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Conduction
Lecture 01
q&
1 T
T +
=
k
t
2
2T 1 T
=
2
x
t
Solution, T(x,t) , requires two BCs and an initial condition
Transient Conduction
Many heat transfer problems are time dependent
Changes in operating conditions in a system cause temperature
variation with time, as well as location within a solid, until a new steady
state (thermal equilibrium) is obtained.
In this chapter we will develop procedures for determining the time
dependence of the temperature distribution
Real problems may include finite and semi-infinite solids, or complex
geometries, as well as two and three dimensional conduction
Solution techniques involve the lumped capacitance method, exact
and approximate solutions, and finite difference methods.
We will focus on the Lumped Capacitance Method, which can be used
for solids within which temperature gradients are negligible (Sections
5.1-5.3)
Transient Conduction
Transient = Unsteady (time-dependent )
Examples
T ( x,0) = Ti
T ( x,0) = Ti
hAs (T T ) = Vc
hAs
T T
t
=
= exp
i Ti T
Vc
dT
dt
(1)
where
= T T
i = Ti T
1
t =
hAs
(Vc ) = Rt Ct
(2)
Rt is the resistance to
convection heat transfer
Ct is the lumped thermal
capacitance of the solid
Vc i
t=
ln
hAs
(3)
= T T
i = Ti T
(4)
Ts,1
qcond
qconv
qcond = qconv
kA
(Ts.1 Ts,2 ) = hA(Ts,2 T )
L
Ts,2
T
Biot Number
The Biot number is a dimensionless parameter that indicates the relative
importance of conduction and convection heat transfer processes:
Bi
hL
=
k
L kA
=
1 hA
t , cond
t , conv
hL
Bi = c < 0.1
k
t
Fo = 2
Lc
where
T T
=
= exp[ Bi Fo]
i Ti T
k
=
c
True or False?
A hot solid will cool down faster when it is cooled by forced convection in
water rather than in air.
For the same solid, the lumped capacitance method is likely more applicable
when it is being cooled by forced convection in air than in water.
The lumped capacitance method is likely more applicable for cooling of a hot
solid made of aluminum (k=237 W/m.K) than copper (k=400 W/m.K)
The physical meaning of the Biot number is that it represents the relative
magnitude of resistance due to conduction and resistance due to convection.
General LCM
LCM can be applied to systems with convection, radiation, and
heat flux boundary conditions and internal heat generation
17
What if?
What happens to the rate of cooling if h increases?
What happens to the rate of cooling if the diameter of the sphere
increases?
What happens if we have a huge sphere?
Tsur
E& gen , E& st
"
s
q As,h
dT
"
"
&
+ Eg (qconv + qrad )As ( c ,r ) = Vc
dt
qs
qrad
T, h
qconv
As,h
As(c,r)
Example 5.2
Example 5.2
Example (5.33)
Microwave ovens operate by rapidly aligning and reversing water molecules
within the food, resulting in volumetric energy generation.
(a) Consider a frozen 1-kg spherical piece of ground beef at an initial temperature
of Ti=-20C. Determine how long it will take the beef to reach a uniform
temperature of T=0C, with all the water in the form of ice. Assume that 3% of
the oven power (P=1kW total) is absorbed by the food.
(b) After all the ice is converted to liquid, determine how long it will take to heat
the beef to Tf=80C, if 95% of the oven power is absorbed.
Summary
The lumped capacitance analysis can be used when the temperature
of the solid is spatially uniform at any instant during a transient
process
Temperature gradients within the solid are negligible
Resistance to conduction within the solid is small compared to the
resistance to heat transfer between the solid and the surroundings
The Biot number must be less 0.1 for the lumped capacitance analysis
to be valid.
Transient conduction problems are characterized by the Biot and the
Fourier numbers.
Transient Heat
Conduction
Lecture 02
T
1 T
2
c
= k T , or
= 2T
t
t
k
where =
is the thermal diffusivity
c
hLc Lc / kA
Internal conduction resistance within solid
Bi =
=
=
k
1 / hA
External convection resistance at body surface
Lc is a characteristic length of the body
Bi0: No conduction resistance at all. The body is isothermal.
Small Bi: Conduction resistance is less important. The body may still be
approximated as isothermal (purple temp. plot in figure)
Lumped capacitance analysis can be performed.
Large Bi: Conduction resistance is significant. The body cannot be treated as
isothermal (blue temp. plot in figure).
Solid
dT
hA
=
(T T )
dt
mc p
BC:
T (t = 0 ) = Ti
d
hA
=
dt
mc p
hA
ln
t
=
i
mc p
=e
i
hA
t
mc p
t
T T
=e
Ti T
mc p
hA
T T
hA
T=
= exp(
t)
T0 T
cV
hA
hLc k 1 1
t =
t = Bi 2 t
cV
Lc
k c Lc Lc
Thermal diffusivity:
k
c
(m s-1)
Fo
Lc
t
2
hLC
Bi
k
T ~ exp(-Bi*Fo)
where Lc is a characteristic length scale : realte to the size of the solid invloved in the problem
r
Lc = o (half - radius) when the solid is a cylinder.
2
r
Lc = o (one - third radius) when the solid is sphere
3
Lc = L (half thickness) when the solid is aplane wall with a 2L thickness
1 T 2T
= 2
a x
T ( x, 0) = Ti
T
x
=0
x=0
T
k
x
= h[T ( L, t ) T ]
x=L
Dimensionless time:
t* =
Bi =
x
L
* =
T T
=
i Ti T
= Fo
hLc
k solid
The solution of the temperature distribution will now be a function of the other
non-dimensional quantities
*
*
= f ( x , Fo, Bi )
Exact Solution:
Cn =
= C n exp( n2 Fo )cos( n x * )
*
4 sin n
2 n + sin(2 n )
n =1
n tan n = Bi
The roots (eigenvalues) of the equation can be obtained from tables given in
standard textbooks.
