348

CHAPTER 8

Kerguelen plume volcanism in Eastern India and geochemistry of lost Indian

Lithospheric roots

Abstract
The Archean East Indian craton was affected by the Kerguelen plume at ~117
Ma causing flood basalt eruptions at the cratonic margin giving rise to the RajmahalBengal-Sylhet Traps. Until recently, there was considerable disagreement among
workers concerning the Kerguelen plume being the source for the Rajmahal traps
lavas in eastern India. It is now recognized that Rajmahal-age volcanic rocks are
widely spread in and around the Bengal Basin, from the intrusive lamproites and
lamprophyres in the west and Sikkim in the north, to the Sylhet basalts of the Shillong
plateau and the Mikir hills of Assam in the east. These volcanic rocks occur as groups
of alkalic-ultrabasic rocks and carbonatites along with basalts, exposed over an area
of ~ 1.5 million km2, including the Rajmahal hills of Bihar, and beneath the Tertiary
sediments of the Bengal basin in West Bengal and Bangladesh.
The central hypothesis of this study is that all these diverse volcanic rocks,
including the flood basalts, are caused by the Kerguelen plume activity that also
caused the erosion of the Indian lithospheric roots. We provide an isotope tracer study
of the Rajmahal Traps and associated alkalic complexes, and relate them to the Sylhet
Traps, Kerguelen Plateau basalts and associated volcanics in the Southern Indian

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Ocean. We report Nd-Sr-Pb isotopic and multiple trace element data of 21 discrete
lava flows from four sections of the Rajmahal Traps, 56 mafic, alkalic, ultrabasic, and
carbonatitic rocks from four alkalic complexes associated with the Rajmahal-BengalSylhet Traps, and four dikes from the Bokaro coal fields southwest of the Rajmahal
Traps.
In Nd-Sr-Pb isotopes, the Rajmahal Traps lavas of this study show remarkable
similarity with the Rajmahal Groups I and II basalts, Sylhet Traps, Bunbury basalts
and lavas from the Kerguelen Plateau. The combined geochemical data and their
correlation with the Rajmahal, Bunbury basalts, and some of the Kerguelen Plateau
lavas in the Indian Ocean, imply a relatively primitive Kerguelen plume source for
some of the Rajmahal lavas similar to the Rajmahal Group I basalts. We propose the
average composition of this plume source to be: Nd(I) = +2, 87Sr/86Sr(I) = 0.7045, with
relatively flat REE patterns. Rajmahal lavas similar to the Group II Rajmahal basalts
have slightly enriched LREE patterns with Nd(I) = -5,

87

Sr/86Sr(I) = 0.7069. We

suggest these lavas to be slightly contaminated by the Indian lithospheric granulites of

the Eastern Ghats Belt. We suggest the incorporation of the lithospheric contaminant
in the Kerguelen plume by thermal-chemical erosion resulted in reducing the
thickness of the Indian subcontinental lithosphere. The combined Nd-Sr-Pb isotopic
evidence also reflects absence of MORB and upper continental crustal components in
these lavas.
Rocks from the four alkalic complexes, Sung, Samchampi, Barpung, and
Sikkim, have been divided into two groups: the mafic rock group consisting of

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pyroxenites, nephelinites, lamproites, soviets, melteigite, uncompahgrites and

carbonatites, and the second group consisting of syenites and ijolites. All the mafic
rocks of this study have extremely enriched LREEs with Nd-Sr ratios consistent with
the Rajmahal lavas of this study as well as previous studies and thus are concluded to
be derived from the Kerguelen plume. The syenites and ijolites have a much wider
range of Nd-Sr compositions relative to the mafic rocks, and are interpreted to be
contaminated by the mid-continental crust after emplacement by magma chamber
processes.
Collectively these data imply a zone of influence of the plate-motionreconstructed Kerguelen plume for ~500 km in an east-west and north-south
direction, linking this plume head to its vestiges of the Rajmahal-Bengal-Sylhet Traps
in northeastern India and the Ninetyeast ridge in the Bay of Bengal. The present day
location of the Kerguelen Plume is beneath the Kerguelen Plateau in the southern
Indian Ocean.

8.1. Introduction
Large volume basaltic volcanism that erupted in the Early Cretaceous on the
eastern Indian continental margin (Rajmahal-Bengal-Sylhet Traps), southwestern
Australia (Bunbury-Naturaliste Plateau), and Antarctica are considered to have
caused the opening of the Indian Ocean (Fig. 8.1). This large and widespread
volcanism is attributed to the melting of a major plume head, the remnant of which is
now present as a hot spot beneath the Kerguelen Plateau in the Indian Ocean
(Mahoney et al., 1983; Storey et al., 1989; Weis et al., 1989; Kent et al., 1997; Frey

351

et al., 2000). The episode of volcanism is also believed to have formed a flood basalt
province in eastern India comprising the Rajmahal, Sylhet and Bengal Traps of 117 +
2 Ma age (Baksi, 1995; Kent et al., 2002).
Volcanic rocks recovered by recent drilling from the Kerguelen plateau
demonstrate isotopic and geochemical similarity with the continental Rajmahal flood
basalts of eastern India as well as Bunbury basalts of southwestern Australia,
suggesting possible role of the Kerguelen plume in the fragmentation of part of the
Gondwana supercontinent (Frey et al., 2000). Kumar et al. (2007) claimed to have
determined the thickness of the Indian lithosphere with unprecedented accuracy to be
100 km, almost half to one-third as thick as those of South Africa, Australia and
Antarctica.

These

authors

concluded

that

the

plume

that

partitioned

Gondwanaland may have also melted the lower half of the Indian lithosphere,
leaving the Indian fragment of Gondwanaland with the thinnest lithosphere. From
Rayleigh wave phase velocity measurements (Mitra et al., 2006), the thickness of the
lithosphere under the Indian shield was estimated to be ~155 km, in agreement with
Ritzwoller and Levshin (1998) and with the multimode Rayleigh wave tomographic
model of Priestley and Mckenzie, (2006). These results clearly suggest a somewhat
thinner Indian cratonic root than that found for many other cratons in different parts
of the world. The most important implication of these seismic studies is the strong
correlation between Indias lost lithospheric roots and its very rapid northward
movement from about 130 Ma until its collision with Tibet around 50Ma.

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353

Figure 8.1. Map of the Indian Ocean and surrounding continents with physiographic
features, after Frey et al. (2002), showing locations of the Sylhet and Rajmahal Traps
in northeastern India. Also shown in gray is the extended Eastern Ghats Shillong
orogenic belt (Yin et al., 2010) in the east coast of India. Basalt provinces attributed
to the Kerguelen Plume (Frey et al., 2002) include Kerguelen Plateau, Broken Ridge,
Ninety East Ridge, Bunbury basalts and Rajmahal Traps. Abbreviations used: BB
Bunbury Basalt drill core sites; NKP North Kerguelen Plateau; CKP Central
Kerguelen Plateau; SKP South Kerguelen Plateau; CG Chilka Granulites
(Chakrabarti et al., 2010). Black crosses are ODP sites. Sites 253, 254, 756, 757, 214,
216, and 758 are from the Ninety East Ridge and are grouped as NER in subsequent
Nd-Sr-Pb isotopic plots.

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This correlation suggests degeneration of the Indian lithosphere and its subsequent
passage over the Kerguelen and the Reunion hotspot that resulted in flood basalt
eruptions of the Rajmahal and Deccan traps, respectively, during the breakup of
Gondwana.
The 117 Ma Rajmahal-Bengal-Sylhet Traps occur in eastern India (Fig. 8.2)
and occupy an area of 2 X 105 km2 (Baksi, 1995; Ray and Pande, 1999; Kent et al.,
2002). There has been disagreement, however, among several workers concerning the
Kerguelen plume head being the feeder in supplying the Rajmahal lavas. Curray and
Munasinghe (1991) suggested that the Rajmahal volcanism in north-eastern India
(Fig. 8.2b) was related to the Crozet hotspot via the Eighty-five East Ridge rather
than the Kerguelen plume; the relationship between the Rajmahal Traps, Ninetyeast
Ridge and the Kerguelen plume was also questioned (Mahoney et al., 1983).
However, based on revised model calculations for plate motions, Muller et al., (1993)
considered these above contentions to be unrealistic. Contrary to plume links,
Anderson et al., (1992) proposed that these Cretaceous lavas were the surface
manifestation of decompressional melting above a hot cell. The early geochemical
studies of Sr, Nd and Pb isotopes in the Rajmahal traps and their comparison with
Kerguelen plateau basalts did not allow a suggested link between the Kerguelen
plume basalts and the volcanism in eastern India (Mahoney et al., 1983; Baksi et al.,
1987; Storey et al., 1992). However, the Kerguelen plume was considered in some of
these studies to have provided the heat source for mantle melting to produce the
basaltic traps from a compositionally normal asthenosphere. These authors divided

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the Rajmahal basalts into Group I lavas having variable amounts of MORB
contaminant and being the least contaminated source, and Group II lavas with
predominant crustal contamination.

