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Version 1.3a (18/02/2013)
Explain the processes involved in the identification of hazards and the assessment of
risk from fire
Describe common fire detection and alarm systems and procedures.
Outline the factors to be considered when selecting fixed and portable fire-fighting
equipment for the various types of fire.
Outline the factors to be considered in the provision and maintenance of means of
escape.
Explain the purpose of, and essential requirements for, emergency evacuation procedures.
tainers and spillage catchment trays, for example, can help to prevent spillages spreading.
Exchange
Can you exchange a flammable substance for a less flammable one?
Can you eliminate flammable substances from the process altogether?
You may be able to think of other ways of carrying out the job more safely.
Separation
Are flammable substances stored and used well away from other processes and general
storage areas? Can they be separated by a physical barrier, wall or partition? Separating
your hazards in this manner will contribute to a safer workplace. Think about the flammable
substances you have in the workplace and apply these five principles wherever possible.
Tell workers, and others who need to know, about the hazards and how they should control
them.
Flammable dusts.
Finely-divided flammable dusts dispersed in the workplace atmosphere can, if ignited,
explode violently and cause a lot of damage. If you handle flammable dusts, you need to
remember the following:
Some dust-handling plant has special safety features built in. The purpose of these needs to
be properly understood, and they should be maintained in good working order.
Flammable solids.
Some types of plastic foam, packaging materials, polyester wadding and textiles will ignite
easily and burn fiercely, giving off a lot of dense black smoke. Remember:
Do not store these materials close to heaters or electrical equipment which could run
hot and act as a local ignition source.
Make sure that gangways and exits from storage and working areas are kept clear of
packaging materials, finished products containing flammable solids etc. In the event
of fire, gangways and exits could become obscured by smoke, so the easier they are
to find, the better.
Flammable gases.
Gases in cylinders are often stored at very high pressures, and so their uncontrolled release
can be physically dangerous. A small amount of released gas can fill a large area with a
potentially explosive mixture. This is particularly true of liquefied gases such as LPG.
The following points need to be considered:
Stored cylinders need to be suitably restrained and their valves protected from impact damage.
Gas cylinders may need special valves, fittings and hoses.
Always check the manufacturers' or suppliers' instructions and fit the correct equipment.
Protect hoses from potential causes of damage that could cut, scuff or weaken them.
Examine them regularly and replace them if they show signs of damage or wear that
could give rise to a leak.
Oxygen.
Although oxygen is necessary for life and is an essential ingredient in controlled burning,
such as in a gas fire or oxy-fuel gas welding and cutting, its misuse can lead to serious
consequences. Materials that ordinarily will burn only slowly will burn very vigorously in an
oxygen-enriched atmosphere. Others, such as greases and oils, may burst into flames in
this kind of atmosphere. As well as the precautions outlined above for flammable gases, the
following points should be remembered:
Reactive chemicals.
Some products contain chemicals, such as organic peroxides, which can explode if they are
not stored and handled correctly. Other substances can react vigorously with incompatible
materials or contaminants. For example, oxidising chemicals can cause flammable materials
to ignite, and some substances, such as sodium, react violently with water and can ignite.
The following points need to be considered:
should do more to avoid harm. The important things you need to decide are whether a hazard is significant and whether you have covered it by satisfactory precautions so that the risk
is acceptably low.
Hazard
A hazard is something that has the potential to cause harm
Risk
A risk is the chance, high or low, of that harm occurring
Before Starting Your Risk Assessment:
Check whether any of the fire safety arrangements in your workplace have previously been
approved under other fire safety, licensing or building legislation. If this is the case, an assessment of the fire precautions required under that legislation will have been made at the
time by, or in consultation with, the fire authority or the building control authority.
Regardless of any previous approval, you still need to carry out a fire risk assessment. However, if the previous approval covered all the matters required by the Fire Regulations, and
conditions have remained unchanged, e.g. numbers of people present, work activity etc,
then your fire risk assessment may well show that few, if any, additional precautions are
needed.
Your risk assessment may identify additional matters which need addressing if the previous
approval was given according to an out-of-date standard of fire precautions, or the approval
was under legislation which does not cover all the requirements of the Fire Regulations. If
you are not sure, your local fire authority will be able to advise you.
A fire risk assessment will help you determine the chances of a fire occurring and the dangers from fire that your workplace poses for the people who use it. The assessment method
suggested shares the same approach as that used in general health and safety legislation,
and can be carried out either as part of a more general risk assessment or as a separate
exercise.
A risk assessment is not a theoretical exercise. However, much work can be done on paper
from the knowledge you, your employees or their representatives have of the workplace. A
tour of the workplace will be needed to confirm, amend or add detail to your initial views.
For fire risk assessments there are five steps that you need to take:
Step 1
Identify potential hazards in the workplace.
Step 2
Decide who (e.g. employees, visitors) might be in danger in the event of a fire in the workplace or while trying to escape from it, and note their location.
Step 3
Evaluate the risks arising from the hazards and decide whether your existing fire precautions
are adequate, or whether more should be done to get rid of the hazard or to control the risks
(e.g. by improving the fire precautions).
Step 4
Record your findings and details of the action you took as a result. Tell your employees
about your findings.
Step 5
the chance of a fire occurring and whether you can reduce the sources of ignition/minimise the potential fuel for a fire;
the fire precautions you have in place and whether they are sufficient for the remaining risks and will ensure everyone is warned in case of a fire;
the means people can use to make their escape safely (or put the fire out if it is safe
for them to do so).
To be able to assess whether people will be at risk in the event of a fire, it helps to have an
appreciation of the risks posed as it develops. Most people will be familiar with a fire
outdoors, such as a bonfire, from which people can move back as it grows. If the wind is
blowing the smoke towards them, they can move right away from the fire to a place of safety
because they have a choice of escape routes not affected by heat or smoke.
Fires in enclosed spaces, such as buildings, behave differently from fires in the open air. The
smoke rising from the fire gets trapped by the ceiling and then spreads in all directions to
form an ever-deepening layer over the entire room or space. During this process, the smoke
will pass through any holes or gaps in the walls, ceiling or floor and eventually into other
parts of the workplace. The heat from the fire also gets trapped in the building, greatly
increasing the temperature.
If you employ five or more employees, you must record the significant findings of your risk
assessment, together with details of any people you identify as being at particular risk. You
will probably find it useful (unless your assessment is very simple) to keep a written record of
your fire risk assessment as you go round. This will help you plan the actions you need to
take in the light of the findings of your risk assessment.
This record might take the form of a simple list, or you could use a plan of the layout of the
workplace, or a combination of both of these.
Having completed your assessment and put your fire precautions in place, it can be useful to
record details of maintenance and testing work carried out on them. It is also helpful to
record details of the instruction and training you give to employees and when they took
place. Such records can assist you, particularly when reviewing your assessment. They also
show the relevant enforcing authorities the actions you have taken to comply with the
Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005.
Sooner or later, you may introduce changes in your workplace which have an effect on your
fire risks and precautions, e.g. changes to the work processes, furniture, plant, machinery,
substances, buildings, or the number of people likely to be present in the workplace. Any of
these could lead to new hazards or increased risk. So, if there is any significant change, you
will need to review your assessment in the light of the new hazard or risk.
Do not amend your assessment for every trivial change or for each new job, but if a change
or job introduces significant new hazards, you will want to consider them and do whatever
you need to keep the risks under control. In any case, you should keep your assessment
under review to make sure that the precautions are still working effectively.
If a fire or 'near miss' occurs, then your existing assessment may be out of date or
inadequate and you should reassess. It is a good idea to identify the cause of any incident
and then review your fire risk assessment in the light of this.
You may need to put a planned maintenance programme in place to make sure plant and
other equipment is properly maintained (or review your programme if you already have one).
Storage and Use of Flammable Materials.
Workplaces in which large amounts of flammable materials are displayed, stored or used
can present a greater hazard than those where the amount kept is small.
Wherever possible:
quantities of flammable materials should be reduced to the smallest amount necessary for running the business and kept away from escape routes;
highly-flammable materials should be replaced by less flammable ones;
remaining stocks of highly-flammable materials should be properly stored outside, in
a separate building, or separated from the main workplace by fire-resisting construction;
employees who use flammable materials should be properly trained in their safe
storage, handling and use;
stocks of office stationery and supplies and flammable cleaners' materials should be
kept in separate cupboards or stores - if they open onto a corridor or stairway escape
heat sensitive,
ionisation and
optical detection.
