EM Theory, Propagation and Antenna (EC-502)

NOTE 2 : Transmission lines (TX Lines)

Transmission of power and information from one point to another can be achieved either
by unguided or guided media.
Guided structures serve to guide (or direct) the propagation of energy from the source to
the load. Typical examples of such structures are transmission lines and waveguides.
Transmission lines are commonly used in power distribution (at low frequency) and in
communications (at high frequency). Various kinds of transmission lines such as co-axial
cable, twisted pain, parallel wire, etc. are avaialble.
Lumped-parameter and Distributed-parameter system :
In the study of electrical systems, we make use of V-I relationships for various
components (Ohms law, for example). In doing so, we implicitly assume that the current
in any system component (resistor, inductor, etc.) is the same at every point throughout
that component. Thus, we assume that electrical signals are propagated instantaneously
throughout the system. In reality, however, electrical signals are electromagnetic (EM)
space waves requiring some finite propagation time. An electric current, for example,
propagates through a component with a finite velocity and therefore may exhibit
different values at different locations in the same component. Thus, an electric current is
a function not only of time but also of space. However, if the physical dimensions of a
component are small compared to the wavelength of the signal propagated, we may
assume that the current is constant throughout the component. This is the assumption
made in lumped-parameter systems, where each component is regarded as being lumped
at one point in space. Such an assumption is justified at lower frequency (higher
wavelengths), therefore in lumped-parameter models, signals can be assumed to be
functions of time alone. For such systems, the system equations require only one
independent variable (time), and therefore are ordinary differential equations.
In contrast, for distributed-parameter systems such as transmission lines, waveguides,
antennas and microwave tubes, the system dimensions camot assumed to be small
compared to the wavelengths of the signals. (Also, the above devices operates at very

high frequency). Thus, the lumped parameter assumption breaks down. The signals here
are functions of space as well as of time, leading to mathematical models consisting of
partial differential equations.
There is a conceptual change as we increase the frequency of operation and an electrical
circuit can no longer be analysed without taking the space into consideration. This is
due to the fact that the signal requires a finite time to travel along an electric circuit
which is no more negligible compared to the time period of the signal. This effect is
known as transit time effect. Therefore at high frequency the transit time effect has to
be included in the circuit analysis.
Concept of distributed elements :
B

Any practical transmission line is a two

V(t) VQ

VP

L
O
A
D

wire system, and can be simplified by the

diagram as shown aside.
Let l length of the transmission line
f frequency of V (t).
Realizing that no signal can travel with

V(t)P

infinite speed, let the speed of the signal on

the TX line is v. Now, let us suppose that at
some instant of time, the voltage corresponding to point P on the voltage waveform
(t)
Q

(say VP) is connected to the TX line at AA.

Due to the finite speed of the signal VP will
not appear at BB instantaneously but will

tp

be delayed by the transit time tr = l/v.

Obviously, during this time, the i/P signal
does not remain at point P but changes to point Q when the voltage is passing a point
Q at AA, it is passing through point P at BB. It should be realized that there will be a
phase difference between the voltages at AA and BB, and in fact between any two
points (locations) on the TX line. The phase difference will increae as the separation

between the location increases. This will be even true when the conductors used in TX
lines are ideal. It is then interesting to find that even when the resistance of a conductor
is zero, there is a potential difference between its ends.
At high frequencies :
1) Increased frequency reduces signal time period. Thus the transit time becomes
comparable with the signal time period and hence becomes dominent (and measurable).
2) Even for ideal TX lines (R = 0), the reactive drop is high. As the frequency increases,
the inductive reactance (L) and the capacitive suscepance (C) increase proportionately
making reactive effect more observable.
(P1) A two conductor TX line is 10 cm long. A sinusoidal signal of 1V peak amplitude is
applied to one end of the line. If the signal travels on the line with a speed of 2 108 m/s,
find (a) tr of the line (b) frequency at which tr is 10% of the signal period (c) signal
voltage on the other end of the line at an instant when the i/P signal is passing through
positive maximum for a frequency of 500 MHz.
Solution :
l
0.1 m

0.5 ns
v 2 108 m/s

(a)

Transit time, tr

(b)

tr should be 10% of T, i.e., tr = 0.1 T

T = tr / 0.1 = 10 tr = 5 ns.
frequency, f = 1 / T =

(c)

1
220 MHz
5 109

Let the signal voltage, v (t) = V0 cos (2ft) volts.

Given, V0 = 1V and f = 500 MHz
v (t) = cos ( 109 t).

Taking the instant as t = 0, when the i/P voltage v (t) = 1V, the signal at the other end of
the line will correspond to t = tr. the voltage at the other end of the line is cos(109tr)
= cos (/2) = 0V.

