.
The roll call must only be undertaken at a point of safety, most typically the fire assembly
point; persons should be assigned specific assembly points and be instructed to only go to
their point and to remain there unless otherwise instructed.

5.4 - Visually Impaired.

Many visually impaired people rely almost exclusively on proximal (near) perception and
have little knowledge of distant events. As such, they may be unable to read directional or
exit signs that may be critical for their safe escape from a building. Therefore, emergency
procedures for safe evacuation need to be drawn up to ensure the visually impaired person's
safety in an emergency.
Persons with a visual impairment may be guided on level surfaces by taking someone's arm
and following.

On stairways, the guide should descend first and the person following can than place their
hand on the guide's shoulder.
If a member of staff or student is a guide dog user, they should be asked about how/if they
can be assisted.

5.5 - Hearing Impaired.

It may be necessary to use a combination of approaches to provide hearing impaired individuals with notification that an emergency alarm has been triggered.
Check if existing fire alarm system can be configured to transmit a signal to one of the vibrating personal alert devices. The transmitter might need to be connected to each separate fire
alarm so that the individual can get notification from anywhere in the building. Transmitter
ranges are approximately 100 feet. Adapt fire alarms to generate a message to beeper when
they are activated.
Some fire alarms have strobes to alert both hearing-impaired visitors and existing workers
that an alarm has been set off. It is essential that the strobe light is seen from all areas, especially meeting rooms and passages.
Sensory impairment, deafness and blindness make up the greatest percentage of people
with disabilities, as this chart demonstrates. Deaf and hearing impaired is the largest of any
disability group.

'Image 1'

5.6 - The Procedures to evacuate disabled people.

The following points should be considered when planning an evacuation procedure for disabled people:

Identify the number of disabled occupants and where they will be in the building.
Implement Personal Emergency Evacuation Plans - please see next section.

Consider the characteristics of the building.

Assess the evacuation equipment disabled people will need.
Train you staff to deal with emergency evacuations.
Determine what needs to happen when the alarm goes off.
Identify what needs to be done when it is not possible to evacuate disabled people.

5.7 - Personal Emergency Evacuation (Egress) Plan or PEEPS.

PEEPS are based on the need to:

consult with disabled employees;

take into account the unique characteristics of each building.

BS5588 states: 'It is neither possible nor desirable. to recommend which procedure should
be adopted in any particular circumstances. Circumstances will vary as to the needs of
disabled people and whether their relationship with the building management is a continuing
or transient one.'
Where an individual regularly uses a building, it is important that issues are properly
identified and the arrangements documented in a 'Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan'
(PEEP). Individuals must be actively involved in writing their PEEP.
The following factors need to be considered when writing a PEEP:

The individual's disability.

What is the nature of the individual's disability?
What problems does the individual feel they would encounter if they were evacuating
the building in an emergency?
What buildings, or areas of the building, does the individual commonly use?
Each area may require slightly different arrangements.
What are the current general provisions for fire evacuation within the building?
Does the building have refuge areas?
Are the Fire Wardens aware of any potential problems evacuating the building?
Is the means of raising the alarm consistent with the individual?
What are the current evacuation arrangements for the individual?
Are there any people appointed to assist the individual?
What is the individual's current awareness of evacuation procedures, are they aware
of
Action to take on alarm activation, including recognition of alarm?
The exit routes that can be used?
The location of refuge areas?
How and where to report to designated personnel?
Additional measures that are required?
Means of alerting the individual to the alarm activation.
Is there a need for improved awareness of procedures? (This may be the individual,
their appointed assistants, Fire Wardens, etc.)
Clearer use of refuges, evacuation by stairs, progressive horizontal evacuation.

5.8 - The actions required when evacuating members of the public.