2.3 - Categories of fire alarm and detection systems and their objectives (BS5839, Part
1).
Systems are designed to protect property or life, and are divided into categories:
P1 and P2 for property protection.
Life protection is divided into categories L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 and M.
These categories determine what type of detection equipment is used and where it is
placed. Also sounder positions and quantities within the premises are a consideration within
these categories.
Thus, a Category L5 system may be used, for example, to address specific requirements
emanating from a fire risk assessment.
(Objective: To protect people from loss of life or injury)
Common places of work,
such as offices, shops,
factories, warehouses and
restaurants.
M or P2/M or P1/M
A Category M system
normally satisfies the
requirements of legislation. It
is, however, often combined
with a Category P system to
satisfy the requirements of
insurers, as company policy
for protection of assets, or to
protect against business
interruption.
L1 or L2
M or M/P2 or M/P2/L4 or
M/P2/L5
Hospitals.
Transportation terminals.
M/L5
L1 to L3
solution.
Residential care homes.
L1 to L3
L1 is regarded as appropriate
for large premises.
Prisons.
M/L5
M/L5
M/L5
This is the basic and minimum requirement needed in all premises. It provides the facility for
manual operation of call points and depends on the presence of people to activate the system. Call points are typified by break glass switch.
If the total area of the building (i.e. the total of the floor areas of each floor) is not
greater than 300m, then the building need only be one zone, no matter how many
floors it has.
The total floor area of a zone should not exceed 2000m.
The search distance should not exceed 30m. The use of remote indicator lamps outside doors may reduce the number of zones required.
If the zone covers more than one fire compartment, then the zone boundaries should
follow compartment boundaries.
If the building is split into several occupancies, no zone should be split between two
occupancies.
If the detector in a zone becomes faulty or inoperable, it must not prevent the operation of detectors in the remaining zones. A single fault should not remove protection
from an area greater than that allowed for a single zone.
2.8 - Factors to be considered in the selection of fire detection and fire alarm
systems.
As detailed in previous sections (Categories of fire alarm and detection systems), there are
two principal reasons for installing a fire detection and alarm system; these are the protection of life and the protection of property. Each needs separate consideration for a system's
design and selection of appropriate equipment. In the majority of premises, there is a need
for both life and property protection in differing degrees.
Fire risk assessment should be relied upon to arrive at the optimum balance of life and
property risk. Such a conclusion cannot be reached accurately in an arbitrary manner.
The prevention of loss of life should always take precedence, but as a view of property risk,
a good example would be a warehouse with high-value stock which only needed to be operated by a small number of people, added to which the design of the warehouse provided
good passive protection and means of escape. The 'shift' towards the system to protect
property is obvious.
The opposite of the this situation would be the scenario of a cinema or theatre ; the building
and assets would be of great financial value, but the prevention of injury or loss of life to the
occupants would be the overriding factor.
The sample scenarios in the previous paragraphs can be used to demonstrate the different
factors to be taken into account in the selection of detection and alarm system, as each scenario has separate requirements.
We can see that the types of premises and the classifications of detection are already established:
A Category M system normally satisfies the requirements of legislation. It is, however, often
combined with a Category P system to satisfy the requirements of insurers, as company
policy for protection of assets, or to protect against business interruption.
"During fire emergencies, occupants engage in a range of behaviours, all of which require
time to complete. In order to assess the time required for escape, it is necessary to identify,
quantify and take account of a range of factors including: time to detection, time to warnings,
pre-movement time, and travel time. The time required for escape depends upon the
interactions of these variables and the developing fire scenario".
A point of interest, and relevant to social behaviour, is also detailed in the category and
premises table:
"System Category is normally based on a fire risk assessment. In many schools, a Category
P system is installed to combat the hazard of arson. In schools that are partly occupied at
certain times (e.g. during evening classes or community use), a Category L4 or L5 system is
sometimes considered appropriate."
This exemplifies the use of fire detection and alarm in protection life and property from 'other
persons'.
In statistics taken from the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (Fire Statistics United
Kingdom 2001), it is shown that in that period, there were 481,100 false alarms.
British Standard BS 5839 requires end users of an automatic fire alarm system to not only
log that there has been a false alarm on the system, but also categorise the type of false
alarm.
These (5) categories are:
Unwanted alarms - alarms caused by fumes from cooking, steam, tobacco smoke,
dust insects etc.
Equipment False Alarms - alarms due to faults with the equipment.
Malicious False Alarms - alarms arising from a malicious use of a call point.
False alarms with good intent - these occur when an individual suspects there is a
real fire and raises the alarm.
False alarms that do not fall into any of the categories listed should be entered in to
your Fire log book as Unknown.
Listing the category of false alarms in the Fire system log book will aid investigation as to the
cause.
Fire risk assessments should take into account the potential for false alarms and allow for
preventative measure to be used.
As part of fire risk management, the companies who maintain the automatic detection
system need to be informed of any changes or change of use within the premises, as the
risk may have altered.
Single detectors or zones can be isolated during any work which could result in a false
alarm.
they may be asleep, such a visual system would not be appropriate. Research has shown
that vibration is the most reliable way to wake a deaf person from deep sleep, so the use of
a vibrating pad under a pillow while the person is sleeping would alert the person to the fact
that the alarm was activating.
This vibration method can also be used to good effect by deaf-blind people. As well as a design that fits under a pillow, there are self-contained (radio) units that can be worn by the
person and vibrate when the system activates.
Disabled persons can also be supplied with push button or pull cord alternatives to break
glass call points.
A source of further reference is Part M of the Building Regulations (Access and facilities for
disabled people).
It is vital for a regular test to be undertaken to ensure that there has not been a major
failure of the entire fire detection and fire alarm system that may otherwise go unnoticed.
Test a manual call point during working hours to check that the control panel and
alarm sounders operate satisfactorily.
Each week, a different manual call point should be tested.
Voice alarm systems should be tested weekly in accordance with BS5839-8 Note: If
the system is connected to an Alarm Receiving Centre (ARC) for calling the fire brigade, it is very important that the ARC is notified before testing commences and
when it is completed.
Testing of any automatically-started generator used for the fire detection and fire
alarm system.
Inspection of any vented batteries used as a standby power supply for the fire detection and fire alarm system.
The period between visits to undertake inspection and service should he based upon
a risk assessment, but the maximum period between visits should not exceed six
months.
The log book should be inspected.
A visual inspection should be made to check whether structural or occupancy
changes have been made that require changes to the fire detection and fire alarm
system.
False alarm records should be checked and relevant action taken if necessary.
Batteries should be checked and tested.
Control panel functions should be checked and tested.
Fire alarm devices should be tested.
Facilities for automatic transmission of alarm signals to an alarm receiving centre
(ARC) should be checked after advising the ARC of the proposed actions.
All fault indicators and circuits should be tested and checked.
Printers should be tested.
Other checks and tests recommended by the manufacturer should be carried out.
Outstanding defects should be reported and the logbook completed and servicing
certificate issued.
This Clause recommends that any false alarm investigation and subsequent modifications to the system takes into account the guidance provided in Section 3 of
BS5839-12002. Note: Any organisations undertaking false alarm investigations and
related remedial work should be able to demonstrate their competence to undertake
such work.
Section 3 of BS5839-1:2002.
This section contains comprehensive information on all aspects of limitation of false alarms.
The measures to limit false alarms are divided into eight groups:
3 - Fire-fighting.
In most smaller workplaces, portable fire extinguishers will probably be sufficient to tackle
small fires. However, in more complex buildings, or where it is necessary to protect the
means of escape and/or the property or contents of the building, it may be necessary to
consider a sprinkler system.
Sprinkler systems are traditionally acknowledged as an efficient means of protecting
buildings against extensive damage from fire. They are also now acknowledged as an
effective means of reducing the risk to life from fire. Systems are being developed which
may be suitable for use in workplaces with residential areas, such as care homes and
houses in multiple occupancy.
Sprinkler systems need to be specifically designed and installed to the appropriate hazard
category in accordance with an approved code of practice.
This will ensure that that the operation of the system will effectively limit/control the effects of
the fire with minimal failures or unwanted operations (these are usually due to inappropriate
use or poor maintenance).
Further information on the requirements for sprinkler systems, and their benefits, can be
obtained from your local fire authority.
In many industrial and commercial premises, fires can pose a serious threat to the safety of
employees working in or adjacent to areas involving:
Process machinery.