Kumar et al., (2003) analyzed a kimberlite

intrusion and identified a pristine Kerguelen plume source for these basalts, similar to
Group II kimberlites. In contrast, recent studies of Cretaceous basalts recovered by
Ocean Drilling Program from the Kerguelen plateau (Fig. 8.1) show strong
geochemical similarities to the Rajmahal Traps and southwestern Australian Bunbury
basalts; both the Nd, Sr and Pb isotopic compositions and plate tectonic
reconstructions constrain the origin of this volcanism, currently separated by
thousands of kilometers in the Indian Ocean, from the Kerguelen hotspot (Ingle et al.,
2002b).
It has also been recently recognized that Rajmahal-age volcanic rocks are
widely spread in and around the Bengal Basin in eastern India. These volcanic rocks
are manifested as diverse groups of alkalic, ultrabasic, and carbonatitic rocks along
with basalt, widely exposed over an area of ~ 1.5 million km2 (Fig. 8.2a). From the
Rajmahal hills of Bihar in the west, these volcanic suites are contiguous to the east
and covered beneath the Tertiary sediments in the Bengal basin in West Bengal, and
alkalic rocks are distributed widely in and around the Bengal basin that include
lamproite dikes in the Gondwana sediments to the west, carbonatite-alkalic
complexes in the Shillong plateau (Meghalaya), Mikir hills (Assam) in the northeast,
and lamproite dikes of the Sikkim Himalayas to the north (Fig. 8.2a). These alkaline

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intrusives are similar to those found in the Deccan and Siberian continental flood
basalt provinces (Basu et al., 1993; Basu et al., 1995; Basu et al., 1998).
An association between alkalic magmatism and mantle plumes has frequently
been proposed (Basu et al., 1993; Basu et al., 1995; Basu et al., 1998; Franz et al.,
1999; Basu et al., 2001; Bell, 2002). Alkaline magma may be generated by lowdegree melting of an enriched mantle source or by pronounced differentiation of a
mafic magma, or even by crustal contamination of a mantle derived magma; volatile
contents and mantle mineralogy also affect magma compositions (Mahoney et al.,
1985; Wilson, 1989; Winter, 2001). It is also observed that the last phases of
continental flood basalts are spatially and temporally associated with alkalic and
carbonatitic magmatism (e.g. Bell, 2001; 2002; Heaman et al., 2002).
In this study we report the trace element and Nd-Sr-Pb isotopic data of 21
basalts and andesites from four different locations of the Rajmahal Traps, 56 alkalic,
ultrabasic, and carbonatitic rocks from four alkalic complexes associated with the
Rajmahal-Bengal-Sylhet Traps, and four dikes from the Bokaro coal fields southwest
of the Rajmahal Traps (Figs. 8.2, 8.3). Nd-Sr-Pb data have not been reported from
Harinsingha or Taljhari area (Fig. 8.2, 8.3) of the Rajmahal Traps or from the Sikkim,
Samchampi and Barpung alkalic complexes presented in this study. Although several
workers have presented geochemical data for the Sung Valley complex (Ray and
Pande, 2001; Ray et al., 2005; Srivastava et al., 2005), our data show a much wider

357

358

Figure 8.2. (a) Geological map showing structural features and locations of the Rajmahal
and Sylhet Traps in and around the Bengal Basin including bore hole sites where basalts
have been encountered (Sengupta, 1966; Baksi et al., 1987; Ray et al., 2005). Alkalic and
ultra-basic rocks also occur in Samchampi, Sung, Sikkim, and the Bokaro dykes related
to the Rajmahal-Sylhet Traps. Associated volcanic rocks are also reported from the
Bangladesh part of the basin (personal communications with Bangladesh geologists).
(b) Map showing the distribution of volcanic and sedimentary rocks in the Rajmahal Hills
and surrounding areas (Kent et al., 1997), and locations of sample sites.

359
range of geochemical data than those previously reported. We have compared the 81 rock
samples mentioned here with similar available data in the published literature on the
ocean drilling and dredge samples of the Kerguelen plateau crust, Bunbury and Ninety
East Ridge basalts and with the published and available geochemical data of the Archean
Indian lithosphere to evaluate the possible connection between these alkalic complexes
and the Rajmahal basalts and ultimately with the Kerguelen plume and the lost eastern
Indian lithospheric root. We use this data to establish a more extensive and more
complete aerial extent of this widespread volcanism in eastern India, caused by the
Kerguelen plume. It appears that this aerial extent may exceed 1.5 million km2 (Fig. 8.1).
The above mentioned geochemical results and their interpretation are important in
assessing how ancient cratonic roots survive and persist through geological time in the
presence of mantle plumes and which parts of cratons are susceptible for melting during
plume impingement.

8.2. Geological History

8.2.1 Rajmahal Traps

The Rajmahal basalts are exposed in the Rajmahal hills (Fig. 8.2b, 8.3a-d) in
eastern Bihar and parts of West Bengal, India. They cover an area of ~4100km2, with
exposed thickness of up to 230m. Toward the west, the basalts unconformably overly
Gondwana Supergroup sediments. To the east, down faulting of the basement causes the
sequence to be lost beneath the massive amounts of sediment of the Bengal basin

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Figure 8.3a. Geological map of Sahibganj with sample locations. Six basalt samples
from the six flows shown here have been analyzed in this study.

Figure 8.3b. Geological map of Taljhari with sample locations. Four basalts and one
andesite samples from the three flows have been analyzed for this study.

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Figure 8.3c. Geological map of Tinpahar with sample locations. Four basalts and two
andesite dikes have been sampled from the three flows for this study. The dikes intersect
all the lava flows.

362

Figure 8.3d. Geological map of Harinsingha with sample locations. Three basalts have
been sampled from the two flows for this study. One Dubrajpur sandstone has also been
analyzed in this study.

363
basin shed from the Himalayas. However, exploration drilling in the area indicates that
these basalts are also present to the east underlying much of the Bengal Basin where the
thickness of the lava is as much as 332m, continuing farther south of Calcutta (Sengupta,
1966).
40

Ar/39Ar data in basalts of the Rajmahal traps recovered by drilling from the

Bengal Basin suggest a formation age of ~117 Ma (Baksi, 1995; Ray et al., 2005). More
recent 40Ar/39Ar results (Kent et al., 2002) from the Rajmahal hills are consistent with an
~118 Ma age for the magmatic activity, contemporaneous with the final stage of
volcanism in ODP program site 1136 in the southern Kerguelen Plateau (119-118 Ma)
(Duncan, 1978).
In this study we present data from four different regions of the Rajmahal hills, sparsely
sampled and analyzed in previous studies. There are six individual lava flows in the Sahibganj
area shown in Fig. 8.3a. The location of the basaltic samples as collected from three different
areas in Ambadihi, Rangamatia and Adro Bedo traverses. The Taljhari location (Figs. 8.3b) has
three recognizable basaltic-andesitic and andesitic-dacitic flows. Five samples were collected
representing these three flows. The Tinpahar location (Figs. 8.3c) made of three hillocks, show
four basaltic lava flows each of which was sampled for this study. In addition, an andesitic dike is
seen to cut all four flows here. Two samples from this dike are also included in our study. The
Harinsingha location (Fig. 8.3d) is the southernmost location of the Rajmahal hills sampled for
this study. Two tholeiitic flows in this location are separated by an inter-trappean bed and the
bottom flow is in contact with the Gondwana Dubrajpur sandstone. Four samples were collected,
two of which are in contact with the sediments.

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8.2.2. Bokaro Dikes
The Gondwana coalfields of Bihar-West Bengal are known to host a variety of
occurrences of intrusive ultrabasic bodies (Sarkar et al., 1980; Rock et al., 1992; Kent et
al., 1998). They have been examined for their economic potential as diamond-bearing
rocks, much like the kimberlites of South Africa. Sarkar et al. (1980) determined the KAr age of 113-105 Ma for biotites from ultramafic alkaline rocks in this region. We have
determined a 40Ar/39Ar laser step heating spectra of a phlogopite from a lamproite dike in
the eastern Bokaro coal field (Fig. 8.2), courtesy of P. R. Renne, Berkley Geochronology
Center, that gave an integrated age of 114.4 + 0.1 Ma. Thus these dike emplacements
were slightly younger than the 118 Ma-old tholeiitic flood volcanism in Rajmahal Hills
(Baksi, 1995; Kent et al., 2002).
The mineralogical composition of the alkalic dikes intruding the Gondwana
sediments are commonly characterized by olivine, phlogopite, apatite, aegirine,
amphibole (usually K-richterite), carbonate, spinel, and perovskite. This observation
allows these dikes to be classified as minettes, lamproites, or olivine-lamproites. Many of
the sills show varying mineralogy due to differentiation, and may contain both minette
and lamproite in gradational contact with the sill rock (Rock et al., 1992).
In addition to the lamprophyric intrusions, the Gondwana sediments also host
many diabase dikes and sills. Four samples of dikes from the Bokaro field (Fig. 8.2) have
been collected for this study. Two of the samples are diabase dikes, one is a lamprophyre,
and one is an unusual carbonatite sample with predominant carbonate and some altered
silicates. This carbonatite sample was found in contact with a diabase dike.