0* =
Fo ( x * = 0)
T T
C1 exp( 12 Fo )
Ti T
C1
and
and time ( Fo ):
* = 0* = cos( 1 x * )
Change in thermal energy storage with time:
E st = Q
sin 1 *
0
Q = Q0 1
1
Q0 = cV (Ti T )
Radial Systems
Long Rods or Spheres Heated or Cooled by Convection
liquid
Coating with density ,
latent heat of fusion: hsf
S(t)
solid
Substrate, k,
Example
As described in the previous slide, the cooling process can
now be modeled as heat loss through a semi-infinite solid.
(Since the substrate is significantly thicker than the coating
layer) The molten material is at the fusion temperature Tf and
the substrate is maintained at a constant temperature Ti.
Derive an expression for the total time that is required to
solidify the coating layer of thickness d.
Example (cont.)
Assume the molten layer stays at a constant temperature Tf
throughout the process. The heat loss to the substrate is solely
supplied by the release of the latent heat of fusion.
dS
= q"
dt
Example (cont.)
Example (cont.)
If the surface temperature is Ts and the initial temperature of
the bolck is Ti , the analytical solution of the problem can be found:
The temperature distribution and the heat transfer into the block are:
T(x,t)-Ts
x
, where erf( ) is the Gaussian error function.
= erf
Ti Ts
2 t
2 w v2
It is defined as erf(w)=
e dv
k(Ts Ti )
qs"(t)=
t
Example (cont.)
From the previous equation
dS
k(Tf Ti )
k(Tf Ti ) dt
hsf
=q"=
, and dS =
dt
t
h
t
0
sf
0
hsf
2k(Tf Ti )
(t ) =
t , therefore, t. Cooling time t = 2
4k T f Ti
hsf
Use the following values to calculate: k=120 W/m.K, =410-5 m2/s,
=3970 kg/m3, and hsf=3.577 106 J/kg, Tf=2318 K, Ti=300K, and =2
mm
Example (cont.)
2k(Tf Ti )
(t ) =
t = 0.00304 t
hsf
0.004
0.003
( t )0.002
0.001
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
(t) t1/2
Therefore, the layer solidifies
very fast initially and then slows
down as shown in the figure
Note: we neglect contact
resistance between the coating and
the
substrate
and
assume
temperature of the coating material
stays the same even after it
solidifies.
Example (cont.)
T ( x, t ) TS
= erf
Ti TS
,
2 t
x
T ( x, t ) = 2318 + (300 2318)erf
= 2318 2018erf
2 t
79.06
Example (cont.)
For a fixed distance away from the surface, we can examine the
variation of the temperature as a function of time. Example, 1
cm deep into the substrate the temperature should behave as:
x
0.79
= 2318 2018erf
t
t
Example (cont.)
2000
Temperature
1600
T1( t )
1200
T2( t )
800
T3( t )
400
0
6
t
Time
x=1 cm
x=2 cm
x=3 cm
10
Example (cont.)
We can also examine the spatial temperature distribution at
any given time, say at t=1 second.
T ( x , t = 1) = 2318 2018erf 79.06 x = 2318 2018erf 79.06 x
t
Temperature (K)
3000
T1( x ) 2000
T2( x )
T3( x ) 1000
0.01
0.02
0.03
x
distance (m)
t=1 s.
t=5 s.
t=10 s.
0.04 0.05
2T 1 T
=
2
x
t
Three cases of boundary conditions (BC):
Case 2:
Constant surface heat flux
Case 3:
Surface convection
Transfer
Unsteady heat transfer equation, no generation, constant k, twodimensional in Cartesian coordinate:
1 T 2T 2T
= 2 + 2
t x
y
We have learned how to discretize the Laplacian operator into system of
finite difference equations using nodal network. For the unsteady
problem, the temperature variation with time needs to be discretized too.
To be consistent with the notation from the book, we choose to analyze the
time variation in small time increment t, such that the real time t=pt.
The time differentiation can be approximated as:
T
t
m ,n
TmP,n+1 TmP,n
, while m & n correspond to nodal location
m,n
m+1, n
m,n-1
From the nodal network to the left, the heat equation can be written
in finite difference form:
t
( x )
( y ) 2
( x )
Nodal Equations
Example
Example: A flat plate at an initial temperature of 100C. is suddenly
immersed into a cold temperature bath of 0C. Use the unsteady finite
difference equation to determine the transient response of the temperature
of the plate.
L(thickness)=0.02 m, k=10 W/m.K, =1010-6 m2/s,
h=1000 W/m2.K, Ti=100C, T=0C, x=0.01 m
x Bi=(hx)/k=1, Fo=(t)/(x)2=0.1
1
There are three nodal points: 1 interior and two
3
2
exterior points: For node 2, it satisfies the case 1
configuration in table.
Example
For nodes 1 & 3, they are consistent with the case 3 in table.
Node 1: T1P +1 = Fo(2T2P + T1P + T1P + 2 BiT ) + (1 4 Fo 2 BiFo)T1P
= Fo(2T2P + 2 BiT ) + (1 2 Fo 2 BiFo)T1P = 0.2T2P + 0.6T1P
Node 3: T3P +1 = 0.2T2P + 0.6T3P
System of equations
1
Fo(1 + Bi ) = 0.2 and it is satisfied
2
Use initial condition, T10 = T20 = T30 = 100,