The primary constants :

A uniform TX line offers uniformly distributed series resistance, series inductance, shunt
capacitance and shunt admittance.
The series resistance is contributed by the conductors themselves and depends upon
their resistivity and diameter.
The inductance is contributed by the magnetic field of each of the conductor carrying
a current. This inductance is considered in series with the distributed resistance, Q the
effect of the inductance is to oppose the flow of current.
There exists shunt admittance between the two wires of the TX lines, even though line
is no physical connection between the two.
Shunt admittance

Shunt conductance
Shunt capacitance

The shunt capacitance is contributed by the two conductors, placed parallel or twisted
and separated by a dielectric. This dielectric, in between the wires is not perfect. Hence,
a small conduction current or leakage current flows in between the wires. This results is
shunt conductance.
All four parameters mentioned above are uniformly distributed along the TX line.
The values of the distributed parameters are usually specified for a unit length,
considering both the conductors. The unit length may be one mile, one km, or one metre.
R loop resistance per unit length (/m)
L loop inductance per unit length (H/m)
C shunt capacitance per unit length (F/m)
G shunt conductance per unit length (S/m)
R, L, C, G normally constant for a particular TX line and are known as
primary constants of the TX line.

The value of these primary constants of a line depend on the construction of the line but
may change appreciably for large signal frequency. In order to represent a TX line, we can
assume that the line is made up of a large number of line sections each of infinit-estimal
length. Each of these infinitestimal lengths can be represented approximately by a
lumped network as shown below :

The TX line can be assumed to be made up of a number of inverted L sections with

lumped elements. Each L-section corresponds to a unit length of the line. The unit length
is assumed to be a very small fraction of the total length, there will be an infinite
number of identical lumped unit length sections. If we take one loop (say the first loop),
the Rtotal = R1 + R2 and Ltotal = L1 + L2, the above TX line can be simplified as shown
below:

If we take one L section in one unit length, the series impedence is :

Z = R + jL and the shunt admittance is Y = G + jC
At high frequencies, L >> R and C >>G.
Z = jL and Y = jC. the equivalent circuit at high frequency is

But for all analysis, we will use the equivalent circuit for the 2nd diagram as TX line.
Distributed line parameters :
PARAMETERS

CO-AXIAL LINE

TWO-WIRE LINE

R (/m)

1 1 1

2 c a b

1
2 c

L (H/m)

b
ln
2 a

d
cosh 1

2a

G (S/m)

2
b
ln
a

cosh 1

2
b
ln
a

C (F/m)

d
2a

cosh 1

d
2a

where :c

b
a

1
skin depth of the conductor
f c c

d
2a

(P2) A parallel wire line is made up of two copper conductors each of radius 1 mm,
separated by a distribution of 30 cm in air. Calculate the primary constants R, L and C
per km of the line. Given: the signal is transmitted at a frequency of f = 30 KHz,
conductivity of copper, c = 5.75 107 mh/metre and permittivity of free space,
c = 4 107 H/m.
Solution : From the above table;

1
/m; ( f c c ) 1/ 2
a c

( 30 KHz 4 10-7 5.75 107 ) 1/ 2

3.83 104 m.

1
10 3.83 10-4 5.75 10 7
0.0144 / m
14.4 /km
R

L
C

d
d
cosh 1
ln 2.381 mH/km

2a a

d
cosh 1
a

0.02486 F/km, with =1

d
ln
a

TX line equations of voltage and current :

The lumped element circuit analysis, at low frequencies is valid provided the signal
transit time is negligible compared to the signal period, i.e.,
tr T

l
1

v
f

one can model a TX line by lumped elements by dividing into small sections such that
over each subsection the transit time effect is negligible.
But even for a small finite length subsection, the tr effect becomes appreciable if the
signal frequency is very high. If the lumped element model is to be applicable at all
frequency, the length of the subsection must tend to zero and the analysis must be carried
A I

out in some form of limit.

Rx
Lx
I+I B

Consider an infitestimally
small section of a TX line of

Cx

V+V

x.

The

primary

constants, R, L, C and G of
B

length

this infinitesimal section of

the line are Rx, Lx, Cx

and Gx respectively.
Let a sinusoidal voltage of angular frequency is applied between AA and let a current
I flow into the terminal A. Now due to voltage drop in the series elements R, L, the
voltage at BB will not be same as that at AA. Similarly, Q some part of the i/p current
will be by passed through the shunt elements C and G, the o/p current at point B will not
be same as that at A. Let the current and voltage at BB is I + I and V + V
respectively. Hence:
V = (Rx + jLx) I
I = (Gx + jCx) V
The negative indicates that the voltage and current at BB are less than their respective
values at AA.
We can write the above equations as :
V
( R j L) I
x
I
(G j C )V
x

If the lumped analysis has to be valid at all frequencies, the length of the section x must
tend to zero. Thus, for x 0;
V dV

( R j L) I
x 0 x
dx
lim

lim

x 0

I dI

(G j C )V
x dx

we find that the voltage and current on a TX line are governed by two coupled first
order differential equations. Differentiating the above w.r.t. x;
d 2V
dI
( R j L) .
2
dx
dx

Substituting

dI
from the 2nd equation :dx

d 2V
( R j L)(G j C )V
dx 2
Similarly, if we differentiate the 2nd equation w.r.t. x and substitute for dV/dx, we get :d 2I
( R j L)(G j C ) I
dx 2
Let us now define a quantity called propagataion constant of the TX line :-