Fires involving these risks can effectively be dealt with by the installation of fixed fire-fighting
systems that may be either automatically or manually operated. For example, process
equipment and machinery which handles flammable substances (e.g. printing machines,
rolling mills, or oil-filled switchgear), may be protected by extinguishing systems, using dry
powder, foam, carbon dioxide or other inert gas. However, recent developments using water
mist technology mean that these systems may also be useful, especially in food-processing
areas.
Similarly, protection of control- and data-processing equipment may be achieved by systems
designed to totally fill the room or the cabinets containing such equipment with a gasflooding extinguishing medium to a specified concentration. These types of systems use a
range of gas-extinguishing media. Where there is a possibility that these may discharge into
occupied areas, you need to ensure that the resulting concentration of the extinguishing
medium will not be harmful to anybody present.
Where necessary, protection of large-scale storage facilities of flammable materials,
especially in bulk tanks, may also be achieved by fixed deluge water or foam systems.
The design and installation of fixed fire-fighting systems requires a high level of expertise,
including the ability to carry out a thorough risk assessment and select the appropriate
system and fire-fighting medium. Such systems have to be specially designed, and can be
expensive. If you are considering installing such a system, you should liaise with the relevant
enforcing authority and consult a reputable company at an early stage. The British Fire
Protection Systems Association can supply you with a list of companies in your area that
undertake this type of work.
All solid materials, usually organic origin nature (contains compounds of carbon) and
generally produce glowing embers
Class B
All flammable liquids and solids, which can also be sub-divided into:
Non-miscible with water (i.e. petrol, oils, solvents, paints & waxes)
Class C
Fires involving Natural Mains Gas, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG - Butane & Propane etc),
Medical or Industrial gases.
Class D
New class specifically dealing with high temperature (360C) cooking oils used in large
industrial catering kitchens, restaurants and takeaway establishments etc. Cooking oil fires,
because of their high auto-ignition temperatures are difficult to extinguish.
Electrical Fires
Electrical fires are not considered to constitute a fire class on their own, as electricity is a
source of ignition that will feed the fire until removed. When the electrical supply has been
isolated, the fire can be treated (generally) as 'Class A' for extinguishing purposes. However,
you should always isolate the supply before fighting the fire; if this is not possible then a nonelectrical conducting extinguishing agent is to be used regardless of the power status on all
occasions.
4 Carbon Dioxide
5 Vaporising liquids
Some fire extinguishers can be used on more than one type of fire. For instance, AFFF extinguishers can be used on both Class 'A' fires and Class 'B' fires. Your fire equipment supplier will be able to advise you.
The most useful form of fire-fighting equipment for general fire risks is the water-type extinguisher or hose reel. One such extinguisher should be provided for approximately each 200
square metres of floor space, with a minimum of one per floor. If each floor has a hose reel
which is known to be in working order and of sufficient length for the floor it serves, there
may be no need for water-type extinguishers to be provided.
Areas of special risk involving the use of oil, fats, or electrical equipment may need carbon
dioxide, dry powder or other types of extinguisher. If you are not sure what to provide in any
given circumstances, your local fire authority will be able to advise you. British Standard
5306: Part 3 provides advice about the selection and allocation of portable fire extinguishers.
Fire extinguishers should conform to a recognised standard such as British Standard EN 3
for new ones and British Standard 5423 for existing ones. For extra assurance, you should
look for the British Standard Kitemark, the British Approvals for Fire Equipment (BAFE) mark
or the Loss Prevention Council Certification Board (LPCB) mark.
Fire extinguishers may be colour-coded to indicate their type. Previously, the entire body of
the extinguisher has been colour-coded, but British Standard EN 3: Part 5 (which came into
effect on 1st January 1997) requires that all new fire extinguisher bodies should be red. A
zone of colour of up to 5% of the external area, positioned immediately above or within the
section used to provide the operating instructions, may be used to identify the type of extinguisher. This zone should be positioned so that it is visible through a horizontal arc of 180
when the extinguisher is correctly mounted. The colour-coding should follow the recommendations of British Standard 7863.
Fire extinguishers, if properly maintained and serviced, may be in service for at least 20
years. So there may be situations where a building will have a mixture of new and old fire
extinguishers with the same type of extinguishing medium but with different colour-coded
markings. In these cases and to avoid any confusion, it is advisable to ensure that extinguishers of the same type but with different colour-coded markings are not mixed, either at
the same location in single-storey buildings or on the same floor level in multi-storey buildings.
Old-style fire extinguishers must not be painted red to try and comply with the new standard,
as this would contravene British Standard EN 3 which covers technical changes during the
manufacturing stage.
Fire extinguishers should normally be located in conspicuous positions on escape routes,
preferably near exit doors. Wherever possible, fire-fighting equipment should be grouped to
form fire points. These should be clearly visible or their location clearly and conspicuously
indicated so that fire points can be readily identified. Where workplaces are uniform in layout, extinguishers should normally be located at similar positions on each floor.
If for any reason extinguishers are placed in positions hidden from direct view, the Health
and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996 require that their location should be
indicated by signs and, where appropriate, directional arrows.
Extinguishers should be fixed at an elevated height so that the carrying handle is, 1m
from the floor for heavier units and 1.5m for smaller units.
For special risks they should be adjacent to the risk but not too close to prevent use
in the event of fire occurring.
They should be near the door, in shallow recesses, and away from extremes of temperature.
Ensure a maximum 30m travelling distance from a fire to an extinguisher.
The method of operation should be similar for all extinguishers, where possible.
The occupiers should be capable of handling all the types and sizes recommended.
Where different types of extinguishers for different risk types are sited together they
must be properly labelled to prevent confusion.
Extinguishers should be fitted with suitable jet or spray nozzles or flexible hoses to
suit the risk involved.
3.6 - Maintenance.
Extinguishers need to be serviced to the latest standard. The manufacturer's instructions will
tell you what you need to do to keep your extinguisher in good working order. After an extinguisher has been used, even if only partially, it must be recharged according to the manufacturer's instructions.
The extinguisher should be properly serviced once a year. You should use a company registered by the British Approvals for Fire Equipment (BAFE). BAFE is a Governmentrecognised national organisation. You can get details of approved products and advice from:
BAFE (British Approvals for Fire Equipment)
Bridges 2, The Fire Service College, London Road
Moreton in Marsh, Gloucestershire GL56 0RH
Tel: 0844 335 0897
Fax: 01608 653359
Note - they can also supply a list of companies approved by them to service portable fire extinguishers.
NORTHUMBERLAND FIRE AND RESCUE SERVICE
FIRE SAFETY - STANDARD HANDOUT
FIRE PRECAUTIONS FOR MARQUEES, TENTS,BOOTHS AND SIMILAR STRUCTURES FSSH 19
Siting and Layout.
The site chosen should not be in a congested position where easy access is not possible
and should be chosen so as to allow ample open space for all the occupants of the tent(s) to
get well clear in the event of a fire. Where a number of tents are to be erected, a plan of the
site should be discussed with the Fire Brigade.
Adequate space should be allowed between individual tents in order to prevent the spread of
fire. As a guide, a minimum of 6m should be observed. In the case of very large tents, e.g. a
big top, the minimum distance should be 12m.
The site should be arranged to allow for adequate access for fire engines and other appliances to within 45 - 50 metres of any structure, including fuel storage facilities. Access
routes should not be less than 3.7 metres wide, should have no overhead structure or cables
less than 4 metres above the ground, and should be capable of taking the weight of fire engines (about 17 tons) in all weathers. Where access routes to and within the site are accessible via bridges, the weight restrictions of the bridge should not be less than the weight of
the vehicle expected to use it. Turning facilities should also be provided in any dead-end access route which is longer than 20 metres.
Emergency vehicle routes within the site should be clearly marked to identify them as such,
and should be kept clear of obstruction at all times.
Access to hydrants and other water supplies should not be obstructed or obscured. They
should be clearly indicated.
Car parks should be sited away from marquees and large tents, and parking should not be
allowed on internal routes or between tents.
Occupancy.
The maximum number of persons admitted to the structure should be based on the following
formula:a) Standing audience - 36 persons per 10 square metres.
b) Closely-seated audience - 24 persons per 10 square metres.
c) Discotheque - 20 persons per 10 square metres.
These figures include an allowance for gangways and passages.
Means of Escape.
Every tent, booth or similar structure should be provided with exits which are sufficient for
the number of occupants in relation to their width, number and siting. No exit shall be less
than 1.1m wide.