The evacuation of visitors or members of the public can introduce further risk to the situation
in that such persons will not have the familiar knowledge or the premises and escape routes
as offered to employees.
Again, correct risk assessment should provide methods of control and management of the
risk.
Obviously, the use and size of the premises will have a great influence on what methods of
control are deployed - for example:
In something like a small office environment, the fact that the visitor will perhaps be only
meeting with one person and staying with that person means the simple method of 'signingin and signing-out' would probably be sufficient, given that the person would be guided from
the building by the employee.
This could be further supplemented by the use of an information card given to the visitor;
information on the card would include the signal of the evacuation sounder, evacuation
routes and assembly points.
The situation in a 'public' place for example a pub, introduces the need for other arrangements. Clearly, no-one is going to sign into a pub. A method used to record capacity by
'head counting' is a hand-held counter which records the number of people entering and
leaving the premises.
Evacuation in such a situation as this relies very much on the staff of the pub to act as Fire
Wardens and Fire Marshals to guide members of the public away from any risk and to the
appropriate exits.
An extended example of this would be in a large meeting place such as a football ground in
which 'Stewards' are specifically employed to manage the crowd, in particular during an
evacuation. The number of people present can be ascertained from the ticket and turnstile
sales. For evacuation on this scale, the system of staged or phased evacuation would be
used to divide the total number of persons into smaller groups, the group then leaving in
stages and not en masse.
The theme through all of the scenarios is that there is a need and requirement for members
of public to be 'managed' during an evacuation, and whilst signage etc. is of use, it cannot
be solely relied upon.

5.9 - The principles of sensory perception.

Humans have five senses or types of sensory perception. These five senses are touch,
taste, sight, smell, and hearing. The senses make it possible for people to interact with others and get around in their daily lives.
In an earlier section, we covered methods of assisting persons who are visually and hearing
(sensory) impaired to respond to evacuation alarms along with non-impaired vision and
hearing, and whilst seeing and hearing still remain a relevant aspect, smell and touch also
have high importance to people in the sensory perception of fire and its detection.
It is not uncommon that evidence of combustion and pre-combustion are detected by the
sense of smell prior to any automated detection system.
This can be particularly true of slow-burning materials, more so in a concealed area or cavity; also, materials often give off characteristic 'smouldering smells' when exposed to a heat
source prior to the actual ignition and combustion of the material.
This is not to suggest that only smell should be relied upon to detect fire; however, as a case
in point many fire procedures and policies will make reference to raising an alarm if smoke
or burning can be smelt.

The touch sense can also be utilised as a detection method of fire by the sensing of heat
through a structure or a wall. (Please consider the methods of heat transference in the case
of fire).
A simple but effective method taught to detect fire from the outside of a closed room is to
carefully place the back of a hand against the door to check for a level of heat.
In this instance, sensory perception is being used directly to check for the effects of fire.
In conclusion, sensory perception can have a significant role in the detection of fire, and in
the instance of premises without other means it obviously becomes the singular method of
detection. That having been said, given its potential human flaws, it must never be solely
relied upon as the means of detection.

5.10 - The recognition of fire threat; perception vs. reality.

Visitors to a building will be more passive during an emergency than residents or employees.
Simply because they are unfamiliar with a building under normal conditions, visitors are
likely to spend more time on threat recognition and validation.
Occupants will turn to supervisors and others in authority for instruction.
The majority of people understand the risk and potential for injury or death from fire in particular if they consider they are trapped in a burning building, and the potential for fear to turn
to panic is high. However, such panic does not have to stem from an actual level of threat.
Panic can occur even if the persons only perceives that danger exists from the fire and is
about to overtake him, whilst the reality of the situation is that the source of the fire is a sufficient distance away not to pose a significant threat for a long period of time.
Conversely, after an occupant senses and understands an alert or alarm signal, or identifies
another fire cue (such as heat, flame or smoke), the next step is a process of interpreting
this information and deciding if the alarm or fire cue is a real threat to themselves.
Delayed threat recognition may seem inexplicable, but it does occur and must be considered
in fire protection design.
If a fire alarm sounds with no apparent signs of fire, evacuation from the building takes considerably longer than if flames and smoke are clearly visible.

5.11 - Audible and Visual Warnings.

Fire alarm devices can be divided into two types of warning system:

Audible warning devices, bells, electronic sounders etc.

Visual warning, flashing beacons, strobe lights etc.

Both types in combination generate a greater or earlier response

It has been observed on numerous occasions that building occupants are slow in responding
to fire alarm signals. In some buildings, occupants tend to continue their activities and
completely ignore the evacuation alarm.
More than 90% of survivors of the September 11th terror attacks on the World Trade Centre
in New York delayed evacuating the buildings in order to carry out tasks such as saving their
work, shutting down computers, changing shoes and visiting the bathroom, according to

research.
Interviews with 271 survivors who worked in the twin towers found that only 8.6% fled as
soon as the alarm was raised. The vast majority (91.4%) stayed behind waiting for
information or carrying out at least one additional task, including phoning their family and
collecting belongings. It can be assumed therefore that the same statistics apply to those
who died in the disaster.
It is important to realise that the people in the building might not recognise a fire alarm or
respond to it; a fire drill can be useful to determine how people would respond to the devices
in place. Research findings show that a fire alarm signal by itself is usually not sufficient to
initiate occupant evacuation from buildings. The problem of recognising the fire alarm for
what it is, is fundamental to the fact that people fail to respond.
In no way is it suggested that fire alarms should not be used because some occupants tend
not to respond to them and although poor response to fire alarms is not what is intended, the
warning device is still a good means of alerting the building occupants.

