Professional Documents
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D E V E L O P M E N T ADMINISTRATION:
OBSTACLES, THEORIES
AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PLANNING
Peter W . Rodman
Development administration:
obstacles, theories, and implications for planning
by Peter W . Rodman
Development administration:
obstacles, theories
and implications for planning
H E P Occasional Papers
The studies in this series include papers contributed
by the Institute's staff, visiting fellows, interns and
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of them, in the Institute's view, are of sufficient in
terest to merit being re-issued and distributed on a
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By their very nature these papers are less formal and
have not been given the full editorial processing cus
tomary for H E P 'official publications'
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
ADMINISTRATIVE OBSTACLES
Shortages of skills and tools
Difficulties of organization and structure
Political difficulties
Cultural and attitude barriers
9
12
15
16
CONCEPTUAL F R A M E W O R K S
19
31
31
39
45
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INTRODUCTION
Development administration
ADMINISTRATIVE
OBSTACLES
Development administration
has stated that ten people are needed for 'support administration for every
one person at the top. (1) A n additional problem is that the emerging nations'
interest in foreign affairs absorbs m a n y of their skilled people, and this
further reduces the n u m b e r available for development tasks.,
Secondly, there is a great waste of the limited talent that is available for
administration. T h e r e are often large n u m b e r s of skilled people in administration, but with the w r o n g skills., e ga , people w h o studied liberal arts or law*
(The tradition of the a m a t e u r 'generalist' dies hard, ) These subjects have
prestige but little usefulness., and thus m a n y n e w administrators are in effect
untrained M u c h of the right kind of training is wasted because trainees seek
other w o r k or get no chance to use their skill. N e w schools and institutes for
the teaching of public administration are often provided, for both students and
teachers, for those people w h o can be spared from their w o r k , i, e0 , the least
useful. (2)
Another aspect or consequence of the shortage of personnel is the rapid turnover
in individual positions, as skilled m e n are shifted around from one position to
another. S o m e of it is voluntary, and due to the lack of uniform systems of pay,
classification, and advancement But m o s t of it is a relic of bygone days of the
generalist administrator, w h e n one administrative job w a s not basically different
from any other, and w h e n frequent rotation could broaden the generalist's outlook.
"But todajr, w h e n specialized experience takes time to
acquire, frequent transfers or transfers to positions w h e r e
there is no opportunity to use scarce skills, tend to aggravate the acute shortage of experienced managerial leadership, M o r e o v e r , because of frequent shifts in, or lack of,
staff, it has not been unusual to find projects languishing or
even abandoned. " (3)
T h e skill lacking is not m e r e l y advanced economic or administrative expertise,
but simple office skills: filing s y s t e m s , internal communications, trained
stenographers, clerks, accountants, etc Without the ability to preserve and
10
Administrative obstacles
H E P , 1964, p. 99.
(4) F r e d W . Riggs, 'Public Administration: A neglected
Factor in E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t ' , Annals of the A m e r i c a n
A c a d e m y of Political and Social Science, vol, 305 ( M a y 1956).
11
Development administration
(1) W a t e r s t o n , o p . cit. , p . 32 8.
(2) Ibid. , p p . 3 3 3 - 3 3 4 .
12
Administrative obstacles
Development administration
14
Administrative obstacles
Political difficulties
15
D e v e l o p m e n t administration
(1) D o n a l d C . Stone,
16
o p . cit. , p . 3 0 9 .
Administrative obstacles
T h e social status of the civil service, usually another part of the colonial
legacy, can be an important aspect of the bureaucracy's unsuitability for
change. M a n y countries, especially in Asia and Africa, have inherited the
European idea of the civil service as a privileged elite. F o r political and
other reasons, salaries and leave provisions geared to the living standards
of personnel from the metropolitan country are unlikely to be altered suddenly
w h e n native personnel take over. U p p e r Volta, for e x a m p l e , has 11,000 civil
servants w h o s e salaries total 13 per cent of the country's annual gross
domestic product. Another country gives tropical allowances to its o w n
nationals in the civil service because such allowances w e r e formerly given
to civil servants w h o c a m e from the metropolitan country. (1) T h e generous
leave provisions, (which m a y even allow teachers in government educational
institutions to take vacations during t e r m - t i m e ) are wasteful w h e n qualified
m a n p o w e r is in short supply. Ostentatious living, often far beyond the m e a n s
of the individual officials (let alone that of the country), represents a typical
political and psychological response to independence and the 'nativization' of
the civil service.