Current practice is that where an event in a marquee or large tent is licensed for public entertainment, and more than 50 people are present, doors should be conventional (i.e. a fixed
frame and door set fitted with panic bolts or latches). Where such doors are provided, the
door frame sills and the ground in the immediate vicinity of the doorway should be levelled to
avoid the risk of people tripping.
However, where a traditional "pole" marquee is to be erected on uneven ground, a solid door
frame arrangement may not be suitable as the frame may become distorted and result in the
door jamming. Alternatives are to provide a suitable single-action opening device or a Velcro
fastening. The latter, under reasonable pressure, can allow the whole wall to open back,
providing a wide exit for all present.
The main criteria are, however, that the fastening is suitable for the occupant capacity, is
capable of being opened by one simple action requiring no manual dexterity, and is such
that people can easily and immediately escape.
The width of any final exit in relation to the number of occupants who may have to use it can
be determined by the following table:Minimum clear width of exit.
Suitable for not more than:
Enclosures intended to hold more than 50 persons should in no case have fewer than two
exits.
From any part of an enclosure having more than one exit:
a) the travel distance to the nearest exit should not be more than 18 metres and
b) after the first 6.5m, the remainder of the route should lead in a different direction from the
route of any alternative exit.
In enclosures having only one exit, the travel distance should not be more than 6.5m.
Where enclosures are intended to hold more than 50 persons, an alternative allowance
should be made for the fact that one exit may be obstructed and not available because of
All electrical wiring and apparatus should so far as possible be carried clear of canvas and
positioned where it can not be tampered with.
Light fittings should not be placed within 450mm of any part of a structure where the heat
from the light fitting can cause fire.
Cooking appliances and flues should be positioned well clear of walls and roofs.
Where bottled gas is to be used, the cylinders should stand outside the workplace and
should be handled and charged only by someone fully conversant with the supplier's instructions. Precautions should be taken to prevent tampering with the cylinders and valves.
The use of burning appliances for lighting, heating or cooking is not recommended. If the
use of oil-burning appliances is unavoidable, supplies of oil should be kept well clear of the
main work area and other bulk stores. No fuel except that in the containers of the appliances
should be taken into the workplace.
Flammable liquids and all bulk stores of combustible materials should be sited away from
areas to which the public have access, and be kept in suitable bins.
Housekeeping.
Spaces beneath stands should be kept clear of paper and rubbish and should not be used to
store any combustible materials.
Metal receptacles should be provided for rubbish, especially where refreshments are served.
Refuse dumps should be sited well clear of work areas. The burning of rubbish should not
be permitted unless current environmental legislation has been checked, and what you are
burning is authorised to be burnt. Workplaces should ensure that arrangements are made
for the regular removal of rubbish from the site.
Reference.
Further details are available in the following books available from HMSO Bookshops or their
accredited agents.
"Guide to fire precautions in existing places of entertainment and like premises" ISBN 0113409079.
"Guide to Health, Safety and Welfare at pop concerts and similar events" - ISBN
0113410727.
Water or foam used to fight fires at premises where chemicals are used or stored can become contaminated with the chemicals and become hazardous itself. (For example firewater run-off from a fire in Basle, 1986, resulted in major pollution of the river Rhine, extending many kilometres downstream and lasting many years; the fire at Allied Colloids, Bradford, in 1992 resulted in severe pollution of the Rivers Calder and Aire from fire-water, severely affecting aquatic life over 50 km.) In these circumstances due consideration must be
given to preventing it harming either people or the environment.
Even if it can be demonstrated that the likelihood of a major accident is very low or that the
environmental consequences of a major accident would be negligible, normal precautions
for the safe use, storage and transport of dangerous substances still apply. If, however, one
or more dispersion mechanisms are likely to cause serious environmental damage then appropriate measures should be adopted to control the risk.
The National Rivers Authority (NRA) or, in Scotland, the River Purification Boards (RPB)
should be consulted about the assessment since they hold factual information about
neighbouring water resources, ecotoxicology and water quality criteria and should be able to
provide information about the location, type, nature, importance and sensitivity of all water
resources at risk. These authorities may be able to offer practical advice on the range of
strategies and equipment available to protect the environment and their suitability in particular circumstances.
The nature of risks posed to the environment and details of that environment should be described in the safety report.
Consideration of the pollution risks to water resources from contaminated fire-water
should include:
The sources of release of dangerous substances in the event of a fire and the potential consequences;
The properties of the substances present on site, for example toxicity, flammability
etc, and the potential for adverse reactions between them;
The environmental behaviour of the substances such as solubility, volatility, persistence, potential to bioaccumulate in the food chain and environmental toxicity. Consider also products formed as a result of complete or incomplete combustion of substances in fire or degradation in water. These may be more persistent and harmful
than the parent compounds;
Information about the location, inventories and process conditions, with reference to
facilities such as bunding, entry points to storm and foul water drains, protective
equipment associated with them, and the routes of water flows to containment and
treatment plants;
Information about the type and vulnerability of relevant water sources (obtained from
the NRA/RPB) which will include:
sites within river catchments above public water supply intakes and/or reservoirs
where the discharge following an incident is likely to lead to levels above agreed acceptable maxima for drinking water abstraction (time of travel to intake, the importance of the intake and other similar factors may need to be considered);
Sites in close proximity to aquifers or close to water courses that flow to, and can
contaminate aquifers, particularly those used for public water supplies;
Sites which pose a threat to waters of particular ecological value such as sites of
special scientific interest (SSSls);
Sites where surface water, contaminated with hazardous substances, discharges into
a foul sewerage system. This could either damage the filter.
Beds of any receiving treatment works or, where receiving treatment works do not
have sufficient storage capacity to contain the fire-water run-off, result in its diversion
directly into the water environment, causing significant environmental harm.
The NRA/RPB is able to offer advice and assistance to HSE inspectors and manufacturers on assessing the potential risks of the site to the water environment
rangements for containing the run-off, although in certain circumstances alternative approaches to remove or minimise the risk might be more appropriate. Some of these are discussed later but decisions should be taken only after full discussion with all the appropriate
authorities; there is rarely, if ever, a single correct solution.
Containment systems.
There is a variety of containment measures which may be employed, ranging from permanent structures to temporary systems. The following paragraphs are intended to assist occupiers select the most appropriate measures for their particular sites.
To size any containment system, knowledge of the anticipated quantity of run-off from a fire
is required and although this cannot be calculated with any precision it should still be estimated. The size of the bund needs to be considered on a site-specific basis having regard to
the size of fire that is possible. Advice on this and the fire-fighting arrangements in general
should be obtained from the Fire Authority. In discussing these matters, take account of the
flammability of the building structure and contents as well as any fire detection/suppression
system; to tackle a small fire may require only a few tens of cubic metres of water whereas a
large fire may require in excess of several thousand cubic metres of water.
It may be concluded that the provision of a permanent containment system is the appropriate solution to deal with the run-off expected from a small fire. This would also provide sufficient time to put in place larger, temporary, containment measures in the event of a major
fire. Provision for such temporary measures would, of course, have to be previously agreed
and arranged.
When deciding on suitable control measures to prevent or limit environmental damage it is
important to consider not only their effectiveness and cost but also their compatibility with
operator health and safety, ease and cost of maintenance, how their installation will affect
the overall safe running of the plant and how they will be emptied if they ever need to be
used. It is important that the contents of a containment facility can be disposed of safely after
an accident, without posing further risks to people or the environment. Where it is proposed
to use pumps to transfer run-off water, consider back-up power supplies in case normal
power is interrupted as a result of an accident.
A potential benefit of a permanent containment system is that it is possible the water may be
reusable to tackle the fire, though this requires prior discussion with the Fire Authority to determine any restrictions and whether there is a need for any special equipment. It may also
be necessary to arrange for this water to be monitored for its suitability. This should be detailed in the on-site emergency plan.
3.12 - Bunds.
It is a sensible precaution to store environmentally hazardous chemicals in bunded areas.
Bund sizes need to be considered on an individual basis, taking into account industry guidance such as British Wood Preservers and Damp-proofers Association (BWPDA) guidance
on timber treatment. The floors and walls of bunded areas should be substantially impervious and provide for the localised containment of spills irrespective of whether there is a fire
or not, for example failure of a container.
Ideally the capacity of the bund would be sufficient to take the entire inventory of the chemicals stored within it, plus the foam or water from initial fire-fighting or fire protection activities,
but this may not always be achievable. An additional 10% of the nominal chemical inventory
may be adequate to provide for coverage of the chemical with foam or water in a drum storage area, for example, but much more than this could be required in other circumstances
and a bund sized to take 110% of the entire chemical inventory would not provide sufficient
capacity to prevent fire-water run-off. However, it may provide sufficient time for emergency,
temporary containment measures to be brought into operation.