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8.2.3 Sikkim
In the foothills of the Himalayas, near Darjeeling, India (Fig. 8.3e) is the Rangit
structural window. This tectonic feature exposes sub-Himalayan thrust sheet lithologies.
These thrust sheets have been piling up for the last 43 Ma since India collided with Asia
(Gansser, 1964). The thrusts are northerly dipping and create nappes that place older
rocks on younger material, and result in the obduction of the Indian craton and overlying
sediments.
The Rangit tectonic window is located within the Main Central Thrust sheets of
the Himalayas, which are made up of high-grade crystalline rocks such as the Lingtse
gneiss, which constitute most of the Higher Himalayas. Exposed within the window are
rocks carried by the Main Boundary Thrust sheets, which comprise most of the Lesser
Himalayan region. These include the Gondwana, Daling and Siwalik metasediments. The
Gondwana sediments consist mainly of feldspathic sandstones and carbonaceous shales
with frequent seams of semi-anthracitic coal. At the southern end of the Rangit window is
a linear east-west exposure of the Gondwanas, with lamprophyre and lamproite dikes
cutting across the coal and adjacent sediments. The Daling sediments have a consistent
lithology of greenish fissile slates to green quartzitic schists (Gansser, 1964). These
sediments are exposed in the central portion of the window, hosting a series of syenitic
dikes. Recent kinematic modeling has shown that the Rangit window has experienced
shortening of ~125 km since the collision of the Indian with the Asian plate 65 million
years ago (Mitra et al., 2010).

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Figure 8.3e. Geological map of Sikkim with sample locations (Weaver, 2000). Six ultrapotassic syenites, six lamproites, and one nephelinite have been analyzed for this study.

367
We have selected 12 samples from the Sikkim-Darjeeling area. These samples are
ultra-potassic syenites, peridotites, minettes, nephelinites and lamproites that comprise
the most unusual alkalic rock associations of any flood basalt province, perhaps akin to
those of the Parana, Deccan and Siberian flood volcanic provinces. The 6 ultra-potassic
syenites are rocks occurring as intrusives into the Daling group of metasediments which
occur as a nappe overlying the Gondwana rocks in a zone of thrust wedges. The
remaining rocks occur as intrusives into the Gondwana sediments occurring below the
Daling Nappe. Samples are collected from three different locations along an east-west
belt parallel to the trend of the mountain belt. From east to west the locations are
Tindharia, Lish Nasi, and Manzing Khola.

8.2.4 The Sung Valley Complex

The Sung Valley Complex is an intrusive alkaline igneous complex located within
the Meghalaya craton and exposed on the Shillong Plateau in northeast India (Fig 8.3f). It
is ~26 km2 in size and intruded into the Proterozoic quartzites and phyllites of the
Shillong group. The Shillong plateau is a block of uplifted Precambrian basement,
bordered by the Dauki fault to the South and the Brahmaputra graben to the north. A N-S
trending lineament (Um-Ngot lineament) cuts across the Shillong plateau and contains
several alkalic intrusive bodies including the Sung Complex (Kumar et al., 1996). The
Sung complex has been dated at 134 + 20 Ma using Pb isotopes (Veena et al., 1998).
However,

40

Ar/39Ar analysis of carbonatites from this complex yield an age of 108 + 2

Ma (Ray and Pande, 2001).

368

Figure 8.3f. Geological map of Sung Valley modified from (Veena et al., 1998).
Seventeen samples from this location have been analyzed for this study including,
syenites, carbonatites, pyroxenites, and uncompahgrites.

369
The petrology of the Sung Valley complex has been described by several
researchers (e.g. Krishnamurthy, 1985; Srivastava and Sinha, 2004; Srivastava et al.,
2005). An oval pyroxenite body forms the main rock type of the complex, intruded by
peridotites, ijolites, carbonatites and syenites (Veena et al., 1998). Two varieties of
pyroxenites are present in the complex: (1) a coarse grained variety composed of
diopsidic augite with minor amounts of phlogopite, titanite and apatite and (2) a medium
grained variety composed of diopside and aegirine augite with minor K-feldspar, titanite
and apatite. Stock-sized bodies of olivine and peridotite are emplaced in the northern part
of the complex. Ijolites are the third most abundant rock-type in the complex and they
intrude the pyroxenites in the form of a ring dike. Carbonatites are found in the southern
part of the complex and occur mainly as dikes and cone sheets. Minor syenitic and
felspathic veins and dikes cut pyroxenites, ijolites and quartzites. We have collected 19
samples of various lithologies from this complex.

8.2.5 The Samchampi Alkalic Province

Located in the Mikir Hills, the northeast extension of the Shillong Plateau, the
Samchampi complex (Kumar et al., 1989) (Fig. 8.3g) shows many similarities to the
Sung Valley complex. The age of the Samchampi complex overlaps the age of the Sung
Valley complex (108 + 2 Ma) (Ray and Pande, 2001) indicating that these alkaline
complexes are coeval and together they post date the Rajmahal and Sylhet Traps by ~10
My.

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Figure 8.3g. Geological map of the Samchampi Complex after Hoda et al., (1997).
Fifteen samples from this location analyzed for this study include syenites, pyroxenites,
melteigites, sovites, and ijolites.

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The Samchampi complex is a relatively circular stock-like body, and is cored

by a titano-magnetitie-perovskite rock. Syenites of variable mineralogic compositions
occur as discontinuous lenses and ovoid bodies of primarily alkali syenites and
nepheline syenites. Pyroxenites occur only as small patches, and are composed
mainly of aegirine-augite with interstitial potassium feldspars (Hoda et al., 1997). An
ijolite-melteigite suite is confined to the northern part of the complex and has an
outcrop pattern suggestive of a ring dike or a cone-shaped body, much like the Sung
Valley complex. The ijolite-melteigites are composed primarily of aegirine-augite,
nepheline, biotite and carbonate minerals. Apatite and sphene occur as accessory
phases and may control the trace element concentrations of these rocks. Carbonatites
occur as discontinuous dike-like bodies, and as small veins and lenses, consisting of
carbonate minerals with accessory ilmenite and magnetite. Biotite, phlogopite, apatite
and olivine are also present in different parts in each of the carbonatite dikes. The
carbonatites represent the last stage of emplacement of the Samchampi alkaline
complex (Kumar et al., 1989).
For our study, 15 samples have been collected from the Samchampi Alkalic
complex. These samples include alkali pyroxenites, syenites, ijolites, and sovites.
There is a remarkable parallelism in the lithology of the complex with the ijolites and
jacupirangites associated with the Parana flood basalt province (e.g. Piccirillo et al.,
1989).

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8.2.6. Barpung Alkalic Complex

The Barpung alkalic complex is very similar to Samchampi and is located to
the southeast of Samchampi (Fig. 8.2). These rocks are intruded into amphibolite
facies metamorphosed host rock (Kumar et al., 1989). This complex is composed
primarily of pyroxenites and aegirine-bearing syenites. Ten samples of pyroxenite
and syenite were collected for this study. The Barpung alkalic complex contains the
only monomineralic potassium-feldspar syenites of all the rocks of this study
(Weaver, 2000). Its age has not yet been determined.

8.3. Analytical Results

In this section we present the geochemical results of the basaltic and andesitic
lavas from the Rajmahal Traps, dikes from Bokaro, and the alkaline rocks from Sung,
Samchampi, Barpung and Sikkim alkaline complexes. These data comprise multiple
trace element concentrations including the rare earths, and the isotopic compositions
of Nd, Sr, and Pb. The data are presented in tables 8.1-8.2 and figures 8.4-8.8. Basalts
and andesites from the four locations of the Rajmahal Traps are compared with
similar data obtained from previous work on volcanic rocks related to the Kerguelen
plume activity, including the Rajmahal-Bengal-Sylhet Traps, Broken Ridge,
Ninetyeast Ridge, Bunbury basalts and basalts from the northern, central and southern
parts of the Kerguelen Plateau. The alkalic rocks from the Sung, Samchampi, Sikkim,
and Barpung Complexes are divided into two groups: one group consisting of the
mafic rock types (pyroxenites, nephelinites, lamproites, soviets, melteigite,

373

uncompahgrites and carbonatites), and the other group consisting of syenites and
ijolites. These two rock groups from the alkaline complexes are compared to the
Kerguelen plume related volcanics, granulites from th eEastern Ghats Belt in India as
well as Lamproites from India, Gaussberg (Antarctica), and Australia. Analytical
methods are described in Appendix-2.

