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Transient Heat

Conduction

Lecture 01

Governing Heat Conduction Equation


Assuming k = constant,

q&
1 T
T +
=
k
t
2

For 1-D conduction (x) and no internal heat generation,

2T 1 T
=
2
x
t
Solution, T(x,t) , requires two BCs and an initial condition

Transient Conduction
Many heat transfer problems are time dependent
Changes in operating conditions in a system cause temperature
variation with time, as well as location within a solid, until a new steady
state (thermal equilibrium) is obtained.
In this chapter we will develop procedures for determining the time
dependence of the temperature distribution
Real problems may include finite and semi-infinite solids, or complex
geometries, as well as two and three dimensional conduction
Solution techniques involve the lumped capacitance method, exact
and approximate solutions, and finite difference methods.
 We will focus on the Lumped Capacitance Method, which can be used
for solids within which temperature gradients are negligible (Sections
5.1-5.3)

Transient Conduction
Transient = Unsteady (time-dependent )
Examples

Very short time scale: hot wire anemometry (< 1 ms)


Short time scale: quenching of metallic parts (seconds)
Intermediate time scale: baking cookies (minutes)
Long time scale daily heating/cooling of atmosphere (hours)
Very long time scale: seasonal heating/cooling of the earths surface
(months)

Lumped Capacitance Method


Consider a solid that is initially at a uniform temperature, Ti , and at t=0
is quenched by immersion in a cool liquid, of lower temperature T
 The temperature of the solid will decrease for time t>0, due to
convection heat transfer at the solid-liquid interface, until it reaches T
T
t=0

T ( x,0) = Ti

Lumped Capacitance Method


If the thermal conductivity of the solid is very high, resistance to
conduction within the solid will be small compared to resistance to
heat transfer between solid and surroundings.
Temperature gradients within the solid will be negligible, i.e. the
temperature of the solid is spatially uniform at any instant.
T

T ( x,0) = Ti

Lumped Capacitance Method


Starting from an overall energy balance on the solid: E& out = E& st

hAs (T T ) = Vc

hAs
T T
t
=
= exp
i Ti T
Vc

dT
dt
(1)

where

= T T
i = Ti T

 Lets define a thermal time constant

1
t =
hAs

(Vc ) = Rt Ct

(2)

Rt is the resistance to
convection heat transfer
Ct is the lumped thermal
capacitance of the solid

Transient Temperature Response


Based on eq. (1) the temperature difference between solid and fluid
decays exponentially.

Transient Temperature Response


From eq. (1) the time required
for the solid to reach a
temperature T is:

Vc i
t=
ln
hAs

(3)

The total energy transfer, Q, occurring up to some time t is:


t

Q = q dt = hAS dt =(Vc ) i [1 exp( t / t )]


0

= T T
i = Ti T

(4)

Validity of Lumped Capacitance Method


Surface energy balance:

Ts,1

qcond

qconv

qcond = qconv
kA
(Ts.1 Ts,2 ) = hA(Ts,2 T )
L

Ts,2
T

Validity of Lumped Capacitance Method


(Rearranging the equation in the previous slide)

Tsolid ( due to conduction)


Ts,1 Ts,2
(L / kA) Rcond hL
=
=
=
=
Bi
Ts,2 T Tsolid / liquid ( due to convection) (1 / hA ) Rconv
k

? What is the relative magnitude of T solid versus T solid/liquid for the


lumped capacitance method to be valid?

Biot Number
The Biot number is a dimensionless parameter that indicates the relative
importance of conduction and convection heat transfer processes:

Bi

hL
=
k
L kA
=
1 hA

t , cond

t , conv

Practical implications of Bi << 1: objects may heat/cool in an isothermal


manner if
they are small and metallic
they are cooled/heated by natural convection in a gas (e.g., air)

Biot and Fourier Numbers


 The lumped capacitance method is
valid when

hL
Bi = c < 0.1
k

where the characteristic length:


Lc=V/As=Volume of solid/surface area

We can also define a dimensionless time, the Fourier number:

t
Fo = 2
Lc

where

Eq. (1) becomes:

T T
=
= exp[ Bi Fo]
i Ti T

k
=
c

True or False?