There are a number of situations where such sizing of the bund to take the entire inventory
is not normal practice, nor perhaps, reasonably achievable. For example bunds enclosing a
number of storage tanks will usually only have a capacity equivalent to 110% of the largest
tank present. Similarly in the case of very large storage tanks the bund capacity may be less
than that of the tank. In such cases particular consideration is required for dealing with firewater run-off and would be expected to include the provision of permanent containment
measures to prevent pollution. In these or other unusual or difficult circumstances, further
advice may be sought from the relevant enforcing authority.
Particular attention should be paid to the ability of the bund walls to withstand the hydrostatic
pressure from the contained liquids and resist attack by the chemicals as well as their structural integrity under fire conditions. Shallow bunds may be provided with sloping kerbs to
allow access by fork lift trucks.
It is essential that bunds are properly maintained. This includes keeping drain valves closed,
except for regular draining of rainwater, as well as checks on the physical structure. Consider the possibility of the presence of dangerous levels of toxic or flammable gases in confined spaces between high bund walls and tanks before anyone enters the bund.
Catch-pits and interceptors provide for the rudimentary separation of solids and also
aqueous from non-aqueous solutions. They may also be used to provide transitional
containment for water-miscible products. They may be used singly or as a series.
Separators provide a specified design performance for removal of named nonmiscible hydrocarbons from water, allowing the subsequent discharge of the water.
Booms can be used to provide total containment, either by themselves, or to fill gaps
in other containment areas. They may be used as flotation devices to contain lighter
non-water-miscible hydrocarbons.
Drain seals can be used to cover or block a drain, allowing the site sewer system, or
part of it, to be sealed and thus employed as an emergency containment system.
Sand bags while effective, have limited use. They are often not available and take
time to deploy.
4 - Means of escape.
Factors to be considered in the provision and maintenance of means of escape.
Means of escape in case of fire means the provision of a safe route(s) from any part
of a building to a final exit or place of safety, enabling the person to escape from fire
or smoke by his / her own unaided efforts.
Approved Document B is substantial and gives a wealth of information on both protection of the structure, adjacent buildings and perhaps most importantly, means of
escape from buildings that may be on fire.
Building Control has the responsibility to ensure that all new buildings are provided
with adequate means of escape.
In the document Fire Safety: An employer's guide, the technical definition of means of
escape is given as:
"The principle on which means of escape provisions are based is that the time available for
escape (an assessment of the length of time between the fire starting and it making the
means of escape from the workplace unsafe) is greater than the time needed for escape
(the length of time it will take everyone to evacuate once a fire has been discovered and
warning given).
Regardless of the location of a fire, once people are aware of it they should be able to
proceed safely along a recognisable escape route, to a place of safety. In order to achieve
this, it may be necessary to protect the route, i.e. by providing fire-resisting construction. A
protected route may also be necessary in workplaces providing sleeping accommodation or
care facilities.
The means of escape is likely to be satisfactory if your workplace is fairly modern and has
had building regulation approval or if it has been found satisfactory following a recent
inspection by the fire authority (and in each case you have not carried out any significant
material or structural alterations or made any change to the use of the workplace). However,
you should still carry out a risk assessment to ensure that the means of escape remains
adequate.
If, as a result of your risk assessment, you propose making any changes to the means of
escape, you should consult the fire authority (in Scotland you must seek the agreement of
the building control authority) before making any changes.
When assessing the adequacy of the means of escape you will need to take into account:
The maximum distance between any point and the nearest exit.
The number of people for whom exits must be provided.
The capacity of exits and staircases.
Travel distance is the maximum distance that people need to walk between any point in a
storey of the building and the nearest exit from the storey. All design codes limit travel
distance. In offices, where there are two alternative escape routes, the maximum travel
distance is typically 45m. However, this is reduced to 18m if there is only one direction of
escape.
The number of exits from any storey, and their width, affects the total time taken to evacuate
the storey. Similarly, the number and width of staircases will affect the speed with which
people on upper floors reach the ground floor level. Design codes, such as BS 5588-11,
provide guidance on the number and width of exits and staircases, based on the number of
people who will occupy the building.
For people on the upper stories of a building, there will be three stages of escape, involving:
'Image 1'
Vents shown in red.
The two illustrations depict ventilators that have automatically opened and essentially a
chimney effect is created in the ventilation shaft.
Ventilators on other floors remain closed to inhibit the spread of smoke.
'Image 2'
Lobby Ventilation - vents shown in red
Ventilators may be installed into the walls at the end of corridors, which automatically open
in the event of a fire.
With enclosed corridors and lobbies, a combined system of smoke dampers, ducting or
smoke shafts and natural ventilators can be required instead.
buildings. This may be defined as a place of comparative safety and includes any place
which puts an effective barrier (normally 30 minutes fire resistance) between the person escaping and the fire.
Examples are as follows:
1. A storey exit into a protected stairway or to the lobby of a lobby approach stairway.
2. A door in a compartment wall or separating wall leading to an alternative exit.
3. A door which leads directly to a protected stair or a final exit via a protected corridor.
A staircase which is enclosed throughout its height by fire resisting structure and doors can
usually be considered to be a place of comparative safety. In these cases, the staircase can
be known as "a protected route".
Residential Institutions
Old Peoples Homes
Hospital Wards
Hotels
Offices
Shops
Factories
Storage / Warehouse
15m
9m
15m
15m
25m
18m
25m *
18m
32m
18m
32m
32m
45m
30m
45m *
45m
Notes:
* Distance varies with the risk attached to the process carried out or the materials involved, etc.
'Image 1'
If there is only one exit, then a person may have to travel towards the fire. (Escape in one
direction only)
'Image 2'
If a room or compartment has two or more exits, (escape in more than one direction) then a
person escaping can turn their back on the fire.
'Image 2'
Based on these classes, arbitrary evacuation times were decided upon and generally accepted as:
These are provisional times, and can be extended or reduced according to the particular circumstances.
'Image 1'
'Image 2'
Another aspect associated with escape stairs is the method of phased evacuation:
"Where it is appropriate to do so, it may be advantageous to design stairs in high buildings
on the basis of phased evacuation.
In phased evacuation, the first people to be evacuated are all those of reduced mobility and
those on the storeys most immediately affected by the fire, usually the floor of fire origin and
the floor above. Subsequently, if there is a need to evacuate more people, it is done two
floors at a time. It is a method which cannot be used in every type of building, and it depends
on the provision (and maintenance) of certain supporting facilities such as fire alarms. It
does enable narrower stairs to be incorporated than would be the case if simultaneous
evacuation were used, and has the practical advantage of reducing disruption in large buildings"
'Image 3'
B1 GENERAL PROVISIONS extract from the main article
Construction of escape stairs.
6.19 The flights and landings of every escape stair should be constructed of materials of limited combustibility in the following situations:
a. if it is the only stair serving the building, or part of the building, unless the building is of two
'Image 1'
This is also a dead-end corridor meaning that entry and escape can only be by one route
The situation depicted by this diagram shows an unprotected corridor joining the main corridor, itself an unprotected route.
Looking at the diagram, we can see that fire-resistant doors and fire-resistant walls are
marked in red, and that the fire doors have self-closing mechanisms (SC).
Fire doors are provided in buildings to protect escape routes from the effects of fire so that
occupants can safely reach the Final Exit, and also to protect the contents and/or the structure of the building by limiting the spread of fire.
Maintained; and
Non Maintained
signs are maintained and any defective or faded signs should be replaced;
unfamiliar signs are explained to employees to ensure they understand the meaning
and actions to be taken in connection with them.
The regulations state that all fire exit safety signs must contain a symbol e.g. the running
man
The Building Regulations 2000 Fire Safety Approved Document B 2000 edition - Volume 1 - Dwellings
The Building Regulations 2000 Fire Safety Approved Document B 2000 edition - Volume 2 - Buildings other than Dwellings
The following sections are intended to provide the candidate with an overview of
horizontal evacuation.
"The general principle to be followed when designing facilities for means of escape is that
any person confronted by an outbreak of fire within a building can turn away from it and
make a safe escape".