2 ( R j L)(G j C )
is some characteristic parameter of the line similar to the primary constants except that
it depends upon the operating frequency also.
is a complex quantity and we may write as :
=+j
where, attenuation constant or attefnuation factor of the medium. It is a measure of
the spatial rate of decay of the wave in the medium, measured in nepers per metre (N P/m)
or in decibels per metre (dB/m).
An attenuation of 1 neper denotes a reduction to e1 of the original value whereas an
increase of 1 neper indicates an increase by a factor of e. Hence, for voltages :
1 NP = 20 log10 e = 8.686 dB
For an ideal lossless medium and free space, = 0 the wave is not attenuated as it
propagates.
measure of the phase shift per length and is called the phase constant or wave
number (rad/m).
If wavelength of the wave; then = 2/.
Hence, we have :-

d 2V
2V 0 and
2
dx

d 2I
2I 0
2
dx

The above 2nd order differential equation governs the distribution of V (x) and I (x) along
the TX line.
(P3) For a TX line, the per unit length parameters are 0.1 /m, 0.2 H/m, 10 F/m and
0.02 /m. Find the complex propagation constant at (a) 1MHz (b) 1GHz.
Solution :

( R j L)(G j C )
R = 0.1 /m, L = 0.2 H/m, C = 10 F/m, G = 0.02 /m and = 2f
for (a) f = 1MHz;
= [(0.1 + j2 106 0.2 106) (0.02 + j2 + 106 1011)]1/2
= 0.117 + j0.108 / m
for (b) f = 1GHz;
= 1.4 + j9 / m.
Solutions for TX line equations :d 2V
d 2I
2

0
and
2I 0
2
2
dx
dx

are linear homogeneous

representing wave equations for voltage and current.

Using the operator m in the first equation :
(m2 2) V = 0
m=+
the solution for V is :V (x) = V+ ex + V ex
+x x

differential equations

similarly, the solution for I is :I (x) = I+ ex + I ex

+x x
V+, V, I+, I are arbitrary constants (wave amplitudes), to be evaluated by using
appropriate boundary conditions. The positive and negative signs respectively, denote the
wave travelling along +x and x directions, as is also indicated by the arrows.

V+ voltage of the incident wave at x = 0, i.e., AA

V voltage of the reflected wave at the sending end, AA
I+ current of the incident wave at x = 0, i.e., at AA
I current of the reflected wave at the sending end, AA
Solutions for V (x) and I (x) in terms of hyperbolic functions :Replacing ex = coshx + sinhx and ex = coshyx sinhx, we get;
V ( x ) (V V ) cosh x (V V )sinh x a cosh x b sinh x
where, a = V+ + V and b = V+ V
and I ( x) ( I I ) cosh x ( I I ) sinh x c cosh x d sinh x
where, c = I+ + I and d = I+ I
Recalling that

V
( R j L) I ;
x

d
(a cosh x b sinh x) ( R j L) I
dx

or,

asinhx bcoshx = (R + jL) I (x)

or,

(asinhx + bcoshx) = (R + jL) I (x)

I ( x)

(a sinh x b cosh x)
R j L

or,

I ( x)

( R j L)(G j C
(a sinh x b cosh x )
( R j L

or,

I ( x)

G j C
(a sinh x b cosh x)
R j L

Q a and b on the RHS of the equation represents voltages, it is clear that the term
R j L
G j C

represents impedence. Q this impedence is a function of the primary

constants of the TX line, it characterises the impedence of the TX lines and this impedence
is called the characteristic impedence of the TX line denoted by Z0.
Z0

R j L
characteristic impedence of TX line
G j C

= R0 + jX0.
R0 should not be mistaken for R while R is in /m; R0 is in . The propagation
constant and the characteristic impedence Z0 are important properties of the line,
because they both depend on the line parameters R, L, C and G and the frequency of
operation.
Characteristic admittance, Y0

1
G j C

Z0
R j L

Hence, we get;
I ( x)

and

1
(a sinh x b cosh x )
Z0

V ( x) a cosh x b sinh x

Let us try to find the constants a and b :Boundary Conditions :

At the sending end, i.e., at x = 0, V (0) = Vs and I (0) = Is (say)
a = Vs and b = Is Z0.
V (x) = Vs coshx Is Z0 sinhx
and

I ( x)

V
1
(Vs sinh x I s Z 0 cosh x) I s cosh x s sinh x .
Z0
Z0

Hence, to summarise :--

(1)

V ( x) V e x V e x

(2)

I ( x)

(3)

j ( R j L)(G j C )

(4)

Z0

(5)

V (x) = Vs cosh x I2 Z0 sinhx

(6)

I (x) = Is cosh x

1
(V e x V e x )
Z0

R j L
G j C

Vs
sinh x
Z0

The Tx line considered so far is the lossy type, i.e., the conductors comprising the line
are imperfect (c ) and the dielectric in which the conductors are embedded is lossy
( 0). We have two special cases of Tx, lines : (a) lossless line (b) distortionless line.
(a)

Lossless Line :
A Tx line is said to be lossless if the conductors of the line are perfect, i.e., c

and the dielectric medium separating them is lossless, i.e., 0.