A hot solid will cool down faster when it is cooled by forced convection in
water rather than in air.

For the same solid, the lumped capacitance method is likely more applicable
when it is being cooled by forced convection in air than in water.

The lumped capacitance method is likely more applicable for cooling of a hot
solid made of aluminum (k=237 W/m.K) than copper (k=400 W/m.K)

The transient response is accelerated by a decrease in the specific heat of the


solid.

The physical meaning of the Biot number is that it represents the relative
magnitude of resistance due to conduction and resistance due to convection.

General LCM
LCM can be applied to systems with convection, radiation, and
heat flux boundary conditions and internal heat generation

Forced convection, h = constant


Natural convection, h = C(T-T)1/4
Radiation (eqn. 5.18)
Convection and radiation (requires numerical integration)
Forced convection with constant surface heat flux or internal heat
generation (eqn. 5.25)

(Note that the Biot number must be redefined when effects


other than convection are included)

Spatial Effects (Bi > 0.1)


LCM not valid since temperature gradient within solid is
significant
Need to solve heat conduction equation with applied
boundary conditions
1-D transient conduction family of solutions:
Uniform, symmetric convection applied to plane wall, long
cylinder, sphere (sections 5.4-5.6)
Semi-infinite solid with various BCs (section 5.7)
Superposition of 1-D solutions for multidimensional conduction
(section 5.8)

Example (Problem 5.7 Textbook)


The heat transfer coefficient for air flowing over a sphere is to be
determined by observing the temperature-time history of a sphere
fabricated from pure copper. The sphere, which is 12.7 mm in
diameter, is at 66C before it is inserted into an air stream having a
temperature of 27C. A thermocouple on the outer surface of the
sphere indicates 55C, 69 s after the sphere is inserted in the air
stream.
 Calculate the heat transfer coefficient, assuming that the sphere
behaves as a spacewise isothermal object. Is your assumption
reasonable?

17

What if?
What happens to the rate of cooling if h increases?
What happens to the rate of cooling if the diameter of the sphere
increases?
What happens if we have a huge sphere?

General Lumped Capacitance Analysis


In the general case we may have
convection, radiation, internal energy
generation and an applied heat flux. The
energy balance becomes:

Tsur
E& gen , E& st

"
s

q As,h

dT
"
"
&
+ Eg (qconv + qrad )As ( c ,r ) = Vc
dt

 Numerical solutions are generally required


 Simplified solutions exist for no imposed
heat flux or generation.

qs

qrad
T, h
qconv

As,h

As(c,r)

Example 5.2

Calculation of the steady state temperature of the thermocouple junction.


How much time is needed for the temperature to increase from 25C to within
1C from its steady state value?

Example 5.2

Example (5.33)
Microwave ovens operate by rapidly aligning and reversing water molecules
within the food, resulting in volumetric energy generation.
(a) Consider a frozen 1-kg spherical piece of ground beef at an initial temperature
of Ti=-20C. Determine how long it will take the beef to reach a uniform
temperature of T=0C, with all the water in the form of ice. Assume that 3% of
the oven power (P=1kW total) is absorbed by the food.
(b) After all the ice is converted to liquid, determine how long it will take to heat
the beef to Tf=80C, if 95% of the oven power is absorbed.

Other transient problems


When the lumped capacitance analysis is not valid, we must solve the
partial differential equations analytically or numerically
Exact and approximate solutions may be used
Tabulated values of coefficients used in the solutions of these
equations are available
Transient temperature distributions for commonly encountered
problems involving semi-infinite solids can be found in the literature

Summary
The lumped capacitance analysis can be used when the temperature
of the solid is spatially uniform at any instant during a transient
process
 Temperature gradients within the solid are negligible
 Resistance to conduction within the solid is small compared to the
resistance to heat transfer between the solid and the surroundings

The Biot number must be less 0.1 for the lumped capacitance analysis
to be valid.
Transient conduction problems are characterized by the Biot and the
Fourier numbers.