Horizontal movements refers to the evacuation of persons from one floor or storey of the
building; if applied to the ground floor of a building, this would probably result in the
evacuation route going directly to the point of final exit, whereas on other floors including
basement areas, the horizontal route would be to the vertical evacuation routes and/or a
place of safe refuge.
The following section is an extract of the method used by a large hospital.
The evacuation method employed in the hospital is that of 'Progressive Horizontal
Evacuation', the principal of which is to move the patients from an area affected by fire,
through a fire-resisting barrier to an adjoining area (refuge) on the same level. The refuge is
designed to protect the occupants from the immediate dangers of fire and smoke while the
fire is dealt with or decisions are made with regard to further evacuation if necessary.
In the first instance, patients should be moved from the room affected by fire in the most
expedient way possible. This may involve moving the beds, transferring patients to
wheelchairs or simply encouraging and assisting ambulant patients to leave.
Once the initial evacuation has taken place, the need for further movement can be
assessed.
In most instances, there will be no need to progress the evacuation further; however,
if the need arises the following points should be considered:
Does the refuge have the necessary facilities for a prolonged situation?
Do you have to pass an area of higher risk on route?
Does the refuge offer the opportunity for further evacuation if necessary?
The candidate should consider that horizontal evacuation is the initial part of the overall
evacuation plan, and the intent purpose is to move occupants away from risk in an
expeditious manner. It may result in further stages of evacuation, but not necessarily so.
Initially, awareness of - and then training in - the use of the means of escape.
The evacuation routes should be clearly indicated and the routes, refuges and exits
should be kept clear of obstacles and combustible materials.
Emergency lighting should be checked for effectiveness on a scheduled basis.
Evacuation tests should be carried out periodically, to asses the time taken and determine the cause of any problems, and to familiarise the occupants with the means
of evacuation.
Any signs must be checked and replaced if necessary.
Regular audits of the premises should include the routes of evacuation.
Evacuation Lift
Fire fighting Lift
"Unlike a normal passenger lift, it is essential that any evacuation lift can continue to operate
safely when there is a fire in the building. Although it is not necessary to provide a lift for the
escape of disabled people, a fire fighting lift (which is provided principally for the use of the
fire service in fighting fires ) may be used for the evacuation of disabled people prior to the
arrival of the fire service, who will then assume responsibility of any remaining persons."
The document says that if you have an evacuation lift, then it should always be used.
In order to facilitate this:
abled people should be left indefinitely until rescued by the fire brigade, or until the fire is
extinguished. (This should not be confused with the use of refuges in progressive horizontal
evacuation, e.g. in hospitals)"
Clauses 13 -16 of the BS give advice to management as to how to provide suitable assistance.
It suggests that extra training should be give to staff in buildings where the public are
present.
In buildings where an overnight stay is intended, people requiring assisted escape should be
encouraged to make themselves known to management during check-in procedures.
In assembly buildings, it is considered the number of disabled people requiring assistance
will be small. However, where a large group of disabled people is present, then the
organisers should discuss the emergency evacuation arrangements with the management.
Evacuation procedure for disabled people should start the minute the alarm is raised, even
in two stage evacuations.
In phase 1, they can be moved to a refuge. However, the document states that should a full
escape be necessary, they should be assisted to a place of safety.
A refuge can also be used for disabled people to rest whilst making their escape, and whilst
waiting for help to move from the refuge to the final exit point.
In certain buildings, during a small incident, it could be possible to utilise the passive fireresisting elements of the building, which might allow disabled persons to move horizontally
to the next fire compartment. It may then be possible to wait with a nominated person and
thereafter return to the area from which the person started out after the emergency has
ended.
For persons who are either (or both) visually or hearing impaired, special considerations will
be required in the way the evacuations are made known and evacuation routes are marked.
Hearing impaired persons can be notified of the need for evacuation by a specific flashing
light or strobe activated at the same time as an evacuation bell or klaxon etc. In a previous
section, we covered 'safe condition signage' and the requirement for graphic representation;
this is put to good effect in routes for the hearing impaired to follow.
Visually impaired persons would be notified by an alarm siren. This can also be
supplemented by a system utilizing an automated voice to broadcast information and
commands. The use of tactile signs using the Braille language should be incorporated along
evacuation routes to guide the person to points of safety.
For those persons who are both visually and hearing impaired, a simple solution is the use
of the 'buddy system' in which an able person is assigned to guide the disabled person via
the evacuation routes to points of safety. The buddy system can also be used to assist the
evacuation of persons mentioned in the two preceding paragraphs.
To decide upon the most appropriate system to assist in evacuation of disabled person, it
may be an advantage to engage the person at the planning stage. One way of doing this is
the use of a specific questionnaire; such a questionnaire as used by the University of St.
Andrews can be down loaded as a sample from here.
at least annually;
if personnel change;
if new equipment/chemicals/substances are used on site or existing substances are
substituted;
if legislation changes;
if the working area/storage area is altered such as with the addition of/or a removal of
a wall;
after an incident/accident or fire.
With the introduction of the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005, all other fire
legislation was superseded and hopefully fire legislation and individuals responsibilities
became clearer.
The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 is divided into 5 sections:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
General.
Fire Safety Duties.
Enforcement.
Offences & appeals.
Miscellaneous.
Highly Flammable Gases comprise any flammable gas other than a supply of gas covered
by the Gas Safety Regulations 1972, and include liquefied petroleum gas and, for purposes
of this Appendix, oxygen.
Highly Flammable Solids.
The United Nations use a system of classification of flammable solids by type of hazard
(Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods) and this system has been
adopted.
In addition to the above, the HSE 'Test of Hazard Assessment' is used to classify those
solids which fall outside UN categorisation.
By using both of the above methods, solids are divided into 2 groups, 'High Hazard' or
'Normal Hazard'.
Synthetic fibres and cellular foams
The use of these materials has increased greatly and their potential contribution to fire
hazard is now better understood. These materials are available in a wide variety of shapes
and forms, and often their physical form influences their behaviour in fire as much as their
chemical composition. The materials listed below are classed as 'High Hazard'.
Acrylic fibre.
Acrylic mixture.
Acrylic over locks.
Expanded polystyrene.
Flexible polyether.
Polyurethane foam.
Polypropylene sliver.
Rigid polyurethane foam (low density).
Quantity
When Exposed in
Use
Quantity
Quantity When
When Kept in Kept in SepaClosed Con- rate Fire Retainer
sisting Store
EXPLOSIVES
As defined in Section 3 of Explosives
Act 1875 but not including shop goods
as defined in Order 16a made under None
that Act or Division 1 ammunition of
Class 6c in Order No 1 made under
that Act.
None
None
15 litres
75 litres
500 litres
30 litres
150 litres
1000 litres
N/A
200m
Unlimited
N/A
500Kg
2 tons
20Kg
500Kg
10Kg
50Kg
250Kg
25Kg
125Kg
500Kg
Highly Flammable Gases comprise any flammable gas, other than a supply of gas covered
by the Gas Safety Regulations 1972.
Bibliography for section Explosives and Highly Flammable Materials
This also applies to information about any new owners or occupiers in the building.
If you are thinking of making changes, prepare a plan showing details of your proposals. It
may help to superimpose these onto a copy of your fire risk assessment plan(s).
You can submit copies of these plans to your local fire service and ask them for any
additional advice and guidance. A fire safety officer may take a look at your proposals you
may let you know if they are satisfactory. They may also be notified of any requirements or
changes that are needed to maintain the fire safety standards.
Once you feel certain that your plans are sufficient you must also make sure the works are
carried out in a safe manner, e.g., the means of escape and other safety systems remain
available and unobstructed. If you think this may not be the case, contact your fire safety
officer for advice.
Once the alterations are complete you should inform visitors and staff of any changes in fire
safety arrangements which may affect them. If these are extensive, fire evacuation drills
should be carried out.
Procedures must cater for the evacuation of able-bodied and disabled persons. (Procedures
for disabled persons are covered in more detail in a later section).
The fire procedure should be a formal document and be given to all employees; in addition,
the procedure should also be displayed at key points throughout the premises.
Copies could be placed at the pedestrian entry to the premises and a clearly defined area in
the works canteen.
Along with the written text, a copy of a simplified floor plan should be included which as well
as showing exits routes also shows no-go areas in case of evacuation; symbols such as the
no entry sign can be used to cater for people with reading difficulties and employees whose
first language is not English.
The text and the floor plan can be included in the employees' handbook; the employee's
signature of receipt for this serves as written confirmation that they have seen it.
In addition to the specific requirements of the procedures, it can also be an advantage to
include a 'general statement' which may help to engage employees with the need for such
procedure.