O n the other hand (for e x a m p l e , in India) an egalitarian a n d / o r economizing
reaction to the privileged status of colonial civil servants has often reduced
salaries and e m o l u m e n t s to a point which u n d e r m i n e s recruitment. T h e c o m plaint is often heard that low salaries and prestige discourage the entrance
of talented people and w e a k e n the m o r a l e and sense of responsibility of those
employed in the administration.
T h e elite and the underpaid (and the disadvantages of both) m a y coexist in the
s a m e bureaucracy, for colonial r e g i m e s often encouraged the class stratification of the indigenous personnel in the civil service. A native elite would float
near the top and the middle and lower echelons would attract the less privileged. It has been suggested, for e x a m p l e , that British rule strengthened the
caste system in India at least as m u c h as it w e a k e n e d it. Not only w e r e overall Hindu loyalties w e a k e n e d , but the rigidity, hierarchy, and impersonality
of bureaucracy w e r e suited to, and consolidated, the social structure of a
caste society. (2)
17
Development administration
Such cultural factors can be a m o n g the m o s t deep-rooted barriers to moderniza tion and they have their particularly administrative manifestations,, Plans m a y
fail to be implemented or to take root because the n e w institutions or patterns
of behaviour are incompatible with tradition F o r e x a m p l e , m a s s education
violates the tenets of a caste system. Resistance to change will be formidable
whether the incompatibility is real or imagined M o r e o v e r ; the focus of
loyalties in m o s t p r e - m o d e r n societies is the family or extended family (tribe,
clan, etc. ) or class. If the c o m m i t m e n t to the larger unit is w e a k , the motivation of individuals in the administration is likely to be inconsistent with national
goals. F o r e x a m p l e , the extended family m a y be the source of finance for a
young m a n ' s higher education. T h e recipient, in turn, once in a good job, is
expected to support the education of relations and find t h e m jobs. Such behaviour,
seen as nepotism and corruption in advanced societies, is seen as n o r m a l in
m o s t developing societies. (1)
L e s s striking cultural influences affect the h u m a n relations of m a n a g e m e n t .
A m o r e authoritarian tradition than the U . S. is accustomed to u n d e r m i n e s the
application of administrative principles that s e e m essential to A m e r i c a n s .
T h e 'participative' approach to m a n a g e m e n t is likely to produce disappointing
results with w o r k e r s w h o accept, and are accustomed to, closer supervision
and stricter pressure. But the authoritarian pattern suffers from the poor
feedback of information and criticism to supervisors. (2)
In general, personnel administration is supposed to ensure that the personal
motivation of e m p l o y e e s is channeled in socially beneficial directions. But
the absence of uniform s y s t e m s of examination, qualification, pay and classification, the lack of opportunity for advancement, the lack of job security,
and continuity, and the absence of satisfactory retirement provisions, are all
likely pre-conditions for corruption.
18
2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
2,
19
Development administration
20
Conceptual f r a m e w o r k s
21
Development administration
22
Conceptual f r a m e w o r k s
23
Development administration
The later versions of the theory adopted the transitional or prismatic type as
the frame of reference, though the fused and diffracted models are referred to
for explanatory purposes. The peculiar features of the prismatic society result
from the fact that new, modern systems displaced, but did not replace the old.
Modern forms merely conceal older realities: modern-looking institutions and
patterns of behaviour are enmeshed in the remnants of the old system. The gap
between form and reality, between structure and effective behaviour, he calls
'formalism' - the characteristic feature of prismatic societies.
For those who like to see interrelations expressed diagram m at i ally, he has
an elaborate 'equilibrium model' showing the administration in its environ
mental setting: (1)
24
'.