5.12 - Negative aspects of Warnings.

A high number of unwanted or false alarms can lead to occupants becoming blas to the
event, in turn not reacting in a correct manner to the real situation.
Despite the available recommendations, currently there is no standard fire alarm tone in the
UK. This can result in a delayed response from the public to alarm signals due to people
querying the indication of the sounder.
In certain premises, large shops for example, an initial general alarm may be undesirable
because of the number of members of the public present who may panic or at the very least
create an unmanageable evacuation.
The need for fully-trained staff to affect pre-planned procedures for safe evacuation will
therefore be essential. Actuation of the fire alarm system will cause staff to be alerted, by
discreet sounders, or internal telephone calls. Provision will normally be made for full
evacuation of the premises by sounders or a message broadcast over the public address
system.
The safe evacuation of premises in an emergency requires the people who are leaving to
make rapid and appropriate decisions while faced with potentially stressful conditions.
The person's decision-making process can become irrational as the emotional factors of
control, uncertainty, fear, worry and confusion start to interfere.
During a 'fire emergency', the person's level of fear is directly influenced by the uncertainty
of what is happening around them, combined with the speed of events happening around
them.
It must be remembered that we are outlining the psychology of an evacuating person and
that it is not an exact science, meaning that there are no hard fixed rules regarding reactions
and reaction times. That having been said, there is a broad-based convention that can be
applied.
The distance from the fire threat and the direction in which the person is moving - the closer
a person is to the threat, the greater the speed at which they react to a warning.
Instinctively, the person wants to get to an exit furthest away from the fire. This can mean
that even if there was a potential safe exit but it was relatively close to the fire, the person
would disregard it - even thought it remained safe - and elect to go to an exit further away,
despite that fact that they remained in a increasingly dangerous situation longer.

The stress factor of the proximity of the fire and the need to move away from it could cause
a person to take a much longer or indeed blind exit route, exposing the person to the effects
of smoke.
Spatial Orientation is a person's ability to mentally represent the physical environment, and
defines our natural ability to maintain our body orientation and/or posture in relation to the
surrounding environment (physical space) at rest and during motion.
It is how we determine or position relative to other things in our close environment.
Way Finding is the dynamic notion of spatial problem solving, which comprises the cognitive
and behavioural processes necessary to reach a destination; it is then how we navigate or
find our way by using the elements of spatial orientation.
A person attempting to pass through a smoke-filled or dark area represents an example of
the need to consider spatial problem solving.
Because of the conditions of the local environment, the normal stimulus for spatial orientation are removed i.e. sensory deprivation (reduced vision) and confusing stimuli are introduced, loud distracting noises, shouting etc - the antithesis of orientation can prevail and the
person becomes disorientated.
Spatial orientation & way finding are the way we draw and use our own individual mental
maps of a room or close environment and are continuously updated for use in normal situations; a maze attempts to create an abnormal situation in which the maps become less efficient and we start to guess where we are.
So the fact that spatial orientation and way finding can fail in certain conditions means that
areas or rooms - and in particular evacuation routes - need to be kept as simple as possible
and that unnecessarily complex routes must be avoided at the design stage.
It is a point to consider that even a well-designed, uncomplicated route can soon be very
complex if for example a corridor were to become an unofficial storage area.

5.13 - Patterns of fire exit choice.