Transient Heat
Conduction

Lecture 02

TRANSIENT (UNSTEADY) HEAT TRANSFER


Review
Many heat transfer problems require the understanding of the
complete time history of the temperature variation. For
example, in metallurgy, the heat treatment process can be
controlled to produce specified characteristics of the processed
materials. Annealing (slow cooling) can soften metals and
improve ductility. On the other hand, quenching (rapid cooling)
can harden the boundary and increase strength. In order to
characterize this transient behavior, the full unsteady equation
should be modeled:

T
1 T
2
c
= k T , or
= 2T
t
t
k
where =
is the thermal diffusivity
c

TRANSIENT (UNSTEADY) HEAT TRANSFER


A heated/cooled body at Ti is suddenly exposed to fluid at T with a known
heat transfer coefficient . Either evaluate the temperature at a given time, or
find time for a given temperature.

Q: How good an approximation would it be to say the bar is isothermal?


A: Depends on the relative importance of the thermal conductivity in the thermal
circuit compared to the convective heat transfer coefficient.

TRANSIENT (UNSTEADY) HEAT TRANSFER


Biot Number (Bi)
Defined to describe the relative resistance in a thermal circuit

hLc Lc / kA
Internal conduction resistance within solid
Bi =
=
=
k
1 / hA
External convection resistance at body surface
Lc is a characteristic length of the body
Bi0: No conduction resistance at all. The body is isothermal.
Small Bi: Conduction resistance is less important. The body may still be
approximated as isothermal (purple temp. plot in figure)
Lumped capacitance analysis can be performed.
Large Bi: Conduction resistance is significant. The body cannot be treated as
isothermal (blue temp. plot in figure).

TRANSIENT (UNSTEADY) HEAT TRANSFER


Transient heat transfer with no internal resistance: Lumped
Parameter Analysis
Valid for Bi < 0.1

Solid

Total Resistance= Rexternal + Rinternal


GE:

dT
hA
=
(T T )
dt
mc p

BC:

T (t = 0 ) = Ti

Solution: let = T T , therefore

d
hA
=

dt
mc p

Lumped Parameter Analysis


i = Ti T

hA
ln
t
=
i
mc p

=e
i

hA
t
mc p

t
T T
=e
Ti T

mc p
hA

- To determine the temperature at a given time, or


- To determine the time required for the
temperature to reach a specified value.

Note: Temperature is a function of time only and not of space!

Lumped Parameter Analysis

T T
hA
T=
= exp(
t)
T0 T
cV

hA

hLc k 1 1
t =
t = Bi 2 t

cV
Lc
k c Lc Lc
Thermal diffusivity:

k

c

(m s-1)

Lumped Parameter Analysis


Define Fourier number [Fo] (a dimensionless time)

Fo

Lc

t
2

and Biot number

hLC
Bi
k

The temperature variation can be expressed as

T ~ exp(-Bi*Fo)
where Lc is a characteristic length scale : realte to the size of the solid invloved in the problem
r
Lc = o (half - radius) when the solid is a cylinder.
2
r
Lc = o (one - third radius) when the solid is sphere
3
Lc = L (half thickness) when the solid is aplane wall with a 2L thickness

Spatial Effects and Analytical Solutions


The Plane Wall: Solution to the Heat Equation for a Plane Wall with
Symmetrical Convection Conditions

1 T 2T
= 2
a x
T ( x, 0) = Ti
T
x

=0
x=0

T
k
x

= h[T ( L, t ) T ]
x=L

Spatial Effects and Analytical Solutions


The Plane Wall:
Note: Once spatial variability of temperature is included, there are seven
different independent variables that need to resolved.

How does one simplify the functional dependence on 7 variables?