From the table of primary constants :
R

1
; a radius of the cross-section; = skin depth.
a c

For lossless lines, c R = 0

also,

cosh 1

d ; d separation between the lines.

a

For lossless lines, 0 G = 0

for a Tx line to be lossless, R = 0 = G.
[( R j L)(G j C )]1/ 2 j LC j

 = 0 and = LC
If wave velocity, then

f and

LC

Z0

R j L
L
Z0
R0 and X0 = 0.
G j C
C

(b)

Distortionless line

A signal normally consists of a band of frequencies; wave amplitudes of different

frequency components will be attenuated differently in a lossy line as is frequency
dependent. This results in distortion.
A distortionless line is one in which the attenuation constant is frequency independent
while the phase constnat is linearly dependent on frequency. A distortionless line
results, if the line parameters are such that :
R G

L C

j L
j C

Thus, ( R j L)(G j C ) RG 1
1

R
G

for a distortionless line :j C

RG 1
j
G

RG ; LC

does not depend on frequency and is a linear function of frequency.

Also,

R 1
R j L

Z0

G j C

G 1

R
L

; X0 0
G
C

j L

R
=
j C

R
L

R0 jX 0
G
C

and

1
f

LC

Note :(1) The phase velocity is independent of frequency because the phase constant linearly
depends on frequency. We have shape distortion of signals unless and are
independent of frequency.
(2) and Z0 remain the same for lossless and distortionless lines.
(3) A lossless line is also distortionless line, but a distortionless line is not necessarily
lossless. Although lossless lines are desirable in power transmissions, telephone lines
require distortionless line.
Summary of TX line characteristics :
= + j

Case
1) General

( R j L)(G j C )

2) Lossline

0 + j LC

3) Distortionless

(P3)

RG j LC

Z0 = R0 + jX0
Z0

R j L
G j C

L
j0
C
L
j0
C

An air line has a characteristic impedence of 70 and phase constant of 3 rad/m

at 100 MH. Calculate the L and C per metre.

Solution : An air line can be regarded as a lossless line, Q = 0.
R = 0 = G and = 0

Z 0 R0
=

L
C

LC 2 f LC

R0
1

C
68.2 pF/m
C
R0

L = R02C = (70)2 (68.2 1012) = 334.2 nH/m.

(P4)

A distortionless line has Z0 = 60 , = 20 mNP/m, = 0.6 C, where C

velocity of light in vacuum. Find R, L, G, C and at 100 MHz.

Solution : Distortionless line :R G
RC
G
L C
L
Z0

L
C
R
and RG R

C
L Z0

R = Z0 = (20 103) 60 = 1.2 /m.

Also,

also,

LC

Z0
60
LL
333 nH/m

0.6 3 108

0.6 3 108

1.8 m
f
100 106

Now, RG G
2
again, Z 0

(P5)

2 400 106

333 /m
R
1.2

L
L 333 nH/m
C 2
92.6 pF/m
C
Z0
60 60

A telephone line has R = 30 /km, L = 100 mH/km, G = 0, and C = 20 F/m. At

f =\ 1 KHz, obtain :
Solution :(a)

R j L
Z0

G j C

R j L
( R j L) j C 2 LC j RC

j C
2C
2C

1/ 2

or,

Z0 L j

Z 0 70.75 1.367 0

Now, R = 30 /km = 0.03 /m

L = 100 mH/km = 104 H/m = 0.1 mH/m
C = 20 F / km =\ 0.02 F/m.
(b)

( R j L)(G j C ) ( R j L) j C 2 LC j RC
= 2.121 104 + j 8.888 103 / m

(c)

( LC ) 1/ 2 (0.1 mH/m 0.02 F/m)1/2 707 103 m/s

To express I (x) = I+ ex + Iex in terms of V+ and V :We have the general equation of I (x) and V (x) as :
I (x) = I+ ex + I ex
and

V (x) = V+ ex + V ex

But, we have already seen :

V ( x)
dV ( x)
( R j L) I ( x)
( R j L) I ( x)
x 0
x
dx
lim

d
d
V ( x ) (V e x V e x ) ( R j L ) I ( x)
dx
dx

or,

(V e x V e x ) ( R j L) I ( x )

or,

I ( x)

or,

I ( x)

( R j L)(G j C )(V e x V e x )
(V e x V e x )

R j L
R j L
G j C x
1
(V e V e x )
(V e x V e x )
R j L
Z0

Input Impedence of a line terminated by a load ZL :l-x

IS

IL

I/P

impedence

due

to

line

terminated by a load.
V(g)

VS

(, Z0)

Zin

ZL

x=0

x=l

IS

Equivalent circuit for finding VS and

Z
+

Vg

IS in terms of Zin at the input.