At the design and specification stages for exit and evacuation routes, it should already be
established how the routes are to be used.
It is an established fact that people usually choose to leave a building the same way they
came in, even if other more suitable exits are available.
Within the field of behavioural science, it is pointed out that people often choose the known
before the unknown, which would explain the above behaviour.
Certain studies of the use of exit routes arrived at the conclusion that knowledge of, and familiarity with, routes is important if they are to be used. According to this study, this is more
important than the dimensions of the exit routes.
The location of exits is also important for their use. For example in a cinema, it is better to
have the emergency exits located at the front of the room so that the people sitting in the
cinema can see them.
This is illustrated by an example of exit choice, based on the outcomes of a fire in a Woolworth's store in Manchester. There were two staircases intended for evacuation, as well as a
central escalator connecting the three floors. Of the customers, 71 per cent used one of the
two staircases (A) for evacuation and 22 per cent used the escalator, the same way they
had come up to the restaurant on the second floor, while the staff mainly used the two staircases.
The reason that so many customers used staircase A and that none used staircase B was
that the first was used as a normal route up to the restaurant on the second floor.

Staircase B was intended only for evacuation. The employees knew about it and therefore
used staircase B together with staircase A, but only a few of the customers did so.

5.14 - How does queuing behaviour affect the decision on exit use?
The choice of exit can also be influenced by queuing behaviour. In deciding which exit to
use, based on certain conditions, the individual is considering the following variables:

The distance between the individual and the exit.

The amount of time the individual has spent waiting.
The individual's patience level.
Whether the individual is completely surrounded by others.

The estimated time of arrival at the alternative exit, the estimated time of arrival at the
current exit, etc.
So, if the person has waited in an exit queue for a longer time than his stress-altered
patience level will permit, and his distance from the exit makes him decide not to commit to
using that exit, he will then consider diverting to another exit. In particular, if he is at the edge
of the queuing crowd and not the middle, he will then move onto the next exit.
He has made a decision that the first exit is beyond its capacity to allow people through.

5.15 - Response of individuals in fire evacuations.

In families, and certain other social groups including nurses and patients and teachers and
pupils, strong physiological bonds can develop, and by instinct the 'stronger' members of the
group wish to protect the weaker, or the group feels stronger by staying together. This condition can be termed as affiliation. Affiliation is such a strong concept that it overrides threat.
Affiliation is one cause of a delayed start of evacuation.
It can be that no-one starts to evacuate until everyone in a 'family' group is ready. Once a
group has started to evacuate, the slowest member determines the speed of movement for
the entire group.
Regardless of the threat, parents will not leave without their children; children are reluctant
to go without their siblings.
There are numerous reported incidences of parents and other family members entering or
re-entering a burning property in an attempt to save a child thought to be still on the premises.
There are also teacher and pupil affiliations in schools; it is common in particular with people
in the 'caring' professions to put themselves at risk by staying with a patient.
Fire safety management plans should be developed with an understanding of dependencies
and affiliations that may exist between occupants of premises.
Evacuating a premises or area during a threat of fire can cause individuals and groups to act
in an irrational manner, even if the person does not reach a state of panic.
It is the irrational nature of the crowd movement that increases the risk of injury from the action of evacuation, and can actually increase the risk of becoming injured from the fire itself.
It is the fact that the crowd will act irrationally that can make the prediction of their actions
very difficult, even if following a safe and managed route. Elements of the crowd can act in a
totally dissimilar manner, the two extremes of which are offered as examples:

Some participants in a crowd attempting to escape from a fire will be more likely to see and
treat each other as competitors, and will then engage in selfish behaviours that hinder the
exit of the crowd as a whole (through door blocking, etc.) if they have little sense of group
membership with the rest of the crowd.
The opposite of this is where a sense of shared group membership, (or social identity) is
high, people will be more likely to show consideration and helping behaviour, which in turn
will allow the crowd to move away from the fire threat to exit in a more co-ordinated and effective manner.
Either sets actions are totally based on the individual 'make-up' and their reactions at that
time and therefore are subject to inherent variables; it is this variability that underlines the
need for evacuating crowds to be 'managed'.
Recent research suggests that people in evacuations tend more to assist each other than
act alone.
Collective 'panic', as seen in crushes and the jamming of doors as people compete to escape, has been blamed for deaths at a number of public venues. The research attempted to
determine the conditions under which mass evacuation takes the form of collective coordination rather than panic.
Previous dominant theoretical approaches to emergency mass evacuations have tended to
point to irrational 'panic' as a generic response. However, the research evidence suggests
that such individualised, personally selfish and collectively ineffective behaviours are in fact
uncommon. Indeed, in many evacuating crowds there is clear evidence of altruism, mutual
helping behaviour and effective co-ordination, even in personally life-threatening situations.

5.16 - Social identity in emergency evacuations.