The answer is to use Non-dimensional Parameters. We first need to
understand the physics behind the phenomenon, identify parameters
governing the process, and group them into meaningful nondimensional numbers.

Spatial Effects and Analytical Solutions


Dimensionless temperature difference:
*
Dimensionless coordinate: x =

Dimensionless time:

t* =

The Biot Number:

Bi =

x
L

* =

T T
=
i Ti T

= Fo

hLc
k solid

The solution of the temperature distribution will now be a function of the other
non-dimensional quantities
*
*

= f ( x , Fo, Bi )

Exact Solution:
Cn =

= C n exp( n2 Fo )cos( n x * )
*

4 sin n
2 n + sin(2 n )

n =1

n tan n = Bi

The roots (eigenvalues) of the equation can be obtained from tables given in
standard textbooks.

Spatial Effects and Analytical Solutions


The One-Term Approximation Fo > 0.2
Variation of mid-plane temperature with time

0* =

Fo ( x * = 0)

T T
C1 exp( 12 Fo )
Ti T

From tables given in standard textbooks, one can obtain


as a function of Bi.
Variation of temperature with location ( x * )

C1

and

and time ( Fo ):

* = 0* = cos( 1 x * )
Change in thermal energy storage with time:

E st = Q
sin 1 *
0
Q = Q0 1
1

Q0 = cV (Ti T )

Spatial Effects and Analytical Solutions


Graphical Representation of the One-Term Approximation:
The Heisler Charts:
Midplane Temperature

Spatial Effects and Analytical Solutions


Temperature Distribution
Change in Thermal Energy Storage

Assumptions in using Heisler charts:


Constant Ti and thermal properties over the body
Constant boundary fluid temperature, T
Simple geometry: slab, cylinder or sphere

Radial Systems
Long Rods or Spheres Heated or Cooled by Convection

Similar Heisler charts are available for radial systems in standard


textbooks.

Important tips: Pay attention to the length scale used in


those charts, and calculate your Biot number accordingly.

Unsteady Heat Transfer in Semiinfinite Solids


 Solidification process of the coating layer during a thermal spray
operation is an unsteady heat transfer problem. As we discuss
earlier, thermal spray process deposits thin layer of coating
materials on surface for protection and thermal resistant purposes,
as shown. The heated, molten materials will attach to the substrate
and cool down rapidly. The cooling process is important to prevent
the accumulation of residual thermal stresses in the coating layer.

Unsteady Heat Transfer in Semi-infinite


Solids (cont.)

liquid
Coating with density ,
latent heat of fusion: hsf

S(t)
solid

Substrate, k,

Example
As described in the previous slide, the cooling process can
now be modeled as heat loss through a semi-infinite solid.
(Since the substrate is significantly thicker than the coating
layer) The molten material is at the fusion temperature Tf and
the substrate is maintained at a constant temperature Ti.
Derive an expression for the total time that is required to
solidify the coating layer of thickness d.

Example (cont.)
 Assume the molten layer stays at a constant temperature Tf
throughout the process. The heat loss to the substrate is solely
supplied by the release of the latent heat of fusion.

From energy balance:


hsf m (solidified mass during t) = Q = q" At (energy input)
dm
= q" A, where m = V = AS,
dt
where S is solidified thickness
h sf

Heat transfer from


the molten material
to the substrate
(q = qA)

dS
= q"
dt

Example (cont.)

Identify that the previous situation corresponds to the


case of a semi-infinite transient heat transfer problem
with a constant surface temperature boundary
condition. This boundary condition can be modeled
as a special case of convection boundary condition
case by setting h = , therefore, Ts=T).