Conceptual frameworks
25
Development administration
Conceptual frameworks
In the prismatic model, formal rules and prescriptions (modern) are mocked
by political, economic, social, and cultural realities (pre-modern). This is
'formalism1. N e w organizations appear, associational in form, but traditionallyparticularistic in orientation. (He likens them to cliques, clubs, or sects, but
chooses to coin a new word, 'elects'. ) In the transition from a subsistence to a
market economy, paradoxical phenomena occur: the economy is actually a quasimarket (the 'bazaar-canteen' model), characterized by price-indeterminacy
because of the fact that personal, social, and political considerations of the
participants impinge on economic behaviour. C o m m e r c e is likely to be carried
on by a low-status pariah entrepreneur group (such as the overseas Chinese in
Southeast Asia): balance of power, prestige, and solidarity factors m a k e a
mockery of 'economic m a n ' . 'Competition' in the quasi-market is monopolistic
(the 'canteen'), and price changes reflect individual bargains (the 'bazaar').
These defects in the market impede economic rationalization and the collection
of revenue, which is one reason for the low official salaries. This, plus the
availability of bribes from pariah entrepreneurs seeking to escape discriminatory
laws, contributes to corruption in the administration. Particularistic 'elect'
loyalties give rise to nepotism and to favouritism in the allocation of government
services. In personnel management, a system of rank classification (as in
Thailand) or a heavy reliance upon formal educational credentials for civil
service eligibility (as in the Philippines) reflect 'attainment' norms - a compromise between older ascriptive criteria and new achievement orientations. In
short, the administration is only on the surface a reasonable facsimile of a
modern efficient bureaucracy.. Instead of the ideal 'bureau', where administrative efficiency and functional rationality are the main criteria, Riggs speaks of
the prismatic 'sala', where m a n y non-administrative criteria enter.
The administrative consequence of this pervasive formalism in the environment is that formal power is insufficient for effective control. And this is
not merely because of the lack of resources or the lack of technical skill the two difficulties which most foreign aid is designed to remedy. One would
guess that, the less diffracted the society, the m o r e powerful the bureaucracy
within that society. In Agraria the bureaucracy is the top ruling group and has
no competitors; as the society develops and differentiated groups appear, the
bureaucracy still has a head start. Ironically, this unchallenged political
power is the source of its great political weakness.
The administration will be inevitably engaged in politics to the extent that it is
the only societal body capable of formulating goals. To the extent that the
society is 'fused', the administration will be, not a technically specialized
instrument for executing the society's chosen policies* but one embodiment
of the whole, fused, political-economic-social-cultural structure. Thus it is
impossible to separate the 'administrative' from the 'political' in the role of
the administration or of the people in it. Policies will be formulated through
internal wrangling inside the administration: this weakens the efficiency of the
administrative system and thereby its ability to influence the outside.
27
Development administration
1 (June 1960).
28
Conceptual frameworks
But where change is forced from outside, these m a y be merely elites of powerholders, not of entrepreneurs They will not sacrifice consumption for produc
tive purposes; their wealth will not be accompanied by the higher productivity
that can eventually narrow the gap between rich and poor. Riggs argues that in
such situations power comes increasingly to be held by an economically dependent
elite which consumes m o r e wealth from the economy than it contributes by its
work. (For, as we have seen, the administrative contribution of this elite is an
empty, ineffectual form. ) The result he calls a 'dependency syndrome', a pro
gressive diminution of productivity, at the same time that the economy is b e c o m
ing m o r e developed, i. e interdependent Riggs here is borrowing Myrdal's law
of circular causation and pointing out that the environment is such that the h a r m
ful 'backwash' effects of development (e. g. parasitic elites) m a y overwhelm the
beneficial 'spread' effects (e. g. interdependence). Riggs seems acutely aware of
the fact that the process of change often m a k e s some things worse rather than
better. This is one reason that he chooses to define 'development' itself in a
neutral sense, i. e. as differentiation of structures, and to call a benevolent up
ward spiral 'positive development', and a downward spiral 'negative development'.