8.4.1 Trace Element Geochemistry

Trace element data for the all the basaltic and alkalic rocks of this study are
presented in Table 8.1. The Chondrite normalized (Evensen et al., 1978) rare earth
element (REE) patterns for the basaltic and andesitic laavs from the four Rajmahal
Traps sections are shown in figure 8.4a. The five basaltic flows from Sahibganj are
slightly enriched light rare earth (LREE) with average LaN/SmN = 1.8 and LaN/YbN =
3.5 (Fig. 8.4a). In the Taljhari section (Fig. 8.4a) the four basalt flows have flat to
slightly enriched rare earth element (REE) patterns (LaN/SmN = 1.1 to 2.0; LaN/YbN =
1.9 to 3.9) while the andesite flow has relatively higher LREE (LaN/SmN = 3.8) and a
much steeper overall REE slope (LaN/YbN = 28). Two of the Tinpahar basaltic flows
have flat REE patterns (LaN/SmN = 1.0; LaN/YbN = 1.7) (Fig. 8.4a) while the
remaining two basaltic flows and two andesite dikes from this section have slightly
enriched REEs (LaN/SmN = 1.8 to 2.0; LaN/YbN = 3.6 to 4.1) similar to the Sahibganj
and Taljhari sections. The three basaltic flows of the Harinsingha section, including
one flow in contact with sandstone, are nearly flat in their REEs (LaN/SmN = 1.1;
LaN/YbN = 1.7) (Fig. 8.4a) and are similar to the other flat basaltic flows from

374

Tinpahar and Taljhari. One sandstone sample from Harinsingha in contact with the
basaltic flows has extremely depleted REE except La, Ce, Pr and Nd. The overall
chondrite normalized REE concentration of the lavas from the Rajmahal Traps have
either nearly flat or slightly enriched LREE (La ~20-50 times chondrite), and flat
heavy rare earth elements (HREE) (~10 times chondrite), with one andesite flow from
Taljhari showing a striking different REE pattern.
Four dikes from Bokaro have been analyzed for this study (Table 8.2, Fig.
8.4b). The two diabase and one lamprophyre dikes are strikingly similar to the nearly
flat basalts from the Rajmahal Traps (LaN/SmN = 1.2; LaN/YbN = 2.7) with LREEs
~20 times more enriched than chondrite. The carbonatite dike is similar to the mafic
rocks from the alkaline complexes (LaN/SmN = 6.9; LaN/YbN = 100; DyN/YbN = 2.5)
with extreme LREE enrichment, steep HREE slopes, and no Eu-anomaly.
Our analytical results show that the pyroxenites, lamproites, carbonatites,
meltiegites, and soviets from the four alkaline complexes have high concentrations of
Ba (average ~900 ppm), Sr (average ~1900 ppm), Zr (average ~400 ppm) and La
(average ~125 ppm), conforming to the chemical characteristics of global lamproites
(Mitchell and Bergman, 1991; Woolley et al., 1996). The concentrations of these
elements are lower in the corresponding syenites and ijolites from these complexes,
except for Sikkim where the ultra potassic syenites are very similar in their trace
element concentrations and patters to the lamproites and nephelinites (Fig. 8.4c).
Trace element data for the rocks from the alkalic complexes are reported in Table 8.1.
All the rocks from the four alkaline complexes have high concentrations of REEs

375

Figure 8.4a. Chondrite normalized REE patterns of basalts from the Rajmahal Traps.
Basalts with a relatively flat REE pattern in the CH section are similar to Group I and
those with LREE enrichments are comparable to Group II Rajmahal basalts (Kent et al.,
1997).

376

Figure 8.4b. Chondrite normalized REE patterns of the four Bokaro dikes. The
lamprophyre and diabase dikes are similar to the Rajmahal Traps data (Fig. 8.4a),
whereas the carbonatite dike is similar to the alkalic complex data (Fig. 8.4c).

377

Figure 8.4c. Chondrite normalized REE patterns of the alkalic-carbonatitic rocks (left
column) and the syenites and ijolites (right column) from the four alkalic complexes of
this study. Notice extreme LREE enrichments in all these rocks.

378
with extreme LREE enrichment (LaN/SmN = 3.3 to 5.5), ~200-1000 time chondrite, and
relatively less steep HREE (DyN/YbN = 1.7 to 3.0). The overall LaN/YbN range of the
mafic rocks for the alkaline complexes are more restricted (30 to 55) compared to the
syenites and ijolites (13 to 103). In general, all the mafic rocks and some of the syenites
of the four alkaline complexes are similar to most global lamproites and group II
kimberlites (Cullers et al., 1985; Foley et al., 1987; Mitchell and Bergman, 1991;
Chakrabarti et al., 2007). All the mafic rocks are characterized by the notable absence of
Eu-anomaly.
Twenty-two compatible and incompatible trace element concentration patterns for
the Rajmahal Traps lavas of this study are shown, normalized to primitive mantle (Sun
and McDonough, 1989) in figure 8.5a, with progressively less incompatible elements to
the right. Primitive mantle-normalized basalts of this study show low Rb, U, and high Ba,
Sr, Pb concentrations. In general, all basalts that show nearly flat REE patterns from
Harinsingha, Taljhari and Tinpahar (Fig. 8.4a), are also similar to and ~10-20 times more
enriched than primitive mantle except in the elements mentioned above. The remaining
basalts and andesite dikes from Tinpahar and Sahibganj that show slightly enriched
LREEs in figure 8.4a, have negative Nb-Ta anomalies and a relatively steeper HREE
slope when normalized over primitive mantle; these lavas are ~20-50 times more
enriched than the primitive mantle. One andesite flow from Taljhari and one sandstone
from Harinsingha are different from the rest of the Rajmahal lavas and have more
enriched LREEs, negative Nb-Ta anomaly, positive Zr-Hf anomaly, and a much steeper
HREE slope in figure 8.5a.

379

380

Figure 8.5a. Multiple trace element concentrations normalized to Primitive Mantle for
the Rajmahal Traps lavas of this study. The lava with flat REE patterns (Fig. 8.4a)
display small variations in their elemental concentration patterns. In contrast, the lavas
with LREE enrichment (Fig. 8.4a) display enrichment in incompatible elements relative
to primitive mantle, characteristically in Rb, Ba, Sr, and Pb, while being depleted in
general in Nb-Ta.

381

Figure 8.5b. Multiple trace element concentrations normalized to Primitive Mantle

for the four Bokaro dikes. While the diabase dikes are similar to Rajmahal data with
flat REE and the lamprophyre dike is similar to LREE enriched Rajmahal data, the
carbonatite dike is strikingly different.

382

Figure 8.5c. Multiple trace element concentrations normalized to Primitive Mantle

for all the alkalic rocks of this study.

Table 8.1. Trace element concentrations and selected element ratios of all the rocks of this study

383

Table 8.1 continued.

384

Table 8.1 continued.

385

Table 8.1 continued.

386

Table 8.1 continued.

387

Table 8.1 continued.

388

389

The two diabase dikes from Bokaro are extremely flat with only slight Ba
enrichment (Fig. 8.5b) and are ~10 times more enriched than the primitive mantle.
The lamprophyre is enriched in Ba, La and Ce, depleted in Ta, Sr, and Sm, with no
Nb-Ta anomaly and a steep HREE slope. The carbonatites is in general flat and ~10
time primitive mantle with depletions in Rb, Ba, Pb, and Sr, as well as negative NbTa anomaly.
The rocks from the four alkaline complexes, i.e. Sung, Samchampi, Barpung,
and Sikkim, have wide ranges in the primitive mantle normalized concentrations of in
the most incompatible elements (Rb, Ba, Th, U) (Fig 8.5c). In general, these rocks
have Pb-depletion, both positive and negative Sr peaks, and negative Zr-Hf
anomalies, with steep HREE slopes. Most of the mafic rocks have no Nb-Ta anomaly
where as the syenites and ijolites have both positive and negative Nb-Ta anomalies.

8.3.2 Nd-Sr-Pb isotopic geochemistry

Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotope systematics data for all the rocks of this study are
reported in Table 8.2. In the Nd-Sr plot (Fig. 8.6a) the basalts and andesites of this
study are compared with the primitive Kerguelen plume component (shaded gray
region) (Ghatak and Basu, 2010) which includes Sylhet Traps basalts, Bunbury
Casuarina lavas (Frey et al., 1996), and drill core sites from the Kerguelen plateau
(Weis and Frey, 1991; Frey et al., 1996; Frey et al., 2000; Frey et al., 2002; Neal et
al., 2002a; Weis et al., 2002) as well as the Rajmahal group I and II basalts (Kent et
al., 1997), Indian MORB (Mahoney et al., 1992; Mahoney et al., 2002), Niinetyeast

390

Ridge (NER)(Weis and Frey, 1991), and ancient continental fragments from drill hole
1137 (Ingle et al., 2002a). The basalts and andesites from the Rajmahal Traps have
have been calculated at 117 Ma which is the