Do that First.
DO NOT go back into the building until you are specifically told to do so.
Employees who have special duties to undertake when a fire warning is given.
Titles given to employees with special duties are commonly accepted as Fire Wardens and
Fire Marshalls. These titles should not be given to people in an arbitrary manner and must
be supported by appropriate training.
Fire Warden.
In the event of a fire or evacuation:
The Fire Wardens are responsible for ensuring that their areas are evacuated. On
completion of this task, the Fire Warden reports that their area is clear to the Fire
Marshal who is in overall charge and positioned at the Fire Assembly Point.
Fire Wardens must react immediately and be authoritative when getting people to
leave.
Undertake a systematic sweep of the building, which must include all areas that are
open and accessible to occupants, even toilets. When carrying out the sweep, doors
and windows should be closed - this is to prevent the spread of fire throughout the
building and aid fire fighters who may have to enter and deal with the fire.
Fire Wardens and (Marshals) could encounter people with mobility problems who may need
assistance and it is advisable that all Fire Wardens and Marshals are trained in using EVAC
chairs.
Above all, Fire Wardens must remain vigilant at all times and on no account place
themselves in any danger; if a fire is discovered and it is too big to deal with using the
correct fire extinguisher, then the building must be evacuated and the findings reported to
the Fire Marshal.
call the reporting centre and give details of the location, severity and cause of the
fire, if known,
fight the fire if it is safe to do so.
When the evacuation signal is heard, the fire wardens should ensure that everyone leaves
the area as quickly and orderly as possible, ensuring that security measures, such as
closing fire-resistant safes, are undertaken, if this can be done without causing a significant
delay in the evacuation procedure. Electrical equipment should also be turned off and
windows shut if possible.
When the area for which the warden is responsible has been evacuated, a rapid, methodical
search should be undertaken to ensure that on-one remains in storerooms, toilets and
similar areas.
The warden should then go to the assembly point and take part in the roll call procedure
there. It may be the fire warden's or security officer's tasks to ensure that no-one re-enters
before the fire brigade officer gives permission.
All fire wardens have an important role to play in the fire risk assessment. Any changes to
work practices or modifications to existing processes may introduce unforeseen problems.
Similarly, changes in procedures may result in the introduction of additional sources of
ignition or different types of combustible materials. Any hazards that may be perceived
should be reported to the fire safety manager who should consider them, in the light of the
fire risk assessment, at the earliest opportunity.
The essential requirements of evacuation procedures are therefore to instruct all occupants
as to:
It is essential that the performance of the evacuation procedures is checked and evaluated;
it may too be late to discover a flaw or failing of the procedure in the event of an actual fire
incident. To evaluate the effectiveness of an evacuation, it should be carried out under 'safe
conditions' i.e. with no fire threat present. To achieve this, Fire Drills should be undertaken.
The fire drill is separate to the testing of the alarm and detection systems, which should also
be tested separately to the fire drill.
The intent of the fire drill is to provide 'rehearsal' of an evacuation, the purpose being to
familiarise people with the routes and means of escape and to provide the owners or
management of the premises with information to facilitate improvements to the evacuation
scenario.
Fire drills should be carried out as a minimum at least once a year. In some premises, this
may need to be more frequent so that, for example, employees working on different shifts
are included in the drill.
In addition to the performance of the evacuation itself, an important aspect is to record the
performance. Typically, the records are entered into the fire logbook.
Key points to be recorded are:
On stairways, the guide should descend first and the person following can than place their
hand on the guide's shoulder.
If a member of staff or student is a guide dog user, they should be asked about how/if they
can be assisted.
'Image 1'
Identify the number of disabled occupants and where they will be in the building.
Implement Personal Emergency Evacuation Plans - please see next section.
BS5588 states: 'It is neither possible nor desirable. to recommend which procedure should
be adopted in any particular circumstances. Circumstances will vary as to the needs of
disabled people and whether their relationship with the building management is a continuing
or transient one.'
Where an individual regularly uses a building, it is important that issues are properly
identified and the arrangements documented in a 'Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan'
(PEEP). Individuals must be actively involved in writing their PEEP.
The following factors need to be considered when writing a PEEP:
The evacuation of visitors or members of the public can introduce further risk to the situation
in that such persons will not have the familiar knowledge or the premises and escape routes
as offered to employees.
Again, correct risk assessment should provide methods of control and management of the
risk.
Obviously, the use and size of the premises will have a great influence on what methods of
control are deployed - for example:
In something like a small office environment, the fact that the visitor will perhaps be only
meeting with one person and staying with that person means the simple method of 'signingin and signing-out' would probably be sufficient, given that the person would be guided from
the building by the employee.
This could be further supplemented by the use of an information card given to the visitor;
information on the card would include the signal of the evacuation sounder, evacuation
routes and assembly points.
The situation in a 'public' place for example a pub, introduces the need for other arrangements. Clearly, no-one is going to sign into a pub. A method used to record capacity by
'head counting' is a hand-held counter which records the number of people entering and
leaving the premises.
Evacuation in such a situation as this relies very much on the staff of the pub to act as Fire
Wardens and Fire Marshals to guide members of the public away from any risk and to the
appropriate exits.
An extended example of this would be in a large meeting place such as a football ground in
which 'Stewards' are specifically employed to manage the crowd, in particular during an
evacuation. The number of people present can be ascertained from the ticket and turnstile
sales. For evacuation on this scale, the system of staged or phased evacuation would be
used to divide the total number of persons into smaller groups, the group then leaving in
stages and not en masse.
The theme through all of the scenarios is that there is a need and requirement for members
of public to be 'managed' during an evacuation, and whilst signage etc. is of use, it cannot
be solely relied upon.
The touch sense can also be utilised as a detection method of fire by the sensing of heat
through a structure or a wall. (Please consider the methods of heat transference in the case
of fire).
A simple but effective method taught to detect fire from the outside of a closed room is to
carefully place the back of a hand against the door to check for a level of heat.
In this instance, sensory perception is being used directly to check for the effects of fire.
In conclusion, sensory perception can have a significant role in the detection of fire, and in
the instance of premises without other means it obviously becomes the singular method of
detection. That having been said, given its potential human flaws, it must never be solely
relied upon as the means of detection.
research.
Interviews with 271 survivors who worked in the twin towers found that only 8.6% fled as
soon as the alarm was raised. The vast majority (91.4%) stayed behind waiting for
information or carrying out at least one additional task, including phoning their family and
collecting belongings. It can be assumed therefore that the same statistics apply to those
who died in the disaster.
It is important to realise that the people in the building might not recognise a fire alarm or
respond to it; a fire drill can be useful to determine how people would respond to the devices
in place. Research findings show that a fire alarm signal by itself is usually not sufficient to
initiate occupant evacuation from buildings. The problem of recognising the fire alarm for
what it is, is fundamental to the fact that people fail to respond.
In no way is it suggested that fire alarms should not be used because some occupants tend
not to respond to them and although poor response to fire alarms is not what is intended, the
warning device is still a good means of alerting the building occupants.
The stress factor of the proximity of the fire and the need to move away from it could cause
a person to take a much longer or indeed blind exit route, exposing the person to the effects
of smoke.
Spatial Orientation is a person's ability to mentally represent the physical environment, and
defines our natural ability to maintain our body orientation and/or posture in relation to the
surrounding environment (physical space) at rest and during motion.
It is how we determine or position relative to other things in our close environment.
Way Finding is the dynamic notion of spatial problem solving, which comprises the cognitive
and behavioural processes necessary to reach a destination; it is then how we navigate or
find our way by using the elements of spatial orientation.
A person attempting to pass through a smoke-filled or dark area represents an example of
the need to consider spatial problem solving.
Because of the conditions of the local environment, the normal stimulus for spatial orientation are removed i.e. sensory deprivation (reduced vision) and confusing stimuli are introduced, loud distracting noises, shouting etc - the antithesis of orientation can prevail and the
person becomes disorientated.
Spatial orientation & way finding are the way we draw and use our own individual mental
maps of a room or close environment and are continuously updated for use in normal situations; a maze attempts to create an abnormal situation in which the maps become less efficient and we start to guess where we are.
So the fact that spatial orientation and way finding can fail in certain conditions means that
areas or rooms - and in particular evacuation routes - need to be kept as simple as possible
and that unnecessarily complex routes must be avoided at the design stage.
It is a point to consider that even a well-designed, uncomplicated route can soon be very
complex if for example a corridor were to become an unofficial storage area.