One theory is that when people share a social identity, they will be more likely to see the
threat to another person as a threat to themselves. Therefore, they may want to help others
in danger, even when they are in personal danger themselves.
In a crowd emergency, the greater the social identity between people:

the less pushing or competition for the exits;

the more helping of others;
the more co-ordination and co-operation as people act as one instead of as separate
individuals;
the greater emotional calmness as people expect more mutual aid from others. In
other words, there is no need to panic.

An important aspect of managing the behaviour of the evacuating crowd is communication.

Therefore, clear signposts and simple, audible public address messages are vital.
Poor communications can lead to people stopping, moving against the flow of the crowd,
blocking passages or making frequent demands on staff for directions. People without
information, or given contradictory information, can become frustrated and aggressive.
How much people know about the layout and design of the place affects the way they act,
especially in an emergency. Visitors familiar with a venue are likely to use known routes to
favourite viewing-points or attractions and may persist in doing this, even if the routes are
closed. Those who don't know a venue may block routes while deciding which way to go and
well-placed signs and information about attractions can help them decide quickly. In an
emergency, people often leave by the way they know best, even if it appears more
dangerous.

5.17 - Crowd Flow.

The crowd flow needs to be modified and managed to ensure that the highest number of
people follow the optimal route.
This can be achieved by signs showing the best way of movement for the crowd or
individuals.
Again, this will have been driven from risk assessment and perhaps evacuation simulations.
Signs indicating the way to go should be used in conjunction with those of a prohibitive
nature.
The flow can also be modified by arranging for crowd routes to flow easily to the final exit
point. This can also be achieved by the use of barriers of screens to construct a temporary
flow route, for example at soccer stadiums, concerts etc.
The factors governing the flow of people are the capacity of the route, the number of people
involved and spatial conditions as covered in an earlier section.
Initial thoughts may be to make the route and the final points of exit 'over capacity', meaning
that the exit would be excessively wide; however, a crowd seeing such a route may then be
inclined to stampede.
So by design, if the route has the correct capacity balance to modify the crowd flow, the
stampede scenario should be avoided, and in fact as well as modifying the direction of the
crowd, it is desirable to create a funnel effect to allow safe exit.
Clear instructions as to the way to go (or indeed not) are an important aspect of managing
the crowd flow. This messaging can be achieved by fixed PA system or hand-held amplifier
units.
Simple unambiguous 'shouted' commands can be used to great effect, but are limited in
terms of people hearing them.
Messaging is not restricted to vocal commands however, and the various types of alarm
sounds can be categorised into messaging; more so when the sound can in some ways
deliver a direction indication, i.e. mute one sounder to attract the crowd to the sound of an
alternate alarm on a safer route.
Conventional fire alarm sounders efficiently warn people in the event of a fire that evacuation
is necessary, but give no indication of evacuation routes. Illuminated exit signs which are
often ignored as part of the everyday visual clutter, will help only if visible and not obscured
by smoke. PA/VA systems can advise where to go, but cannot actually guide people along
the route. Modern research and technology has developed a system known as Directional
Sound Evacuation. If Directional Sound Evacuation (DSE) beacons are triggered people are
given clear audible guidance to their nearest exit.
A simple explanation of DSE is that people during an evacuation follow the sounds emitted
by the DSE beacons; the beat, volume and frequency of such system alter in such a way as
to attract or repel people from areas and routes.

5.18 - Enforcement.

Members of the British Fire Service on occasions do get involved with aspects of Criminal
Law Enforcement which are covered under certain Acts of Parliament. For example, an offence stated in the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 could be a Criminal Offence
and when dealing with these occurrences the procedure must be conducted in the correct
manner and in accordance with the Police And Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE).

5.19 - Contraventions of the RRFSO.

The following penalties may be awarded for each and every offence:
Up to 2,000 if heard in a Magistrates Court
"Each & every offence" means:

One door locked = up to a 2,000 fine

Five doors locked = five times up to 2,000 or potentially 10,000 and a criminal record.