40

Ar-39Ar age for these Sylhet Trap

tholeiites (Ray et al., 2005). The initial Nd values for these rocks range from +2.8 to
-7.7 and the 87Sr/86Sr(I) data range from 0.70347 to 0.70804.
The alkalic complex rocks of this study have been compared to primitive
Kerguelen plume component (shaded gray region)(Ghatak and Basu, 2010), Rajmahal
group I and II basalts (Kent et al., 1997), Indian MORB (Mahoney et al., 1992;
Mahoney et al., 2002), Niinetyeast Ridge (NER) (Weis and Frey, 1991), ancient
continental fragments from drill hole 1137 (Ingle et al., 2002a), basalts from bore
hole 738, Groups I and II kimberlites (Chakrabarti et al., 2010), lamproites from India
(Chakrabarti et al., 2007), Australia (Mitchell and Bergman, 1991), and Gaussberg
(Murphy et al., 2002), as well as the Eastern Ghats Belt of India (Rickers et al., 2001;
Chakrabarti et al., 2010) in figure 8.6b.
The pyroxenites, lamproites, sovites, carbonatites and melteigite comprising
the mafic rocks from the alkalic complexes have initial Nd values of +1.2 to -6.9 and
87

Sr/86Sr(I) of 0.70471 to 0.70879. Syenites and ijolites from these alkalic complexes

have a much larger range in Nd-Sr isotopes with Nd(I) = -1.5 to -17.8 and

87

Sr/86Sr(I)

= 0.70138 to 0.72734. It is interesting to note that the mafic rocks from the alkalic
complexes have a similar range of data to the Rajmahal Traps data of this study as
well as previous studies (Mahoney et al., 1983; Baksi et al., 1987; Storey et al., 1992;
Kent et al., 1997; Kumar et al., 2003; Ghatak and Basu, 2010) while the majority of

391

the syenites and ijolites have negative initial Nd and radiogenic Sr-isotopic
composition and lie in the time-integrated Rb/Sr and Sm/Nd enriched quadrant of the
Nd-Sr isotopic correlation diagram (Fig. 8.6b). Also notice that the four carbonatite
samples of this study from Sung overlap with Rajmahal Group I basalts (Kent et al.,
1997) as well as the least contaminated Kerguelen plume component in the upper left
quadrant in figure 8.6b.
Pb-Pb isotopic ratios of all the basaltic and andesitic lavas and the alkalic
rocks of this study are plotted in figure 8.7a-b along with the groups I and II
Rajmahal Traps (Kent et al., 1997), primitive Kerguelen plume component (Ghatak
and Basu, 2010), NER (Weis and Frey, 1991), Bunbury basalts (Frey et al., 1996),
various Kerguelen Plateau drill core basalts (Weis et al., 1993; Weis et al., 1998; Frey
et al., 2000; Frey et al., 2002; Neal et al., 2002a; Weis et al., 2002), Indian MORB
(Mahoney et al., 1992; Mahoney et al., 2002), Chilka granulites (CG) of the Eastern
Ghats Belt (Chakrabarti et al., 2010), ancient non-volcanic continental fragments
from drill core 1137 (Ingle et al., 2002a), and lamproites from Gaussberg (Murphy et
al., 2002). Various continental crustal and mantle reservoirs and the Northern
Hemisphere Reference Line (NHRL) are plotted in the Pb-Pb plots for reference
(Zartman and Doe, 1981; Hart and Zindler, 1989).
Initial

206

Pb/204Pb,

207

Pb/204Pb, and

208

Pb/204Pb of the Rajmahal Trap basalts

and andesites at 117 Ma have ranges of 17.36-18.33, 15.48-15.71, and 37.12-40.40

respectively as reported in Table 8.2. Most of the Rajmahal lavas are clustered around
the field of the primitive Kerguelen plume component (gray shaded area) and have a

Table 8.2. Present day (0) and initial (I) at 117 Ma for Nd, Sr and Pb isotope data for all the rocks of this study.
392

Table 8.2 continued.

393

Table 8.2 continued.

394

Table 8.2 continued.

395

Table 8.2 continued.

396

Table 8.2 continued.

397

Table 8.2 continued.

398

Table 8.2 continued.

399

400

nearly vertical trend along the field of the bulk silicate Earth (BSE) (Fig. 8.7a). The
pyroxenites, lamproites, sovites, melteigite, carbonatites, syenites and ijolites from
the alkalic complexes on the other hand have a much larger range of Pb-isotopic
compositions (17.60-19.54, 15.46-15.76, 35.78-41.37) and show the mixing trend
between the least contaminated Kerguelen plume component, ancient continental
fragments from 1137, and the average upper continental crust (Fig. 8.7b). There is no
distinction in the Pb-isotopic data between the mafic rocks and the syenites and
ijolites from the alkalic complexes. Correlation between
208

207

Pb/206Pb(I) and

Pb/206Pb(I) at 117 Ma for all the Rajmahal Traps lavas as well as the alkalic rocks of

this study is shown in figure 8.8. All the data presented in this study are compared in
this plot with the Rajmahal Traps (Groups I and II) (Kent et al., 1997), Ninetyeast
Ridge (NER) (Weis and Frey, 1991), Bunbury basalts (BB) (Frey et al., 1996), some
Kerguelen Plateau drill core samples (e.g. Frey et al., 2002; Ingle et al., 2002b; Neal
et al., 2002a), and mantle reservoirs DMM, EMI, EMII, and HIMU (Saal et al.,
1998). In addition to these fields the alkalic rocks complex are also compared to a
common component C as derived from the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian MORB data
by Hannan and Graham (Hanan and Graham, 1996), Groups I and II Kimberlites
(Collerson et al., 2010), Gaussberg lamproites (Murphy and Collerson, 2002), and
Oldoinyo Lengai (Bell and Simonetti, 1996; Bell and Tilton, 2001; Bizimis et al.,
2003).
All the Rajmahal Traps basalts and andeites of this study and the lamprophyre
and diabase dikes from Bokaro broadly overlap with the least contaminated

401

Kerguelen plume component, and Rajmahal Groups I and II, Bunbury basalts, and
Kerguelen Plateau drill core basalts (Fig. 8.8a). In general a linear trend is visible for
these lavas, beginning near the fields of RJI, BB and drill core 749 basalts and ending
near the EM-1 field for all these lavas. On the other hand, the mafic rocks and the
syenites from the alkalic complexes show a much larger range in composition and fall
along a linear trend from the field of C to EM-I.

8.4. Discussion
In this section we discuss the trace element and Nd-Sr-Pb isotopic results
presented in section 8.3. We document from our geochemical results of the Rajmahal
volcanics that they may have 80-100% of the primitive Kerguelen plume component
with up to 20% contamination from the lower crustal and continental mantle
lithospheric source that can be identified to be granulites of the Eastern Ghats in India
(Fig. 8.1). We also discuss the geochemical data of the alkalic rocks from four
different complexes that post date the Rajmahal-Bengal-Sylhet Traps and suggest a
model for the evolution of these varies rock types in association with the Rajmahal
flood basalt province.

8.4.1 Discussion of the geochemistry of Rajmahal Trap Lavas and Bokaro dikes
The lavas flows from Harinsingha, two basalts from Tinpahar, one from
Taljhari, and the two diabase dikes from Bokaro show remarkably flat REE patterns
(Fig. 8.4a, b). These lavas are strikingly similar to some of the Sylhet Traps 500km to

402

the east of the Rajmahal Traps (Ghatak and Basu, 2010), and to the Rajmahal Group I
basalts, defined on the basis of only three analyses by Kent et al. (1997). The
relatively flat REE patterns of the group I Rajmahal Traps rocks has been attributed to
have formed by decompressional melting of the asthenosphere and passive upwelling
of these basalts through the rifted margin of eastern India (e.g. Baksi et al., 1987;
Kent et al., 1997). Another probable scenario is that the relatively primitive nature of
these lavas with flat REE patterns is better explained by the large degree melting of a
less contaminated and relatively primitive component of the Kerguelen plume.
Primitive mantle-normalized trace element data for basalts and dikes with flat
REE patterns are similar to the least contaminated Rajmahal group I basalts (Kent et
al., 1997) as well as the Sylhet Traps lavas (Ghatak and Basu, 2010), with relatively
low Rb, U and Pb and higher Ba, and Sr with respect to the primitive mantle (Fig.
8.5a, b). Overall, these rocks are distinctly different from both NMORB and upper
continental crust in trace element patterns and ratios in this multi-element plot (Fig.
8.5a, b). This pattern could not have resulted from crustal contamination of a magma
derived from the depleted mantle as has been proposed by several authors for the
Rajmahal Traps (e.g. Baksi et al., 1987; Kent et al., 1997).
The REE patterns of the remaining basalts and three andesites of this study
from the Rajmahal Traps and the laprophyre dike from Bokaro are more LREE
enriched (Fig. 8.4a, b). The LREE-enrichment seen in these basalts are similar to the
Group II Rajmahal basalts as defined by Kent et al., (1997) on the basis of five basalt
analyses. This LREE enrichment may be due to contamination from upper or lower

403

Figure 8.6a. Initial Nd vs.