Staircase B was intended only for evacuation. The employees knew about it and therefore
used staircase B together with staircase A, but only a few of the customers did so.
5.14 - How does queuing behaviour affect the decision on exit use?
The choice of exit can also be influenced by queuing behaviour. In deciding which exit to
use, based on certain conditions, the individual is considering the following variables:
The estimated time of arrival at the alternative exit, the estimated time of arrival at the
current exit, etc.
So, if the person has waited in an exit queue for a longer time than his stress-altered
patience level will permit, and his distance from the exit makes him decide not to commit to
using that exit, he will then consider diverting to another exit. In particular, if he is at the edge
of the queuing crowd and not the middle, he will then move onto the next exit.
He has made a decision that the first exit is beyond its capacity to allow people through.
Some participants in a crowd attempting to escape from a fire will be more likely to see and
treat each other as competitors, and will then engage in selfish behaviours that hinder the
exit of the crowd as a whole (through door blocking, etc.) if they have little sense of group
membership with the rest of the crowd.
The opposite of this is where a sense of shared group membership, (or social identity) is
high, people will be more likely to show consideration and helping behaviour, which in turn
will allow the crowd to move away from the fire threat to exit in a more co-ordinated and effective manner.
Either sets actions are totally based on the individual 'make-up' and their reactions at that
time and therefore are subject to inherent variables; it is this variability that underlines the
need for evacuating crowds to be 'managed'.
Recent research suggests that people in evacuations tend more to assist each other than
act alone.
Collective 'panic', as seen in crushes and the jamming of doors as people compete to escape, has been blamed for deaths at a number of public venues. The research attempted to
determine the conditions under which mass evacuation takes the form of collective coordination rather than panic.
Previous dominant theoretical approaches to emergency mass evacuations have tended to
point to irrational 'panic' as a generic response. However, the research evidence suggests
that such individualised, personally selfish and collectively ineffective behaviours are in fact
uncommon. Indeed, in many evacuating crowds there is clear evidence of altruism, mutual
helping behaviour and effective co-ordination, even in personally life-threatening situations.
5.18 - Enforcement.
Members of the British Fire Service on occasions do get involved with aspects of Criminal
Law Enforcement which are covered under certain Acts of Parliament. For example, an offence stated in the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 could be a Criminal Offence
and when dealing with these occurrences the procedure must be conducted in the correct
manner and in accordance with the Police And Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE).
In cases of serious or complex fraud and in some cases involving child witnesses, committal
proceedings in magistrates' courts may be bypassed at the discretion of the prosecution.
However, the accused can apply to the Crown Court to be discharged on the ground that
there is no case to answer.
YOUTH COURT
Cases involving people under 18 (in October 1992 this was raised from 17 under the
provisions of the Criminal Justice Act 1991) are heard in youth courts (formerly juvenile
courts). These are specialist magistrates' courts which either sit apart from other courts or
are held at a different time. There are restrictions on public access and media coverage.
Where a person under 18 is charged jointly with someone of 18 or over, the case is heard in
an ordinary magistrates' court or the Crown Court. If the young person is found guilty the
court may transfer the case to a youth court unless satisfied that it is undesirable to do so.
CORONERS' COURT
Coroners were first appointed in each county in the twelfth century to protect the fiscal rights
of the Crown. From the beginning, coroners were concerned with violent and unexplained
deaths, since in the past these brought revenue to the Sovereign through fines and the
forfeiture of a convicted person's goods.
Today, coroners in England and Wales investigate violent and unnatural deaths or sudden
deaths where the cause is unknown. However, an inquest is not necessary if a sudden death
was due to natural causes; instead the coroner may order a post-mortem examination to
determine the cause of death. The coroner must hold an inquest if the person died a violent
or unnatural death or died in prison or in other specified circumstances. It is the duty of the
coroner's court to establish how, when and where the person died. A coroner may sit alone
or, in certain circumstances, with a jury. If the coroner has reason to suspect murder, suicide,
manslaughter or infanticide, or that the death was caused by a road accident, he or she
must summon a jury.
APPEALS
A person convicted by a magistrates' court may appeal to the Crown Court against sentence
if he or she has pleaded guilty. The appeal may be made against both conviction and
sentence if a not guilty plea has been made. The Divisional Court of the Queen's Bench
Division of the High Court hears appeals on points of law and procedure - by either
prosecution or defence - in cases originally dealt with by magistrates.
If convicted by the Crown Court, the defendant can appeal to the Court of Appeal (Criminal
Division) against both conviction and sentence.
The Supreme Court is the final appeal court, but it will only consider cases that involve a
point of law of general public importance.
The Attorney General may seek the opinion of the Court of Appeal on a point of law which
has arisen in a case where a person tried on indictment is acquitted. The Court has the
power to refer the point to the Supreme Court if necessary. The acquittal in the original case
is not affected.
The Attorney General may also refer a case to the Court of Appeal if he or she considers
that a sentence passed by the Crown Court is unduly lenient. This is restricted to cases
which can only be tried in a Crown Court. If the Court of Appeal agrees, it may increase the
sentence within the statutory maximum laid down by Parliament for the offence.
The Home Secretary may consider representations and intervene in cases where appeal
rights have been exhausted. Fresh evidence is necessary if such action is to be taken.
The opinion of a witness is admissible to ascertain foreign law including Scottish law (h) and
colonial law except in the Privy Council (i); but he must in all cases be a professional lawyer
or a holder of an office requiring and implying legal knowledge (j). Where evidence is conflicting or obscure, the court itself will consider the passage cited and attempt to determine
its proper meaning (k).
A non-expert witness may give admissible evidence whether a person was drunk (l) (but not
whether he was fit to drive), whether an estimate as to the value of damage to a window was
accurate (m).
Expert opinion is necessary only when the expert can furnish the court with scientific information likely to be outside its experience; for example a psychiatrist is not necessary to say
how an ordinary person who is not suffering from mental illness is likely to react to the
stresses and strains of life (n); or the effects of cocaine and its various methods of ingestion
(o); expert evidence on whether material is obscene is probably admissible only where a
special audience is in contemplation (p).
An expert may refer to professional treatises, tables, reports etc to refresh his memory, but it
is his evidence and not that material which is admissible (q). When an expert witness is
asked to express his opinion on a question, the primary facts on which that opinion is based
must be proved by admissible evidence given either by the expert himself or some other
competent witness. However, once such facts are proved, the expert witness is then entitled
to draw on the work (including unpublished work) of others in his field of expertise as part of
the process of arriving at his conclusion, provided he refers to that material in his evidence
so that the cogency and probative value of his conclusion can be tested by reference to that
material. Reliance on the work of others and reference to it in evidence does not infringe the
hearsay rule in these circumstances (r).
ground that it was obtained by improper or unfair means, for example as the result of the
activities of an agent provocateur (f).
The court will concern itself to see that it admits relevant evidence (g) and it will weigh all the
relevant admissible evidence before it comes to a conclusion (h). The fact that the court has
once ruled a written statement inadmissible will not prevent that ruling being reversed at a
later stage as further evidence emerges (i).
"Where the trial is with a jury, the judge can hear argument and decide whether or not to exercise his discretion in the absence of the jury. In a trial in a magistrates' court, that is not
possible. When considering the admissibility of any evidence, the magistrates must know
what evidence it is proposed to tender. If they decide that it is inadmissible, they will ignore it
in reaching their conclusion. In the same way, it falls on them to decide whether, on account
of its prejudicial effect outweighing its probative value, certain evidence should not be given.
Again, they will be informed of the nature of the evidence and if they rule that it should not
be admitted, they no doubt will ignore it in reaching their conclusions" (j).
The court should restrain unnecessary cross-examination on matters which are not really in
issue (k).
It is for the court of trial and not for examining justices to decide whether legally-admissible
evidence ought to be adduced (l), although in committal proceedings examining justices may
treat parts of a written statement as inadmissible (m).
Page 1.
Class _____ refer to fires involving gases
Multiple Choice (HP)
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Class _____ refer to fires involving cooking oils or fats
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Page 3.
Which of the following are NOT Audible warning devices ?
Multiple Choice (HP)
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Flashing beacons
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Electronic sounders
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Bells
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Page 4.
It is necessary to consider the following when planning the means of escape
Multiple Choice
Answer 1: All of these
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A safe condition sign is
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Answer 1: Green
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Answer 2: Red
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Answer 3: Blue
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Answer 4: Yellow
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