If heard in a Crown Court = Unlimited fine or up to two years in prison or both

CROWN COURT
The Crown Court sits at about 90 centres and is presided over by High Court judges, fulltime "circuit judges" and part-time recorders. England and Wales are divided into six circuits
for the purpose of hearing criminal cases. Each circuit is divided into areas containing one or
more centres of the High Court and Crown Court. The six circuits are: Midland and Oxford,
North-Eastern, Northern, South-Eastern (including London), Wales and Chester, and
Western.
The Crown Court tries the most serious offences and "either way" offences referred to it by
magistrates. All contested cases are presided over by a judge sitting with a jury.
Cases received from the magistrates' court as committals for trial form the largest element of
the Crown Court's workload. In 1990, 103,011 cases were received for trial in the Crown
Court, representing a four per cent increase on the numbers in 1989 and almost double the
level received in 1980 (55,594).
MAGISTRATES' COURT
A magistrates' court usually consists of a "bench" of three lay, unpaid magistrates - known as
justices of the peace ("JPs") - who are advised on points of law and procedure by a legally
qualified clerk or a qualified assistant. There are nearly 28,000 lay magistrates serving some
450 courts. A few full-time, legally qualified stipendiary magistrates may sit alone; they
usually preside in courts in urban areas where the workload is heavy. In 1992 there were 76
stipendiary magistrates in England and Wales.
Usually those charged with criminal offences first appear in a magistrates' court. Summary
offences - the less serious offences which represent the vast majority of criminal cases - are
tried by the magistrates themselves. The most serious offences, such as murder,
manslaughter, rape and robbery, are tried on indictment (or formal accusation) only by the
Crown Court. Usually those charged with such offences first appear before a magistrates'
court, which decides whether to commit them to the Crown Court for trial. A third category of
offences (such as theft, burglary or malicious wounding) are known as "either way" offences;
they can be tried either by magistrates or by jury in the Crown Court, depending on the
circumstances of each case and the wishes of the defendant.

In cases of serious or complex fraud and in some cases involving child witnesses, committal
proceedings in magistrates' courts may be bypassed at the discretion of the prosecution.
However, the accused can apply to the Crown Court to be discharged on the ground that
there is no case to answer.
YOUTH COURT
Cases involving people under 18 (in October 1992 this was raised from 17 under the
provisions of the Criminal Justice Act 1991) are heard in youth courts (formerly juvenile
courts). These are specialist magistrates' courts which either sit apart from other courts or
are held at a different time. There are restrictions on public access and media coverage.
Where a person under 18 is charged jointly with someone of 18 or over, the case is heard in
an ordinary magistrates' court or the Crown Court. If the young person is found guilty the
court may transfer the case to a youth court unless satisfied that it is undesirable to do so.
CORONERS' COURT
Coroners were first appointed in each county in the twelfth century to protect the fiscal rights
of the Crown. From the beginning, coroners were concerned with violent and unexplained
deaths, since in the past these brought revenue to the Sovereign through fines and the
forfeiture of a convicted person's goods.
Today, coroners in England and Wales investigate violent and unnatural deaths or sudden
deaths where the cause is unknown. However, an inquest is not necessary if a sudden death
was due to natural causes; instead the coroner may order a post-mortem examination to
determine the cause of death. The coroner must hold an inquest if the person died a violent
or unnatural death or died in prison or in other specified circumstances. It is the duty of the
coroner's court to establish how, when and where the person died. A coroner may sit alone
or, in certain circumstances, with a jury. If the coroner has reason to suspect murder, suicide,
manslaughter or infanticide, or that the death was caused by a road accident, he or she
must summon a jury.
APPEALS
A person convicted by a magistrates' court may appeal to the Crown Court against sentence
if he or she has pleaded guilty. The appeal may be made against both conviction and
sentence if a not guilty plea has been made. The Divisional Court of the Queen's Bench
Division of the High Court hears appeals on points of law and procedure - by either
prosecution or defence - in cases originally dealt with by magistrates.
If convicted by the Crown Court, the defendant can appeal to the Court of Appeal (Criminal
Division) against both conviction and sentence.
The Supreme Court is the final appeal court, but it will only consider cases that involve a
point of law of general public importance.
The Attorney General may seek the opinion of the Court of Appeal on a point of law which
has arisen in a case where a person tried on indictment is acquitted. The Court has the
power to refer the point to the Supreme Court if necessary. The acquittal in the original case
is not affected.
The Attorney General may also refer a case to the Court of Appeal if he or she considers
that a sentence passed by the Crown Court is unduly lenient. This is restricted to cases
which can only be tried in a Crown Court. If the Court of Appeal agrees, it may increase the
sentence within the statutory maximum laid down by Parliament for the offence.
The Home Secretary may consider representations and intervene in cases where appeal

rights have been exhausted. Fresh evidence is necessary if such action is to be taken.

