Modulation

Amplitude Modulation

Type of modulation in which the amplitude of the

carrier signal is varied by the modulating signal whose
frequency is less than that of the carrier.
fc>>fm
Amplitude
modulation
device

fc

AM

(Vmsinwmt)
em
Intelligence signal

Amplitude
Modulator

eAM
(Asinwct);
A = Ec +em

Mathematically, the AM signal is eAM = Asinwct

where: A= AM amplitude
eAM = instantaneous value of the AM signal.
Also, the AM amplitude A = Ec+em

eAM = (Ec +Emsinwmt)sinwc(t)

eAM = Vcsinwc(t) + Vmsinwc(t) sinwm(t)
Using trigonometric identity
sinAsinB = [cos(A-B) cos(A+B)]
eAM = Vcsinwct + vm/2 [cos(wc-wm)t cos(wc+wm)t]
Vm = mVc
VAM = Vcsinwct + (mVc/2)cos2(fc-fm)t (mVc/2)cos2(fc+fm)t
P = V2 / R , P =V2 if R=1
PT = Pcsinwct + (m2Pc/4)cos2 (fc-fm)t + (m2Pc/4)cos2 (fc + fm)t
PT = Pc + (m2/4)Pc + (m2/4)Pc
PT = Pc + (m2/2) Pc

Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier

A. Modulator
X

m(t)

Acm(t)coswct
Acm(t)sinwct

Accoswc(t)
Acsinwc(t)
B. Demodulator
s(t)

6
X

1
Squaring
law
device

BPF
fb = 2FC

limiter

7
m(t)

LPF

Frequency
divider

1. S(t) = Acm(t)cos(wc)t
2. [Acm(t)cos(wct)]2
Ac2m2(t)cos2(wct)
but cos2A = [1+cos2A]
Ac2m2(t) [1+cos2A]
Ac2m(t)2 /2 + [Ac2m(t)2cos2wct / 2]
But; m(t)2 = [coswmt]2
= (1+cos2wmt)
Ac2m2(t)2/2 + (Ac2cos2wct/2) [ (1+cos2wmt)]
Ac2m2(t)2/2 + (Ac2cos2wct/4) + Ac2cos2wct cos2wmt / 2
3. (Ac2cos2wct/4) = (Ac/4)(Accos2wct)
4. Accos2wct = Accos(2wc/2)t
Ac cos(wct)

5. s(t) Ac cos(wct)
[Ac m(t)cos(wct)]Ac cos(wct)
Ac2m(t)cos2wct
Ac2m(t)[1/2 (1+cos2wct)]
Ac2m(t) /2 + Ac2m(t)cos2wct / 2
7. Ac2 /2 cos(wmt)

Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier

Modulator
X
coswm(t)
m(t)

1
coswc(t)

-90P.S.

sinwm(t)

TV

Rx
sinwc(t)
OSC.

coswc(t)

-90P.S.

Demod.

Demodulator
X

LPF

3
6

OSC

-90P.S.

coswf(t)

LPF

-90P.S.

A. Modulator
in 90P.S.: a)cosA = -sinA b)sinA = cosA
1. coswct coswmt
2. sinwct sinwmt
3. @summing ckt
coswct coswmt + sinwct sinwmt
OR coswct coswmt sinwctsinwmt

 *cos(AB) = cosAcosB sinAsinB

FINAL MOD Out
cos(wc wm)t
or cos(wc + wm)t
DEMOD
(coswctcoswmt + sinwctsinwmt) coswct
cos2wctcoswmt + sinwctsinwmtcoswct
*cos2A = (1 + cos2A)
sin2A / 2 = 2sinAcosA /2
sin2A = sinAcosA
coswmt[ (1+cos2wct) ] + sin2wctsinwmt
(coswmt/2) + (coswmtcos2wct /2) + (sinwctsinwmt/2)
coswmt/2

2.

s(t) sinwct
cos(wc-wm)t (sinwct)
[coswct coswmt + sinwct sinwmt]sinwct
coswct sinwct coswmt + sin2wct sinwmt
*sin2wct *coswmt + *(1-cos2wct)*sinwmt
(sin2wct*coswmt)/2 + sinwmt/2 - (cos2wct*sinwmt)/2

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

coswmt/2
sinwmt/2
-coswmt/2
(coswmt/2) - (-coswmt/2)
(2coswmt/2) = coswmt

Angle Modulation
Phase angle of the constant output of the carrier signal is
varied proportion to the amplitude of the modulating
signal.
1. Phase Modulation (PM)
Used to produce FM.
2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
By Major E. Armstong