VS

Zin

Consider a TX line of length l;, characterised by and Z0, connected to a load ZL.
Looking into the line, the generator sees the line with the load as i/P impedence Zin.
Let the TX line extend from x = 0 at the generator to x = l at the load. We know that :
V ( x) V e x V e x
I ( x)

V x V x
e
e
Z0
Z0

Again, we use the boundary condtions to compute V+ and V.

at x = 0, V (0) = VS and I (0) = IS.
VS = V+ + V
and

V V
IS

Z0 IS V V
Z0 Z0

Adding the above two equations :

2V VS Z 0 I S V

1
(VS Z 0 I S )
2

Similarly,

1
(VS Z 0 I S )
2

If the i/p impedence at the i/p terminals is Zin, the i/p voltage VS and the i/p current IS are
easily obtained from the 2nd figure :
IS

Vg
Z g Z in

VS

Z in
Vg
Z g Z in

At the load end; at x = l

V (l) = VL and I (l) = IL
Substituting the above values in the equations of V (x) and I (x) :
V

1
(VL Z 0 I L )e l
2

1
(VL Z 0 I L )e l
2

At any point x on the line :

Z in

V ( x ) Z 0 (V V )

I ( x)
V V

Substituting the last equations of V+ and V into the above and utilizing the fact that:
e l e l
cosh l;
2
also,

e l e l
sinh l
2

sinh l e l e l
tanh l

cosh l e l e l

we get;

Z L Z 0 tanh l
... for lossy TX lines.
Z 0 Z L tanh l

Z in Z 0
Alterantively;

V (x) = VS coshx IS Z0 sinhx

I (x) = IS coshx

VS
sinh x
Z0

At load end, x = l VL = IL ZL
V (l ) VS cosh l I S Z 0 sinh l VL Z L ( I S cosh l

VS
sinh l )
Z0

V
VS cosh l I S Z 0 sinh rl Z L I S cosh l S sinh l
Z0

VS cosh l I S Z 02 sinh rl I S Z L Z 0 cosh l VS Z L sinh l

VS ( Z 0 cosh l Z L sinh l ) I S ( Z L Z 0 cosh l Z 02 sinh l )

Z Z 0 tanh l
VS Z 0 ( Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l )

Z0 L

IS
( Z 0 cosh l Z L sinh l )
Z 0 Z L tanh l

The ratio of voltage at the i/p of the line and the corresponding current is known as the
i/p impedence of the line or the driving point impedence of the line or the line impedence
Zin.
Thus, Z in

Z Z 0 tanh l
VS
Z0 L
for lossy TX lines.
IS
Z 0 Z L tanh l

[To find find Zin at any other point x, substitute l x for l in the above equation]
For a lossless line, = 0 and = j

tanhl = tanh jl = j tanh l

Z in Z 0

Z L jZ 0 tan l
for lossless TX lines.
Z 0 jZ L tan l

The above clearly shows that the i/p impedence varies periodically with distance l from
the load. The quantity l is usually referred to as the electrical length of the line and can
be expressed in degree or radius.

Input Admittance of a line with load ZL :-

YL Y0 tanh l
... PROVE YOURSELF.
Y0 YL tanh l

Yin Y0

Taking normalised values;

Yin

Yin
Y
Yin and L YL
Y0
Y0

YL tanh l
1 YL tanh l

Input admittance of a lossless line :-

Yin

YL j tan l
... PROVE YOURSELF
1 jYL tan l

We now define L as the voltage reflection coefficient (at the load). L is the ratio of the
voltage reflection wave to the incident wave at the load, i.e.,
L

V e l
V e l

But, at the load end, we have already found out;

and

1
VL Z 0 I S e l
2

1
VL Z 0 I S e l
2

Putting the above values at L, we get :L

Z L Z0
Z L Z0

The voltage reflection coefficient at any point on the line is the ratio of magnitude of the
reflected voltage wave to that of the incident wave.
i.e.,

reflected voltage at the load end

incident voltage at the load end

The current reflection coeficient at any point on the line is the negative of voltage
reflection coefficient at that point.
Thus, the current reflection coefficient at the load is

I e l
L
I e l

L at any other point than the load :L (l ) = L e2l

where, l distribution of the point from the load.
(P6)

A TX line has Z0 = 10 + j 0.0358 is connected to a load impedence of ZL = 10 +

j 20 at 2 GHz. Find the reflection coefficient at (i) the load end (ii) at a distribution of
20 cm from the load (Given = 0.055 + j 12.566/m).
Solution :
(i)

L at the load end is :L

(ii)

Z L Z0
0.499 0.498 j
Z L Z0

(l ) = L e2l
= (0.499 + 0.498j) e2 (0.055 + j12.566) 0.2
= 0.3127 + 0.6149j

Similarly, the impedence at any point x from the generator (or l = l x from the load),
the impedence is given by :-

Z L Z 0 tanh l

Z 0 Z L tanh l

Z (l ) Z 0

Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l

Z 0 cosh l Z L sinh l

or,

Z (l ) Z 0

(P7)

A TX line has a propagation constant = 0.1 + j10 m1 and Z0 = 50 + j5 .

The line is terminated in an impedence ZL = 100 j 30 . Find the impedence at a

distance of 1.5 m from the load.
Solution : We know that;
e l e l
e l e l

; sinh l
2
2

cosh l

coshl = cosh{(0.1 + j 10) 1.5} = 0.7683 + 0.0979 j

sinhl = sinh{(0.1 + j 10) 1.5} = 0.1144 + 0.6576 j
Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l
57.32 38.66 j
Z 0 cosh l Z L sinh l

Z (l ) Z 0

(P8) At some location on a long TX line, the impedence is 100 + j 500.