87

Sr/86Sr at 117 Ma for the Rajmahal Traps of this study

compared with the Rajmahal Traps, Bunbury basalts, Kerguelen Plateau basalts, and
Eastern Ghat Belt (EGB) Granulites (Rickers et al., 2001). The field of Indian MORB
also includes the southeast Indian Ridge (Mahoney et al., 2002). Partial mixing lines
resulting from the modeling of the Nd-Sr data with a modeled plume component and
two EGB granulites as end members are from (Ghatak and Basu, 2010).
Abbreviations used: NER Ninety East Ridge; BB-C Bunbury, Casuarina; RJ I
Rajmahal Traps Group I; RJ II Rajmahal Traps Group II; Data sources: Indian
MORB (Mahoney et al., 1992); NER (Weis et al., 1991); Bunbury (Frey et al., 1996);
Rajmahal basalts (Kent et al., 1997);. South Kerguelen Plateau sites 738, 749, 750,
747 (Frey et al., 2002); Elan Bank 1137, and ancient continental fragment from 1137
(Ingle et al., 2002a).

404

Figure 8.6b. Initial Nd vs.

87

Sr/86Sr at 117 Ma for the alkalic rocks of this study

compared with the Rajmahal Traps, primitive Kerguelen plume component, Indian
MORB, NER, Groups I and II kimberlites, Krishna lamproites, drill core 738 basalts,
Gaussberg lamproites and Eastern Ghat Belt (EGB) Granulites (Rickers et al., 2001).
Data sources: Group I Kimberlites (Kumar et al., 2003); Krishna lamproites
(Chakrabarti et al., 2007); Gaussberg and Group II kimberlites (Mitchell and
Bergman, 1991); Australian Lamproites (McCulloch et al., 1983). Other data sources
are as in figure 8.6a.

405

continental crust or from the mantle lithosphere. In contrast to the basalts with flat
REE, the remaining basalts and andesites from the Rajmahal Traps show very
different primitive mantle normalized trace element patterns (Fig. 8.5a, b). These
patterns are similar to Rajmahal group II basalts (Kent et al., 1997), some Sylhet
Traps lavas (Ghatak and Basu, 2010), and also to the granitoid rocks recovered from
drill core site 1137 (Ingle et al., 2002a) on the Kerguelen Plateau (Fig. 8.1). In
addition, these rocks show negative Nb-Ta anomalies that are characteristic
signatures of continentally derived crustal rocks.
The absence of a negative Eu anomaly in all the Rajmahal Traps lavas in their
REE plots (Fig. 8.4a) indicates the absence of an upper continental crustal component
in these rocks. Thus we can eliminate the possibility of an ancient subducted
continental crustal component in the sources of these lavas. Therefore, the continental
component present in LREE enriched basalts with Nb-Ta anomalies (Fig. 8.4a) must
be sourced from the lower continental crust, possibly from the eastern Indian
continental margin granulites (Ghatak and Basu, 2010).
In the Nd-Sr isotopic correlation (Fig. 8.6a) all the basalts and andesites as
well as the Bokaro diabase and lamprophyre dikes show affinity with the Rajmahal
Groups I and IIb lavas, Kerguelen Plateau basalts, as well as the field of the primitive
Kerguelen plume component as defined by Ghatak and Basu (2010). Based on these
correlations, a RajmahalSylhetNinetyeast RidgeKerguelen Plateau connection is
strongly indicated. It is interesting to note that all the basalts described as having
nearly flat REE patterns correspond with Rajmahal Group I basalts in the quadrant

406

with unradiogenic Sr and positive Nd values in the Nd-Sr plot, where as the LREE
enriched basalts and andesites lie near fields of RJ IIb, drill core 738, and ancient
continental fragments from 1137 which are considered to be contaminated by the
lower continental crust (Fig. 8.6a) (Frey et al., 2002; Ingle et al., 2002a; Ghatak and
Basu, 2010).
The two mixing lines shown in this figure (Fig. 8.6a) are from Ghatak and
Basu (2010) and they represent mixing between the relatively primitive Kerguelen
plume component (Ghatak and Basu, 2010) and granulites from the Eastern Ghats
Belt commonly believed to constitute the lower continental crust (Rickers et al.,
2001; Chakrabarti et al., 2010) in the eastern Indian continental margin and widely
exposed along the Eastern Ghats Belt (Fig. 8.1) (Yin et al., 2010). This modeling
indicates less than 20% of the granulite contamination for the Rajmahal Traps lavas
of this study as well as previous studies (Mahoney et al., 1983; Storey et al., 1989;
Baksi, 1995; Kent et al., 1997; Ghatak and Basu, 2010).
The proximity of the Rajmahal Traps lavas and the diabase and lamprophyre
dikes of this study with the field of Rajmahal Groups I, IIa, and IIb lavas near the
4.45 Ga Geochron (at = 8.3-8.5) in the 207Pb/204Pb vs. 206Pb/204Pb plot (Fig. 8.7a) is
noteworthy. This correspondence of the Rajmahal basalts and andesites and Bokaro
dikes in Pb-isotopes with Rajmahal I, IIa, and IIb basalts is also consistent with their
trace element patterns as discussed previously in this section. A few lavas fall close to
the field of average lower crust in figure 8.7a, close to the least contaminated CH
section basalts while others show higher values of both

207

Pb/204Pb(I) (Fig. 8.7a) and

407

208

Pb/204Pb(I) (Fig. 8.7a) suggesting a greater degree of crustal/lithospheric

contamination for these rocks because these rocks fall closer to the fields of Chilka
granulites (CG) as well as the most contaminated Kerguelen plateau basalts from drill
cores 738 (Fig. 8.2a).
Although a few samples fall close to the field of Indian MORB (Fig. 8.7a)
these samples also overlap with Kerguelen Plateau basalts which are commonly
accepted to be derived from the Kerguelen plume (Mahoney et al., 1992; Frey et al.,
1996; Frey et al., 2000; Ingle et al., 2002b; Neal et al., 2002a). There is no
correspondence of any of the Rajmahal Trap lavas of this study with the Ninetyeast
Ridge (NER) basalts in figure 8.7. We also note from figure 8.7 that the Rajmahal
basalts and andesites plot far removed from the average upper continental crust in
their Pb-isotopic compositions. An important conclusion that can be drawn from these
observations in the Pb-variation diagram (Fig. 8.7) is that the lithospheric
contaminants in the Rajmahal-Bengal-Sylhet basalts as well as the Kerguelen Plateau
basalts are clearly of lower crustal-lithospheric affinity and have no upper crustal
component. This inference of a lower crustal contaminant is also supported from the
trace element evidence as discussed before.
Pb-isotopic ratios plotted as

208

Pb/206Pb(I) and

207

Pb/206Pb(I) in figure 8.8 are

important in distinguishing the mantle components EM-I, EM-II, depleted mantle

(DMM), and HIMU (e.g. Saal et al., 1998). The Rajmahal lavas trend from Bunbury
and Rajmahal group I basalts towards contaminated basalts from drill core 738 and
EM-I, this mixing trend is similar to the Rajmahal Group II basalts. A likely

408

409

Figure 8.7a. (a)

208

Pb/204Pb(I) vs.

206

Pb/204Pb(I) and (b)

207

Pb/204Pb(I) vs.

206

Pb/204Pb(I)

plots for the Rajmahal Traps lavas compared with Kerguelen Plateau basalts,
Bunbury Basalts, Rajmahal Traps, primitive Kerguelen plume component and Chilka
Granulites at the 117 Ma age of eruption of the Sylhet Traps. values of 8.3, 8.4, and
8.5 are also shown in (b) where =

238

U/204Pb. The field of ancient continental

fragments in drill core 1137 (Ingle et al., 2002a) are present day values. Data sources
and symbols are as in figure 8.6a.

410

411

Figure 8.7b. (a)

208

Pb/204Pb(I) vs.

206

Pb/204Pb(I) and (b)

207

Pb/204Pb(I) vs.

206

Pb/204Pb(I)

plots for the alkalic rocks of this study compared with Kerguelen Plateau basalts,
Bunbury Basalts, Rajmahal Traps, primitive Kerguelen plume component and Chilka
Granulites at the 117 Ma age of eruption of the Sylhet Traps. values of 8.3, 8.4, and
8.5 are also shown in (b) where =

238

U/204Pb. The field of ancient continental

fragments in drill core 1137 (Ingle et al., 2002a) are present day values. Data sources
and symbols are as in figure 8.6a and b.