Example (cont.)
If the surface temperature is Ts and the initial temperature of
the bolck is Ti , the analytical solution of the problem can be found:
The temperature distribution and the heat transfer into the block are:
T(x,t)-Ts
x
, where erf( ) is the Gaussian error function.
= erf

Ti Ts
2 t
2 w v2
It is defined as erf(w)=
e dv

k(Ts Ti )
qs"(t)=
t

Example (cont.)
From the previous equation

dS
k(Tf Ti )
k(Tf Ti ) dt
hsf
=q"=
, and dS =

dt
t

h
t
0
sf
0

hsf
2k(Tf Ti )
(t ) =
t , therefore, t. Cooling time t = 2
4k T f Ti
hsf
Use the following values to calculate: k=120 W/m.K, =410-5 m2/s,
=3970 kg/m3, and hsf=3.577 106 J/kg, Tf=2318 K, Ti=300K, and =2
mm

Example (cont.)
2k(Tf Ti )
(t ) =
t = 0.00304 t
hsf
0.004
0.003

( t )0.002
0.001
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

 (t) t1/2
 Therefore, the layer solidifies
very fast initially and then slows
down as shown in the figure
 Note: we neglect contact
resistance between the coating and
the
substrate
and
assume
temperature of the coating material
stays the same even after it
solidifies.

 To solidify 2 mm thickness, it takes 0.43 seconds.

Example (cont.)

 What will be the substrate temperature as it varies in time? The


temperature distribution is:

T ( x, t ) TS
= erf
Ti TS

,
2 t

x
T ( x, t ) = 2318 + (300 2318)erf
= 2318 2018erf
2 t

79.06

Example (cont.)
For a fixed distance away from the surface, we can examine the
variation of the temperature as a function of time. Example, 1
cm deep into the substrate the temperature should behave as:

T ( x = 0.01, t ) = 2318 2018erf 79.06

x
0.79
= 2318 2018erf
t
t

Example (cont.)
2000

 At x=1 cm, the temperature

Temperature

1600
T1( t )

rises almost instantaneously at a

1200
T2( t )

very fast rate. A short time later,

800
T3( t )

the rate of temp. increase slows

400
0

down significantly since the


0

6
t
Time

x=1 cm
x=2 cm
x=3 cm

10

energy has to distribute to a very


large mass.
 At deeper depth (x=2 & 3
cm), the temperature will not
respond to the surface condition
until much later.

Example (cont.)
 We can also examine the spatial temperature distribution at
any given time, say at t=1 second.
T ( x , t = 1) = 2318 2018erf 79.06 x = 2318 2018erf 79.06 x
t
Temperature (K)

3000

T1( x ) 2000
T2( x )
T3( x ) 1000

0.01

0.02

0.03

x
distance (m)

t=1 s.
t=5 s.
t=10 s.

0.04 0.05

 Heat penetrates into the


substrate as shown for different
time instants.
 It takes more than 5 seconds
for the energy to transfer to a
depth of 5 cm into the substrate
 The slopes of the temperature
profiles indicate the amount of
conduction heat transfer at that
instant.

Unsteady Heat Transfer in Semi-infinite


Solids (cont.)
The governing equation (GE):

2T 1 T
=
2
x
t
Three cases of boundary conditions (BC):

Unsteady Heat Transfer in Semi-infinite


Solids (cont.)
Case 1:
Constant surface
temperature

Case 2:
Constant surface heat flux

Case 3:
Surface convection

Numerical Methods for Unsteady Heat

Transfer
 Unsteady heat transfer equation, no generation, constant k, twodimensional in Cartesian coordinate:

1 T 2T 2T
= 2 + 2
t x
y
 We have learned how to discretize the Laplacian operator into system of
finite difference equations using nodal network. For the unsteady
problem, the temperature variation with time needs to be discretized too.
To be consistent with the notation from the book, we choose to analyze the
time variation in small time increment t, such that the real time t=pt.
The time differentiation can be approximated as:

T
t

m ,n

TmP,n+1 TmP,n
, while m & n correspond to nodal location

such that x=mx, and y=ny as introduced earlier.

Finite Difference Equations


m,n+1
m-1,n

m,n

m+1, n

m,n-1
 From the nodal network to the left, the heat equation can be written
in finite difference form:

Finite Difference Equations (cont.)