Find the impedence at 50 cm on either side of this location. The TX line has Z0 = 50 and
= 0.1 + j 20 m1.
Solution : Assume that the generator is on the left side of the line. Let the location at
which the impedence is given, is denoted by 0, the location 50 cm towards the generator
be denoted by A and the location away from the generator be denoted by B. Assuming a
sign convention for the distribution l = +50 cm for A and l = 50 cm for B. The
impedence at A and B can be obtained as ;
l = (0.1 + j 20) 0.5 = 0.05 + j 10

Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l

Z 0 cosh l Z L sinh l

Z (l ) Z 0

ZA = Z (l = + 50 cm) = 77.73 47.7 j

ZB = Z (l = 50 cm) = 29.36 + 38.37 j

Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l

Z 0 cosh l Z L sinh l

Z (l ) Z 0

The above equation is the impedence transform equation. It shows that if a line is
terminated in an impedence ZL, the impedence seen at a distribution l from the load is
not ZL but is Z (l). Or in other words, a length l of TX line transforms the impedence
from ZL to Z (l).

Coming back to reflection coefficient :L voltage reflection coefficient at the load end.
At any length l from the load ;
(l ) = L e2l
For a lossless line = j .

(l ) = L e j 2l

We observe that | (l) | = | L | the magnitude of the reflection coefficient remains the
same at every point on the line and only its phase changes as one traverses the TX line.
We can write V (l ) and I (l ) as;
V (l ) V e j l {1 L e j 2 l }

PROVE YOURSELF
I (l )

V j l
e {1 L e j 2 l }
Z0

QL is complex, let us assume that its phase is denoted by . Then :L = |L| ej

V (l ) V e j l {1 | L | e j ( 2 l ) }
I (l )

V j l
e {1 | L | e j ( 2 l ) }
Z0

As one moves along the TX line, the length l and the phase ( 2l) changes. Q the 2nd
term inside the bracket represents reflected wave, the phase of the reflected wave
changes relative to the incident wave as a function of l. At locations where the phase (
2l) equals multiples of the exponential term becomes + 1. At this location the two

terms in the bracket are real and they add or subtract directly. When exp {j ( 2l)} =
+1, the terms in the equation of V (l) add whereas they subtract in the equation of I (l),
giving voltage maximum but current minimum. Similarly, when exp {j ( 2l)} = 1,
the terms in the voltage expression subtract and they add in the current expression giving
current maximum but voltage minimum. So, we find that on a T X line, when the voltage
is maximum, the current is minimum and vice versa.
|Vmax|

The maximum and the minimum

|Imax|
|V|

magnitudes of the voltage are :|V |max = |V+ (1 + | | )

|V |min = |V+ (1 | L| )

|Imin|

|I|

|Imax|

Similarly,

the

maximum

and

minimum magnitudes of the current

are;

| I max |

| V |max
V
(1 | L |)
Z0
Z0

V
| V |min
| I min |
(1 | L |)
; as for a lossless line | Z0 | = Z0.
Z0
Z0
Observation :The ratio V (l ) / I (l ) which is the impedence at location l is real. In other words, we
can say that at locations where voltage or current is max or min., the impedence
measured on the line is purely resistive (real impedence). The plot of | V | or | I | as a
function of distribution l is called the voltage or current standing wave pattern. A
characteristic parameter of standing wave pattern is called the VOLTAGE STANDING
WAVE RATIO (VSWR) and is denoted by S. The VSWR is defined as :
S

| V |max
| V |min

VSWR is an easily measurable parameter as it does not require any measurement of

phase.
We have :| V |max | V | (1 | L |) and | V |min | V | (1 | |)
S

| V |max 1 | L |
1 | L |

S
| V |min 1 | L |
1 | L |
| |

S 1
S 1

The VSWR is an accurate indicator of the reflections on the T X line. By definition, Q|V|
max

is greater than |V|min, S is always greater them 1. It could be as high as when |V|min

goes to zero. Q from the last equation, S = 1 corresponds to | L | = 0, it represents no

reflection condition . Similarly, S = corresponds to |L | = 1; meaning, amplitude of
the reflected wave is equal to that of the incident wave, i.e., full reflection. Q reflected
wave carries some power backwards, full incident power does not get delivered to the
load in the presence of reflection. For efficient power delivery to the load, |L| and
hence S should be small as possible. VSWR of 1 corresponds to the maximum power
transfer efficiency, whereas VSWR of represents no power delivery to the load.
(P9) A lossless TX line has 75 characteristic impedence. The line is terminated in a load
impedence of 50j100 . The max voltage measured on the line is 100V. Find the
maximum and the minimum current, and the minimum voltage on the line. At what
distribution from the load, the voltage and current are maximum?
Solution : The reflection coefficient at the load end :