412

component for the lavas of this study as well as some of the Kerguelen Plateau
basalts, including basalts of ODP site 738 is an EM-I like end member (Fig. 8.8a). It
is interesting to note from figure 8.8a that both EM-II, considered as upper
continental crustal, and depleted mantle (DMM, NER) components are unlikely
sources in the Rajmahal samples of this study as well as in Rajmahal-SylhetBunbury-Kerguelen Plateau basalts.
The presence of lower crustal and lithospheric geochemical signatures in the
Rajmahal-Sylhet

Traps

has

important

implications

for

understanding

the

subcontinental lithospheric mantle which can be isolated from the convecting

asthenosphere for billions of years and can thus evolve to isotopic compositions that
deviate significantly from crustal or asthenospheric ratios. This subcontinental
reservoir cannot yield large magmas but can locally contaminate continental flood
basalts (e.g. Widom et al., 1999; Neal et al., 2002a) as seen in the case of the
Rajmahal-Sylhet basalts of this study and previous studies (Mahoney et al., 1983;
Storey et al., 1989; Baksi, 1995; Kent et al., 1997; Ghatak and Basu, 2010). Hence
these locally contaminated basalts are an important source for understanding these
geochemically isolated subcontinental lithospheric roots.
The Rajmahal Traps and Bokaro dikes described in this study can be divided
into those with flat REE patterns and mantle-like Nd-Sr-Pb isotopic ratios, and those
with LREE enrichments that show a clear mixing between a plume end member and a
lower crustal-lithospheric end member that is similar to the Eastern Ghat granulites of
India. These traps reside on a late Archean eastern Indian craton which once had deep

413

lithospheric roots as evidenced by the presence of diamond bearing Proterozoic

kimberlites from the Indian craton (Basu and Tatsumoto, 1979; Rao et al., 2004). The
thickness of the present day Indian lithosphere has recently been estimated to be 100
km (Kumar et al., 2007) which is half to one-third the thickness of the Gondwana
Supercontinent lithosphere, comprising South Africa, Australia and Antarctica. Thus
the source of contamination in the LREE lavas of this study as well as other similarly
contaminated rocks from the Kerguelen Plateau (e.g. drill hole 738 and 1137) may
have been derived by the erosion of this lost Indian lithosphere, referred to by
Kumar et al., (2007), by the impact of the Kerguelen plume head prior to the
Rajmahal-Bengal-Sylhet flood basalt eruption. This scenario has recently been
suggested for similar LREE enriched lavas from the Sylhet Traps ~500km east of the
Rajmahal Traps (Ghatak and Basu, 2010).
We suggest a relatively primitive Kerguelen plume source for the lavas with
nearly flat REEs, that was also responsible for the Sylhet, Bunbury-Casuarina,
Rajmahal Group I and the least contaminated Kerguelen Plateau basalts, in contrast
with the previous proposal by several workers (Weis et al., 1993; Weis et al., 1998;
Kumar et al., 2003) for a generally enriched end-member for the Kerguelen plume
without the signature of continental crust. We suggest this relatively primitive plume
source to have the same geochemical composition as the uncontaminated Sylhet
Traps (Ghatak and Basu, 2010) and drill core 1138 (Neal et al., 2002b).

414

8.4.2 Discussion of the rocks from the alkalic complexes Sung, Samchampi, Barpung,
and Sikkim
The extreme enrichment of LREEs in the mafic rocks of this study from the
four alkalic complexes, with as high as 1000 times chondritic abundances (Fig. 8.4c)
precludes significant contamination by continental crust (Collerson and McCulloch,
1983; McCulloch et al., 1983; Fraser et al., 1985). The comparison of chondrite
normalized REE plots of these mafic rocks and average continental crust (Taylor and
McClennan, 1985) shows that although the continental crust is enriched in LREE, it is
not nearly to the extent of the mafic rocks of this study. If crustal contamination had
occurred it would have resulted in general reduction of the LREE concentrations from
their original composition. These mafic rocks are also depleted in HREE relative to
both continental crust and MORB, hence contamination would cause the slope of the
REE patterns to flatten. This flattening effect is seen in the silicate rocks (syenites and
ijolites) having lower Sr and Rb concentrations that are more easily contaminated
(Fig. 8.4c). The absence of an upper crustal component for the mafic rocks is further
evidenced by the absence of a negative Eu anomaly (Fig. 8.4c). However, a few of
the syenites do exhibit a small negative Eu anomaly and may have been crustally
contaminated. Hence, it is likely that the mafic rocks reflect source chemistry and
source mineralogy with no significant contamination from the continental crust or
MORB. The syenites, on the other hand, may reflect crustal or MORB contamination,
especially in the Sung and Barpung complexes.

415

The extreme LREE enrichment of the alkalic-carbonatitic rocks of this study

is also seen in the primitive mantle normalized patterns in figure 8.5c. This
enrichment may be due to metasomatism of an anomalous mantle source prior to
melting as has been suggested for lamproites, kimberlites, and carbonatites worldwide (e.g. Mitchell and Bergman, 1991; Ringwood et al., 1992). The absence of any
Nb-Ta anomaly in the alkalic-carbonatitic further confirms the absence of an upper
crustal contaminant for these carbonatites, pyroxenites etc. The syenites have both
positive and negative Nb-Ta anomalies indicating some crustal contamination in these
rocks. The extremely negative Zr-Hf anomalies in some of the mafic rocks may be
due to removal of a heavy mineral phase. A prominent negative Pb spike and positive
Sr spike for the mafic rocks (Fig. 8.5c) could not have originated during melting
because Pb and Sr have similar incompatibility during dry melting (Hofmann, 1988).
Since high concentrations of Sr in these rocks preclude the possibility of
contamination, low Pb concentrations may be a result of post emplacement processes
or due to metasomatism of these rocks by a fluid with low Pb and high Sr
concentrations. Both Pb and Sr are variable in the syenites and have both positive and
negative peaks (Fig. 8.5c). The ultra potassic syenites (with a major alkali feldspar
component in their mineralogy) have high Pb and low Sr peaks have clearly
undergone either metasomatism or contamination or both.
In the Nd-Sr isotopic variation diagram (Fig. 8.6b) the mafic rocks have an
overall negative correlation with most of them falling in the domain of negative Nd
and radiogenic Sr indicative of time-integrated high Rb/Sr and Nd/Sm ratios in their

416

source. This correlation is also observed for global lamproites (McCulloch et al.,
1983; Murphy et al., 2002; Chakrabarti et al., 2007). Although the Sr-Nd ratios of the
pyroxenites, lamprophyres, melteigites, and uncompahgrite are similar to the
Rajmahal group II type lavas derived from the Kerguelen plume, they have
significantly different trace element patterns (Figs. 8.4c, 8.5c). A model for the
petrogenesis of these mafic rocks and the associated carbonaties, syenites and ijolites
is discussed in section 8.4.3 below.
Carbonatites from Sung fall in a tight cluster and overlap with group I
kimberlites, Rajmahal Group I basalts, and most primitive Kerguelen plume
component in the upper left quardrant of the Nd-Sr plot (Fig. 8.6b) similar to most of
the young African carbonatites (Bell and Blenkinsop, 1987; Nelson et al., 1988; Bell
and Tilton, 2001). However, all the carbonatite samples of the Sung Valley Complex
previously analyzed by Srivastava et al., (2005) as well as those reported by Veena et
al., (1998) plot in the upper right quadrant of the Nd-Sr diagram. These authors
suggested cause of Sr enrichment in the Sung carbonatites away from global
carbonatites and into the enriched quadrant to be due to an enriched mantle source
involvement (Veena et al., 1998; Srivastava et al., 2005), specifically, an EM-2
source (Veena et al., 1998). Interaction with old continental crust could account for
the high 87Sr/86Sr and low Nd isotopic nature of some silicate samples; however, the
high concentration of Sr and Nd in the Sung Valley rocks make it unlikely that
assimilation of average crust could account for these extreme isotopic compositions.
The Sung carbonatites must therefore be representative of the original composition

417

and therefore must have been derived from a relatively uncontaminated Kerguelen
plume.
In contrast to the carbonatites and other mafic rocks, the syenites of this study
have extreme Nd-Sr isotopic ratios typical of old continental crust (Fig. 8.6b).
However, the multi-element spider diagrams of the mafic rocks and the corresponding
syenites from the four alkalic provinces are nearly identical, especially for the Sikkim
alkalic complex (Fig. 8.5b). The substantial isotopic and geochemical differences
between carbonatities and the syenites suggest that both are derived from two
different sources. However, the similarity in the trace element patterns of these two
rock groups (Fig. 8.4c, 8.5c) indicates that these melts have a common source.
The alkalic complex rocks of this study have a wide range in their Pb-isotopic
compositions (Fig. 8.7b, 8.8b). The Sikkim lamproites have high initial

207

Pb/204Pb

and low initial 206Pb/204Pb values (Fig. 8.7b) and have close affinity to the Gaussberg
lamproites (Fig. 8.8b) (Murphy and Collerson, 2002), indicating an Archean crustal
component in these rocks. Alumina depleted komatiites with low silica and depleted
HREE patterns (Nesbitt et al., 1979; Blichert-Toft and Arndt, 1999; Polat et al., 1999)
have been suggested to be present in the sources of other global lamproites such as
the Krishna lamproites in India (Chakrabarti et al., 2007). We propose that a
subducted Archean Al-depleted komatiite was present in the source of the Sikkim
lamproites in the peridotite mantle.
The carbonatites and mafic rocks of this study from the alkalic complexes,
except Sikkim lamproites, have a strong Pb-depletion when normalized to the

418

Figure 8.8a. Initial

207

Pb/206Pb and

208

Pb/206Pb ratios of the Rajmahal Traps at 117

Ma compared with Rajmahal Group I and II basalts (RJI and RJII respectively),
Bunbury basalts (BB), South Kerguelen Plateau lavas (sites 738, 747, 749, 750),
primitive Kerguelen plume component, and Ninety-East Ridge basalts. Note mantle
reservoirs EM-I, EM-II, DMM, and HIMU (Saal et al., 1998) and the correspondence
of the lavas of this study with the Rajmahal and Kerguelen plateau lavas in the close
proximity of the EM-I field. Ninety-East Ridge lavas plot closer to the DMM field.
Data sources and symbols as in figure 8.6a.