5.20 - Expert Witness - Who is an Expert Witness?

On occasion, in the course of investigation of a Fire, a Fire Investigation Officer will be called
as an "Expert Witness" within a Court of Law.
A number of legal sources offer a definition of an Expert Witness listed on the following
pages are excerpts from " Stones Legal Manual 1993 ", but what must be borne in mind is
that only examining justices will decide who may be called as an Expert Witness.

5.21 - Expert Opinion.

2-343 Expert opinion The opinion of a witness is generally inadmissible: he is there to relate
observed facts (a). Expert witnesses may, however, be called upon to state their opinion on
a matter within their special knowledge of skill, where the court itself cannot form an opinion,
special study, skill or experience being required (b).
2-344 Expert opinion may be called to assist the court in matters of legitimacy as to whether
periods of gestation could be too long or too short (a); a psychologist may give evidence of
the respective personalities of defendants based on commonly-employed clinical tests (b); a
medical witness may express an opinion whether wounds on a body he had not seen could
have been self-inflicted, assuming the facts described by another witness who had seen the
body were true (c); a police officer with fifteen years' experience in a traffic division who had
attended a course of accident investigation and attended to more than 400 fatal road accidents, can give expert evidence of his theories and conclusions on an accident (d). Voice
identification is a field where expert opinion is admissible, even though it is not an exact science (e). An expert in the production of high quality sound recordings may give evidence as
to voice identity, having based his opinion on a comparative tape recording which he had
prepared (f).
Evidence of a doctor, both of fact and opinion, may be admitted if:
1.
2.
3.
4.

it is relevant to an issue in the case;

it is not hearsay;
insofar as it is evidence of opinion, it is not founded on hearsay, and
insofar as it is evidence of opinion, it relates to matters outside the knowledge and
experience of the tribunal of fact (g).

The opinion of a witness is admissible to ascertain foreign law including Scottish law (h) and
colonial law except in the Privy Council (i); but he must in all cases be a professional lawyer
or a holder of an office requiring and implying legal knowledge (j). Where evidence is conflicting or obscure, the court itself will consider the passage cited and attempt to determine
its proper meaning (k).
A non-expert witness may give admissible evidence whether a person was drunk (l) (but not
whether he was fit to drive), whether an estimate as to the value of damage to a window was
accurate (m).
Expert opinion is necessary only when the expert can furnish the court with scientific information likely to be outside its experience; for example a psychiatrist is not necessary to say
how an ordinary person who is not suffering from mental illness is likely to react to the
stresses and strains of life (n); or the effects of cocaine and its various methods of ingestion
(o); expert evidence on whether material is obscene is probably admissible only where a
special audience is in contemplation (p).

An expert may refer to professional treatises, tables, reports etc to refresh his memory, but it
is his evidence and not that material which is admissible (q). When an expert witness is
asked to express his opinion on a question, the primary facts on which that opinion is based
must be proved by admissible evidence given either by the expert himself or some other
competent witness. However, once such facts are proved, the expert witness is then entitled
to draw on the work (including unpublished work) of others in his field of expertise as part of
the process of arriving at his conclusion, provided he refers to that material in his evidence
so that the cogency and probative value of his conclusion can be tested by reference to that
material. Reliance on the work of others and reference to it in evidence does not infringe the
hearsay rule in these circumstances (r).

5.22 - Expert Reports.