Z L Z 0 50 j100 75

0.2683 0.5854 j
Z L Z 0 50 j100 75

| L | = 0.644.
The maximum voltage on the TX line |V |max = 100V (given)

 | V |max = | V+ | (1 + | l | )
| V |

| V |max
100

60.83V
1| L | 1 0.644

Maximum current, | I |max

Minimum current, | I |min

| V |max 100 4

Amp = 1.33 Amp

Z0
75 3

|V |
60.83
(1 | L |)
(1 0.644) 0.288Amp
Z0
75

Minimum Voltage :| I |min

| V |min
| V |min Z 0 | I |min 75 0.288 21.66 V
Z0

Maximum voltage occurs at the condition :

e j ( 2l ) = 1
The above is true if and only if : 2l = 2n ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3,
The location of this maxima is then obtained by writing lmax for l.

lmax

2n 2n
2

, as
2
4

where, phase angle of reflections coefficient

wavelength
n = 0, 1, 2, 3,
the first maxima occurs at :

lmax1

(if is +ve)
4

the second maxima occurs at;

lmax1

+
4 2

the 3rd maxima occurs at ;

3
lmax

+
4

Thus the separation between the voltage maximas is /2.

Now, the voltage maxima and the current minima occur at the same locations.
the current minima also occur at l =

,
+ ,
+ ,...
4 4 2 4

The voltage minimum (or current maximum) occurs at :Ej ( 2l) = 1

The above is true if and only if; 2l = (2n + 1) ;
l

n = 0, 1, 2, 3,

(2n 1)
2

2
(2n 1) (2n 1)

; lmin

4
4
4

For

For

n = 0; lmin1

4 4

For

2
n = 1; lmin

4
4

For

3
n = 2; lmin

4
4

.
Thus the separation between the voltage minimas is /2.
Also the locations of the current maxima are

3
,

...
4 4 4
4

It can be easily observed that the separation between two successive voltage maxima (or
current minima) and voltage minima (current maxima) is on /4.
Impedence variation on lossless TX line :

The impedence at any point on the TX line is :

Z (l )

1 L e j 2 l
V (l )
Z0
j 2 l
I (l )
1 Le

But we know that;

Z L Z0
Z L Z0

Z L Z 0 j 2 l
1 Z Z e

L
0

Z (l ) Z 0
1 Z L Z 0 e j 2 l

Z L Z0

Rearranging the terms of ZL and Z0 and noting that ejl + ejl = 2 cosl and ejl ejl =
2j sinl , we get :-

Z L cos l jZ 0 sin l

Z 0 cos l jZ L sin l

Z (l ) Z 0

We define normalized impedences as :

Z (l )

Z
Z (l )
and Z L L
Z0
Z0

Z L cos l j sin l

cos l jZ L sin l

Z (l )

The maximum impedence occurs where the voltage is maximum and current is minimum
and its value is :-

Z (l ) max

1 | L |
Vmax
Z0
Rmax (say)
I min
1 | L |

Noting that the quantity inside the square bracket is VSWR, we get;
Rmax = SZ0 ;

where VSWR = S

1 | L |
1 | L |

Similarly, the minimum impedence occurs at location where the voltage is minimum and
current is maximum and its values is :

 1 | L |
Vmin
Z0
Rmin (say)
I max
1

L |

Z (l ) min
Rmin

Z0
S

The impedence on a line varies between Z0/S and SZ0. This means the impedence
value at some point on the line is greater than Z0 and at other point it is less than Z0.
(P10) A 50 TX line (i.e., Z0 = 50 ) is connected to a parallel combination of a 100
resistance and a 1nF capacitance. Find the VSWR on the line at a frequency of 2 MHz.
Also find the maximum and minimum resistance seen on the line.
Solutionm : The load impedence ZL is a parallel combination of R and C.

1
j C
R
100

ZL

1
1 j RC 1 j 2 12006 000 9
R
j C
R

or, Z L

100
38.77 j 48.72
1 0.4 j

The reflection coefficient at the load end of the line is :L

Z L Z0
0.134 j 0.475
Z L Z0

| L | = 0.494.

VSWR, S

1 | L |
2.95 (Answer)
1 | L |

The maximum resistance on the line, Rmax = SZ0 = 2.95 50 = 147.53

The minimum resistance on the line, Rmin = Z0/S = 50/2.95 = 16.94
Important characteristics of a loss-less TX line :
1)

Line characteristics repeat every /2 :

Let the impedence at some point l on the line is Z (l ).

Z L cos l jZ 0 sin l

Z 0 cos l jZ L sin l

Z (l ) Z 0

Hence the impedence at some point at a distance of /2 from this location is :2

Z L cos
(l ) jZ 0 sin
(l )

2
Z (l ) Z 0

2
Z 0 cos
(l ) jZ L sin
(l )

or,

Z L cos l jZ 0 sin l

Z (l ) Z 0
Z (l )
2
Z 0 cos l jZ L sin l

Z l Z (l )
2

Hence, the impedence on a l ine repeats over every /2 distance. In other words, a study
of /2 action of a line is sufficient to understand the behaviour of the whole line.
2)

For a load impedence ZL = Z0, the impedence at any point on the line is Z0 :

Suppose a TX line is terminated in a impedence equal to the characteristic impedence,

i.e., ZL = Z0. Then the impedence at a distribution l from the load is;