Basic General Formula for unmodulated carrier signal

V(t) = Vc cos[wct + t]
= Vc cos[2fct + t]

for phase mod. Signal (carrier wave)

v(t) = Vc cos[wct + k1Vmcoswmt]
v(t) = Vccos[2ft + k1Vmcos2fmt]
where, k1 deviation sensitivity of PM k1(unit) = rad/V
k1 Vm=mp
General Formula for FM (carrier wave)
V1(t) = Vccos[wct + k2 Vmsinwm(t)d(t)]
= Vc cos[2fct + k2Vmsin2fm(t) d(t)]
k2 deviation sensitivity of FM
= f = frequency deviation
v(t)=Vccos[wct+mFsinwmt]

Most popular general equation for FM (direct FM)

V(t) = Vccos[wct + (/fm)sinwmt]
= Vccos[2fct + (/fm)sin2fmt ]
where:
= frequency deviation
mF = /fm = k2Vm/fm
Basic Formulas
Phase deviation (modulating index)
-PM
= k1Vm
where:
k = deviation sensitivity for PM (rad/v)

Phase deviation (modulating index; )

-PM
= k1Vm
where:
k = deviation sensitivity for PM (rad/v)
-FM

= k2Vm / fm
where:
k = deviation sensitivity for FM (rad/s.v)

Frequency deviation ()
-PM
= k1Vmfm (Hz)
where:

-FM

= k2Vm (Hz)
where:

Frequency deviation
= = k2Vm
= deviation sensitivity for fm (hz/v)
Percent modulation (FM and PM)
% mod = (actual / max) x 100%
Deviation ratio
DR = max / fm(max)
for FM, max = 75MHz and fm(max) = 15MHz
TV Broadcasting
fmax = 25kHz
fmmax = 15kHz

Generation of Angle modulating signal

m(t)

Kp

S(t)

PM

90 PS

Acos

Narrowband
BW NB = 2fm
BW WB = 2
X

Kp

FM

90 PS

S(t)

Method to generate angle modulated signal

1.

Indirect Method
NB is first produced, then inputted to the frequency multiplier
circuit to produce the WB signal

Frequency
Multiplier Xn

WB

fc
fm

xn
xn

WB
FM signal

fn

FM Stereophonic Transmission
L
-+

Pre-emphasis
circuit

L+R

L channel 50Hz

Relay

0.050 to 15kHz
23-53 kHz
0.050 to 15kHz
L-R
L
-+

-R
Pre-emphasis
circuit

Balance
modulator
(DSB-SC)
38kHz
Frequency
doubler

R channel 15kHz
R
-+
-R

A
D
D
E
R

S(t)

FM
mod.

C
I
R
C
U
I
T

c(t)
composite signal

Pilot carrier
19kHz

Baseband frequency signal

0.050 to 15kHz

0.05 to 15kHz
FM
demod.

LPF

WBF

~
NBF
19kHz

Audio amp.

Sum. and sub. ckt

LR
23kHz 53kHz
WBF

Audio amp.

38kHz

fx2

Adder:
=L+R +(L-R)
=2L/L
=L
Subtractor:
=L+R-(L-R)
=2R/R
=R

RF Oscillators, PLLs and Frequency Synthesizer

An oscillator is a circuit capable of continuously generating
a repetitive waveform of the desired frequency.
Repetitive waveform may be either rectangular or
sinusoidal in nature.
Two Types of oscillators
1. Self sustained / free running
An oscillator which requires no external input signal or
trigger to produce the desired output waveform.
2. Triggered/one shot oscillator
Oscillator that require external input signal.

Oscillators Fundamental
Vin

Amplifier voltage gain

Av = Vo / Vi

Vo

~
Feedback network
B = VfB / Vo
(a)

BVout

VfB = BVout

Av

B
(b)

Vo

Fig. 2-1(a) shows that the block diagram of an oscillator

containing an amplifier and a feedback network.
The output voltage, Vout from the amplifier is calculated as:
Vout = Vin x Av
where Vn = total input voltage

The fractional part of the output voltage that is fed back to the
input is called the feedback voltage (VfB).
The ratio of the feedback voltage VfB to the output voltage
(Vout) is called the feedback fraction (B).
B = VfB / Vout
Rearranging Eq. 2 gives
VfB = BVout