P +1
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
1 Tm ,n Tm ,n Tm+1,n + Tm 1,n 2Tm ,n Tm ,n +1 + Tm ,n 1 2Tm ,n
=
+
2

t
( x )
( y ) 2

Assume x=y and the discretized Fourier number Fo=

( x )

TmP,n+1 = Fo (TmP+1,n + TmP1,n + TmP,n +1 + TmP,n 1 ) + (1 4 Fo)TmP,n


This is the explicit, finite difference equation for a 2-D,
unsteady heat transfer equation.
The temperature at time p+1 is explicitly expressed as a
function of neighboring temperatures at an earlier time p

Nodal Equations

Some common nodal configurations are listed in a table for your


reference. On the third column of the table, there is a stability
criterion for each nodal configuration. This criterion has to be
satisfied for the finite difference solution to be stable. Otherwise,
the solution may diverge and never reach the final solution.

Nodal Equations (cont.)


 For example, Fo1/4. That is, t/(x)2 1/4 and
t(1/4)(x)2. Therefore, the time increment has to be small
enough in order to maintain stability of the solution.
 This criterion can also be interpreted as that we should require
the coefficient for TPm,n in the finite difference equation to be
greater than or equal to zero.
 Question: Why this can be a problem? Can we just make time
increment as small as possible to avoid it?

Finite Difference Solution


Question: How do we solve the finite difference equation?
 First, by specifying initial conditions for all points in the nodal
network. That is to specify values for all temperature at time level
p=0.
 Important: check stability criterion for each point.
From the explicit equation, we can determine the nodal
temperatures at the next time level p+1=0+1=1. The following
transient response can then be determined at time steps; p+2, p+3,
and so on.

Example
 Example: A flat plate at an initial temperature of 100C. is suddenly
immersed into a cold temperature bath of 0C. Use the unsteady finite
difference equation to determine the transient response of the temperature
of the plate.
L(thickness)=0.02 m, k=10 W/m.K, =1010-6 m2/s,
h=1000 W/m2.K, Ti=100C, T=0C, x=0.01 m
x Bi=(hx)/k=1, Fo=(t)/(x)2=0.1
1
There are three nodal points: 1 interior and two
3
2
exterior points: For node 2, it satisfies the case 1
configuration in table.

T2P +1 = Fo(T1P + T3P + T2P + T2P ) + (1 4 Fo)T2P = Fo(T1P + T3P ) + (1 2 Fo)T2P


= 0.1(T1P + T3P ) + 0.8T2P
1
Stability criterion: 1-2Fo 0 or Fo=0.1 ,it is satisfied
2

Example
For nodes 1 & 3, they are consistent with the case 3 in table.
Node 1: T1P +1 = Fo(2T2P + T1P + T1P + 2 BiT ) + (1 4 Fo 2 BiFo)T1P
= Fo(2T2P + 2 BiT ) + (1 2 Fo 2 BiFo)T1P = 0.2T2P + 0.6T1P
Node 3: T3P +1 = 0.2T2P + 0.6T3P

System of equations

1
Fo(1 + Bi ) = 0.2 and it is satisfied
2
Use initial condition, T10 = T20 = T30 = 100,

T1P +1 = 0.2T2P + 0.6T1P

T11 = 0.2T20 + 0.6T10 = 80

T2P +1 = 0.1(T1P + T3P ) + 0.8T2P

T21 = 0.1(T10 + T30 ) + 0.8T20 = 100

T3P +1 = 0.2T2P + 0.6T3P

T31 = 0.2T20 + 0.6T30 = 80

Stability criterion: (1-2Fo-2BiFo) 0,

Marching in time, T11 = T31 = 80, T21 = 100


T12 = 0.2T21 + 0.6T11 = 0.2(100) + 0.6(80) = 68
T22 = 0.1(T11 + T31 ) + 0.8T21 = 0.1(80 + 80) + 0.8(100) = 96
T32 = 0.2T21 + 0.6T31 = 0.2(100) + 0.6(80) = 68, and so on

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