Riggs's analysis has implications also for the basic organizational question of
overcentralization. (1) W e saw that congestion at the top retards development,
and can see why m a n y writers advocate increased delegation of responsibility
to subordinates and to local administration. Local self-government in its various
forms (community development, panchayati raj in India, etc. , ) is thus commonly
cited as the key to progress. While not denying that over-centralization and the
inadequacy of local government are obstacles to development, Riggs points out
that they are effects, as well as causes, of stagnation. Enlightened central
governments have often tried to delegate responsibility to the local level, and
with disastrous results. Local autonomy will contribute to progress only when
the ecology is already favourable, and will accentuate the difficulties when it is
not. (Myrdal's law of circular causation again. ) In the latter case, centralized
control, whatever its defects, m a y be a necessary counteracting power.
Local government is weak partly because of the inheritance of the imperial
central government. A s a general rule, colonizing powers concentrated on national
and top provincial administration (although the British pattern of 'indirect rule'
left m o r e leeway to local government than the French 'direct rule'). This central
izing tendency is reinforced by the 'dependent' (parasitic) elites, who come to
power in the centre and seek to hold their power. But the 'supporter' (productive)
elites require strong central controls when they come to power, in order to launch
the beneficial 'spread' effects against the debilitating 'backwash' effects.
(1) Fred W 0 Riggs, 'Economic Development and Local
Administration: A Study in Circular Causation', Philippine
Journal of Public Administration, vol. 3, 1 (January 19 59).
29
Development administration
30
3 IMPLICATIONS F O R P L A N N I N G
31
Development administration
32
Such resignation m a y not be warranted. W e noted earlier that the interdisciplinary ecological approach is the characteristic feature of development
administration as a new departure, and that the justifying assumption of the
new study is that the traditional concepts of public administration are inadequate. But there are other people interested in development administration
who reject this assumption, explicitly or implicitly, wholly or in part. A s a
consequence, some of them are m o r e inclined to see development administration as merely an application of the field of public administration. More
importantly, however, they do not reach Riggs's pessimistic conclusions.
In 1961 the U . N . published A Handbook of Public Administration: Current
Concepts and Practice, with Special Reference to Developing Countries. This
was a monograph prepared by Herbert E m m e r i c h , professor at the University
of Virginia and now President of the International Institute of Administrative
Sciences. E m m e r i c h ' s Handbook recognizes the importance of ecology and
agrees that public administration must be considered as 'an integral part of
a nation's institutions'. But, in the words of a reviewer, 'the Handbook makes
the unmistakable assumption of cosmopolitan scope for precepts often indicated
as culture-bound'. (1) The Handbook explicitly claims only 'some degree of
worldwide and general validity' for the standard administrative prescriptions
it offers, but some of its specific recommendations clearly affirm the transcendent relevance of traditional administrative principles. In a detailed
section on 'contemporary concepts and practice', E m m e r i c h discusses:
organizational analysis; organizational structure; methods and material; the
career service; personnel administration; h u m a n relations, supervision and
training; decentralization, autonomous institutions and public enterprises;
budget and financial administration; research and planning; decision-making;
and public relations and reporting. The Handbook is a brief bible of administrative principles and techniques, and should be useful to administrators and
planners.
E m m e r i c h relies on the accommodation of the modern forms and the alien
settings to each other. He agrees that modernization of administration can be
carried through m o r e easily if cultural symbols and customary decorum are
accommodated. But the necessity for change is assumed: 'progress there must
be'. (2) It is clear which side is expected to do most of the accommodating.
(1) S h o r , o p . cit. , p . 1 6 2 .
(2) United N a t i o n s , T e c h n i c a l A s s i s t a n c e P r o g r a m ,
A H a n d b o o k of Public A d m i n i s t r a t i o n : C u r r e n t C o n c e p t s
a n d Practice, with special reference to D e v e l o p i n g
Countries, 1961, p. 12.
33
Development administration
34
35
Development administration
36
37
Development administration
38
39
Development administration
40
41
Development administration
42
43
SELECTED A N D ANNOTATED
BI B L I O G R A P H Y
I.