2-345 Expert reports An expert report is admissible as evidence in criminal proceedings,
whether or not the person making it attends to give oral evidence in those proceedings. If the
person making the report does not give oral evidence, the report shall only be admissible
with leave of the court. An expert report, when admitted, shall be evidence of any fact or
opinion of which the person making it could have given oral evidence (a).
For the purpose of determining whether to give leave, the court shall have regard
(a) to the contents of the report;
(b) to the reasons why it is proposed that the person making the report shall not give oral
evidence;
(c) to any risk that its admission or exclusion will result in unfairness to the accused; and
(d) to any other circumstances that appear to the court to be relevant (b).
2-1152 3. Admissibility of expert opinion and certain expressions of non-expert opinion.
(1) Subject to any rules of court made in pursuance of Part I of the Civil Evidence Act 1968
or this Act, where a person is called as a witness in any civil proceedings, his opinion on any
relevant matter on which he is qualified to give expert evidence shall be admissible in evidence.
(2) It is hereby declared that where a person is called as a witness in any civil proceedings,
a statement of opinion by him on any relevant matter on which he is not qualified to give expert evidence, if made as a way of conveying relevant facts personally perceived by him, is
admissible as evidence of what he perceived.
(3) In this section "relevant matter" includes an issue in the proceedings in question.
Evidence and the court.
2-20 Evidence and the court - The law of evidence lays down the principles as to how facts
may be proved in court and what facts may not be proved (a). It is also prescribes standards
as to the sufficiency of evidence, whether the court can judge the weight of particular evidence to be insufficient, prima facie or conclusive (b), and establishes requirements for certain classes of witnesses (c). The court has therefore the primary responsibility to satisfy itself as to admissibility of evidence and as to proof of fact which that evidence seeks to
achieve.
It is the function of the court at a criminal trial as respects of admission of evidence to see
that the accused has a fair trial according to law (d). The court should not wait for an objection to be taken to the admissibility of the evidence but should stop such questions itself (e).
A court in a criminal trial has a discretion to refuse to admit evidence if in its opinion its
prejudicial effect outweighs its probative value. But save with regard to admissions and confessions and generally with regard to evidence obtained from the accused after commission
of the offence, it has no discretion to refuse to admit relevant admissible evidence on the

ground that it was obtained by improper or unfair means, for example as the result of the
activities of an agent provocateur (f).
The court will concern itself to see that it admits relevant evidence (g) and it will weigh all the
relevant admissible evidence before it comes to a conclusion (h). The fact that the court has
once ruled a written statement inadmissible will not prevent that ruling being reversed at a
later stage as further evidence emerges (i).
"Where the trial is with a jury, the judge can hear argument and decide whether or not to exercise his discretion in the absence of the jury. In a trial in a magistrates' court, that is not
possible. When considering the admissibility of any evidence, the magistrates must know
what evidence it is proposed to tender. If they decide that it is inadmissible, they will ignore it
in reaching their conclusion. In the same way, it falls on them to decide whether, on account
of its prejudicial effect outweighing its probative value, certain evidence should not be given.
Again, they will be informed of the nature of the evidence and if they rule that it should not
be admitted, they no doubt will ignore it in reaching their conclusions" (j).
The court should restrain unnecessary cross-examination on matters which are not really in
issue (k).
It is for the court of trial and not for examining justices to decide whether legally-admissible
evidence ought to be adduced (l), although in committal proceedings examining justices may
treat parts of a written statement as inadmissible (m).

5.23 - Video: RRFSO Summary.

A Summary of the RRFSO.
http://www.sheilds-elearning.co.uk/file.php/4/videos/RRFSO.flv

Page 1.
Class _____ refer to fires involving gases
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1:

Response 1:
Jump 1:

This page

Answer 2:

Response 2:
Jump 2:

This page

Answer 3:

Response 3:
Jump 3:

Next page

Answer 4:

Response 4:
Jump 4:

This page

Answer 5:

Response 5:
Jump 5:

This page

Page 2.
Class _____ refer to fires involving cooking oils or fats
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1:

Response 1:
Jump 1:

This page

Answer 2:

Response 2:
Jump 2:

This page

Answer 3:

Response 3:
Jump 3:

This page

Answer 4:

Response 4:
Jump 4:

This page

Answer 5:

Response 5:
Jump 5:

Next page

Page 3.
Which of the following are NOT Audible warning devices ?
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1:

Flashing beacons

Response 1:
Jump 1:

Next page

Answer 2:

Electronic sounders

Response 2:
Jump 2:

This page

Answer 3:

Bells

Response 3:
Jump 3:

This page

Page 4.
It is necessary to consider the following when planning the means of escape
Multiple Choice
Answer 1: All of these
Response 1:

Jump 1: Next page

Answer 2: The maximum distance between any point and the nearest exit
Response 2:
Jump 2: This page
Answer 3: The number of people for whom exits must be provided
Response 3:
Jump 3: This page
Answer 4: The capacity of exits and staircases
Response 4:
Jump 4: This page

Page 5.
A safe condition sign is
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1: Green
Response 1:
Jump 1: Next page
Answer 2: Red
Response 2:
Jump 2: This page
Answer 3: Blue
Response 3:
Jump 3: This page
Answer 4: Yellow
Response 4:
Jump 4: This page