419

Figure 8.8b. Initial 207Pb/206Pb and 208Pb/206Pb ratios of the alkalic rocks of this study
compared with Rajmahal Group I and II basalts (RJI and RJII respectively), Bunbury
basalts (BB), South Kerguelen Plateau lavas (sites 738, 747, 749, 750), primitive
Kerguelen plume component, and Ninety-East Ridge basalts. Note mantle reservoirs
EM-I, EM-II, DMM, and HIMU (Saal et al., 1998) and the correspondence of the
lavas of this study with the Rajmahal and Kerguelen plateau lavas in the close
proximity of the EM-I field. Ninety-East Ridge lavas plot closer to the DMM field.
Data sources as in figure 8.6a. Symbols as in figure 8.6b.

420

primitive mantle (Fig. 8.5c) possibly due to post emplacement processes or due to
metasomatism as discussed previously. These rocks as well as the syenites show
evidence of both upper and lower mantle contamination in their Pb-isotopic data (Fig.
8.7b, 8.8b). Notice that the Sung carbonatites fall in close correspondence to the C
component, interpreted to be a common mantle source region for ocean island basalts
sampled by mantle plumes (Hanan and Graham, 1996), in figure 8.8b.

8.4.3 Models for the genesis of the alkalic rocks

There are three general models for the genesis of carbonatite magmas and
their associated silicate rocks (Le Bas, 1981; Gittins, 1989; Bailey, 1993): (i)
fractional crystallization of primary silicate magmas, normally carbonatite
nephelinite; (ii) an immiscible liquid that separates from a fractionated silicate
magma of nephelinitic/phonolitic composition; (iii) derived directly from low-degree
melting of a carbonated mantle peridotite. A fourth model for the generation of
alkaline magmas is in association with other alkalic rocks at continental rift-like
extensional tectonic settings (Wilson, 1989; Verma, 2006).
The isotopic similarity of the ultramafic rocks of the alkalic provinces, their
contemporaneous ages with the Rajmahal-Bengal-Sylhet Traps and lack of any
geological or geophysical feature suggesting rift-tectonics point towards a plume
model for the genesis of these alkalic provinces, although an extensional setting is
conceivable prior to plume impingement beneath this region.

421

On the basis of experimental work Hamilton et al., (1989) showed that Ba/La
ratios should be higher in an immiscible carbonate liquid relative to associated silicate
liquid under any temperature or pressure. In our study most of the syenites and ijolites
have significantly higher Ba/La than the alkalic-carbonatitic rocks (Table 8.1).
Therefore the liquid immiscibility origin for the carbonatite magma is untenable.
On the other hand, experimental studies on peridotite-CO2 demonstrate that
primary carbonatite magmas can be generated at depths greater than ~70 km
(~25kbar) (Wyllie and Huang, 1976; Eggler, 1978; 1989; Thibault et al., 1992;
Dalton and Wood, 1993; Sweeney, 1994; Lee and Wyllie, 1997; Wallace and Green,
1998; Wyllie and Lee, 1998; Harmer, 1999; Verma, 2006). These models suggest that
primary carbonate magmas will release CO2 vapor on rising to depths of ~70 km,
increasing pyroxenes in the rock, and assist in thinning of the lithosphere due to high
pore pressure of CO2 rich fluids. This decarbonation reaction can convert lherzolite
into wherlite, which can coexist with carbonated magmas and dissolve an adequate
amount of olivine and pyroxene to provide Al, Fe, and Si necessary for the
crystallization of ultrabasic alkaline silicate magmas of nephelinitic composition
(Sweeney, 1994; Lee and Wyllie, 1997; Wallace and Green, 1998; Wyllie and Lee,
1998). Upton (1967) suggested that pyroxenites in alkalic environments may result
from reaction between silicate rock and carbonatite magma. Dasgupta et al., (2004)
have experimentally shown that carbonated eclogites rather than carbonated
peridotites are the potential source of continental carbonatites.

422

Based on the geochemical data discussed in this study as well as experimental

results discussed above we suggest a model that invokes the direct melting of a
carbonated eclogite. This has also been suggested by Srivas tava et al., (2005) for the
Sung Valley carbonatites. This melt might dissolve enough olivine and pyroxene
required for the crystallization of nepheline syenites, syenites and ijolites. Pyroxenites
and lamproites result from the reaction of the silicates with and carbonated melts.
Carbonatites are derived from greater depths than any other alkalic or tholeiitic rocks
in this region.

8.5. Conclusions
When combined with previous studies of lavas associated with the Kerguelen
plume, this study of Rajmahal flood basalts and associated rocks from alkalic
complexes in the Shillong Plateau and Sikkim leads to the following conclusions:

1. The data presented in this study for the Rajmahal Traps can be correlated to the
Sylhet Traps ~550km to the east as well as to basalts recovered from the Kerguelen
Plateau. These data fall into two groups, one group comprising the least contaminated
volcanics with flat REE patterns, which are similar to the Rajmahal Group I
geochemical data as well as the least contaminated Kerulen plume-derived basalts
(Neal et al., 2002b; Ghatak and Basu, 2010). The other group is similar to the
Rajmahal Group II basalts; we have shown that these Group II basalts are

423

contaminated by the lower crustal Eastern Ghat granulites. Similar contaminated

lavas have also been reported from the Sylhet Traps (Ghatak and Basu, 2010).

2. We conclude that the Rajmahal Traps lavas of this study are results of partial
melting of a relatively primitive Kerguelen plume source, that were contaminated by
partially melted components derived from the lower continental granulitic crust as
represented by the Eastern Ghats Belt in India. We also suggest that this lower crustal
component in these basalts resulted from the incorporation by melting-erosion of the
eastern Indian continental lithosphere by the Kerguelen plume, reducing the thickness
of the Indian lithospheric plate. We infer that the plume head eroded parts of the
subcontinental mantle lithosphere and the lower continental crust prior to eruption of
the Rajmahal-Bengal-Sylhet Traps.

3. The two diabase dikes from the Bokaro coal field are similar to the uncontaminated
Group I type Rajmahal-Sylhet Trap lavas while the lamprophyre dike is similar to the
Group II type Rajmahal lavas and is likely contaminated by the lower continental
granulitic crust of the Eastern Ghats Belt in India.

4. There is no evidence of any contamination of the Rajmahal Traps lavas and the
Bokaro dikes by the upper continental crust or by any MORB component.
Contamination in this flood basalt province varies from relatively uncontaminated

424

plume-derived basalts to assimilation of variable amounts of lithospheric components

by hot mafic magmas with little fractionation.

5. The Sung valley carbonatites are likely derived from a carbonated eclogite, from
greater depths in the mantle than any of the other rocks of this study. The Nd-Sr
isotopic composition (Fig. 8.6b) and

206

Pb-207Pb-208Pb isotopic ratios (Fig. 8.8b) of

these carbonatites indicate a mantle origin for these rocks with no enriched mantle or
crustal influence. The

206

Pb/204Pb ratios of these rocks (Fig. 8.7b) may have been by

post-emplacement or metasomatic processes.

6. The remaining mafic rocks and syenites are suggested here to be products of
metasomatization of the carbonated eclogite as discussed in section 8.4.3. These melts
have likely been contaminated by the upper and lower continental crustal components
during emplacement or during their crystallization-differentiation after emplacement.
Although the Sikkim lamproites and syenites collectively show close affinity
Rajmahal-Sylhet Traps basalts in their Nd-Sr-Pb-isotopic ratios, their extreme
enrichment in LREEs indicates these rocks to be of similar origin as the remaining
mafic and syenitic rocks of this study. Lamproites and nepheline bearing syenites are
ultrabasic rocks that cannot be generated by melting of the lower crust. These rocks
likely interacted with a subducted Archean Al-depleted komatiite.

425

7. The isotopic evidence presented in this study combined with the spatial and
temporal distribution of a wide variety of mafic-alkaline-carbonatitic rocks of the
Rajmahal-Sylhet volcanic province in northeast India ranging in age from 117105Ma, and derived from the Kerguelen plume. This observation along with studies
of ~150 km shortening of the Rangit window (Mitra et al., 2010) that contains the
Sikkim alkalic rocks suggests that the Kerguelen plume-generated flood basalt that
erupted in eastern India at 117 Ma, gave rise to a large igneous province that includes
the Rajmahal-Bengal-Sylhet Traps and the alkalic rocks in an around an area of
~1000 km in diameter. We suggest this volcanic province in northeastern India
constituted the major remnants of the Kerguelen plume head.

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