Development Administration
A.
45
Development administration
10
46
Bibliography
11
12
13
14
15
47
Development administration
.
16
Collections
17
18
19
48
Bibliography
,
20
CAG
22
23
24
49
Development administration
IL
25
26
27
28
III.
Public Administration
A.
29
INTERNATIONAL B A N K F O R R E C O N S T R U C T I O N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T ,
Summary and Major Findings and Recommendations of Twelve Survey
Missions, 1957.
Includes a section on public administration.
30
50
Bibliography
B.
51
Development administration
Bibliography
,
40
Case Studies
41
42
B R A I B A N T I , Ralph, and S P E N G L E R ,
and Economic Development in India.
IV.
44
ALDERFER,
Miscellaneous Topics
53
Development administration
V.
46
47
48
49
VI.
Periodicals
A.
Most important
50
51
52
54
Bibliography
Others
53
54
55
56
57
58
55
LIST O F INSTITUTIONS, P E O P L E ,
A N D SPECIALITIES
A.
56
B,
UNIVERSITY O F CALIFORNIA,
BERKELEY
57
Development administration
G E O R G E W A S H I N G T O N UNIVERSITY
B R O W N , David S. , Professor of Public Administration - technical
assistance in administration,
H A R V A R D UNIVERSITY
C U R L E , A d a m , - educational planning,
FAINSOD, Merle, Department of Government - administrative management
M O N T G O M E R Y , John D . , Graduate School of Public Administration foreign aid.
HAVERFORD COLLEGE
D I A M A N T , Alfred, Department of Political Science - comparative politics,
UNIVERSITY O F HAWAII, East-West Centre
W E I D N E R , Edward W t J Vice-Chancellor - development administration
theory technical assistance in administration overseas.
H E B R E W UNIVERSITY, J E R U S A L E M
D R O R , Yehezkel, Department of Political Science - behavioral sciences,
'decision-making' approach
EISENSTADT, Samuel N . , - sociology, politics
INTERNATIONAL B A N K F O R R E C O N S T R U C T I O N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T
W A T E R S T O N , Albert, Development Advisory Service - administration of
planning (author of case studies).
58
M A S S A C H U S E T T S INSTITUTE O F T E C H N O L O G Y ,
Centre for International Studies
H A G E N , Everett E . , Professor of Economics - economics of development
also psychology.
P Y E , Lucian W . , Chairman of Department of Political Science and
Senior Staff Member CIS - politics (especially Southeast Asia),
UNIVERSITY O F MICHIGAN
H E A D Y , Ferrel, Director, Institute of Public Administration comparative administration theory,,
P E N N S Y L V A N I A S T A T E UNIVERSITY
T H U R B E R , Clarence E . , Institute of Public Administration - administrative training.
UNIVERSITY O F PITTSBURGH, Graduate School of Public and
International Affairs
S T O N E , Donald C . , Dean - public administration, urban administration,
education.
K A T Z , Saul M . , Associate Professor Economic and Social Development and Associate Professor of Agricultural Economics - development administration theory ('systems approach').
E S M A N , Milton, Head of Economic and Social Development Department politics (experience with AID, Southeast Asia),
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
REINING Jr. , Henry, Dean and Professor of Public Administration universities' role in technical assistance and administrative training.
59
Development administration
V A N D E R B I L T UNIVERSITY
D O R S E Y Jr. , John T . , Department of Political Science - comparative
politics. Latin America^ 'information-energy' theory.
UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA
E M M E R I C H , Herbert, Professor (and President of the International
Institute of Administrative Sciences) - public administration (also
business, housing, foreign aid). Author of 1961 U . N . Handbook on
Standard Administrative Concepts and Practice.
Y A L E UNIVERSITY
K A U F M A N , Herbert, Department of Political Science - comparative
administration theory (Sayre-Kaufman Research Design 19 53),
behavioral-science approach.
LA P A L O M B A R A , Joseph, Department of Political Science - comparative
political institutions and behaviour, comparative administration, and
research concepts and methods.
60