Z 0 cos l jZ 0 sin l
Z 0

Z
cos

jZ
sin

l
0
0

Z (l ) Z 0

This indicates that if a line is terminated by the characteristic impedence Z0, the
impedence at every point on the is also Z0. This condition is called the matched load
condition. At the matched load condition, we have :(l )

also

Z (l ) Z 0 Z 0 Z 0

0
Z (l ) Z 0 Z 0 Z 0

Z L Z0 Z0 Z0

0
Z L Z0 Z0 Z0

And VSWR, S

1 | L |
1
1 | L |

Thus, for the matched load condition, the reflection coefficient is zero everywhere on the
line (be it at the load end or at any distribution from the load). In other words, there is
only forward wave and no reflected wave on the line.
New light to the definition of characteristic impedence :
The characteristic impedence of a line is that impedence with which when the line is
terminated, the impedence measured at any point on the line is same as the terminating
impedence.
Impedence transformation for a TX line with short circuited and open circuited
terminations :
For a lossy line, 0, the i/p impedence is :-

Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l

Z 0 cosh l Z L sin l

Z in Z 0

and impedence at any point on the line is :-

Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l

Z 0 cosh l Z L sin l

Z (l ) Z 0

For SHORT CIRCUITED termination :ZL = 0

( Z in ) SC Z 0 tanh l (Yin ) SC Y0 coth l

and

Z (l ) SC Z 0 tanh l Y (l ) SC Y0 coth l

For a lossless TX line, = 0 and = j

Z L cos l jZ 0 sin l

Z 0 cos l jZ L sin l

Z in Z 0

Z L cos l jZ 0 sin l

Z 0 cos l jZ L sin l

and Z (l ) Z 0

For lossless SHORT CIRCUITED line :ZL = 0

( Z in ) SC j tan l (Yin ) SC j cot l

and Z (l )
where

in

Y
in

also,

SC

SC

SC

j tan l (Yin ) SC j cot l

( Z in ) SC
Z0

(Yin )SC
Y0

Z L Z0
| L | 1 for short circuited TX line
Z L Z0
S

and

1 | L |

1 | L |

Hence, for a lossy or lossless TX line, if it is terminated by a short circuit, all the wave
incident is reflected back.
For a OPEN CIRCUITED line :ZL =

Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l
Z L cos l jZ 0 sin l
lossy Z in Z 0
lossless
Z L sinh l Z 0 cosh l
Z 0 cos l jZ L sin l

Z in Z 0

Z0

cosh l Z sinh l
L

or, Z in Z 0
Z
0 cosh l sinh l
Z L

Z0

cos l j Z sin l
L

Z in Z 0
Z
0 cos l j sin l
Z L

with ZL =
(Zin)OC = j cotl Z0

(Zin)SC = Z0 coth l

Z in

OC

Zin OC
Z0

coth l

Z in

OC

Zin OC
Z0

j coth l

and

(Yin)OC = Y0 tanhl

and

(Yin)OC = j Y0 cotl

(Yin )OC tanh l

in

OC

j cot l

A plot of normalised reactance, jX in j tan l for short circuit termination vs l is shown

below :-

INDUCTIVE

CAPACTIVE

l
2
l

j X in

l
4
O

/2

3
4

l=

3/2

Equivalent
Lumped
Circuits

To summarise, we have the following :1) The circuit behaves like a parallel resonant circuit at odd multiples of l = /2,
i.e., l = odd number of quarter wave lengths.
2) At integral number of half wavelengths (i.e., l = n), the equivalent circuit is a
series resonant circuit.
3) Elsewhere, the nature of the circuit is either inductive or capacitive.

Variation of normalised i/p admittance for short circuit termination :-

We have seen that Yin

SC

j cot l

CAPACTIVE

3
4

l
4
l

Y
in

l
4
l

SC

O
2

l
4

2

l
4
l

3
2
l

l=

INDUCTIVE

The following two important conclusions can be drawn :1) For the length of the line less than quarter wavelength, the i/p susceptance is
inductive.
2) For the length of the line greater than /4 but less than /2, the i/p susceptance is
capacitive.
Variation of i/p impedence for a open circuited termination :We have already seen that :

3
4

l
4
l

O
2

l
4

Parallel
resonance

OC

2

l
4
l

Series
resonance

Z in

l
4
l

CAP

3
2
l

l=

IND

The following are some inferences :1) For l

2) For

(or l ) , the reactance is capacitive.

4
2

l , the reactance is inductive.

4
2

3) At l

3 5
, , ,... the line exhibits series resonance.
4 4 4

4) At l

, , the line exhibits parallel resonance.

2

Applications of lossless short circuited and open circuited TX lines :When a line is short circuited by a good conductor, it behaves more or less as a perfect
short circuit, giving rise to total reflection of the incident signal. However, when a line is
open circuited it does not really behave like an open circuit Qcertain amount of energy
leaks out of the line into the surrounding medium. Thus, a part of the incident energy is
lost and the reflected signal is not exactly equal to the incident signal. Thus an open
circuit is not an ideal open circuit. Therefore the short circuit termination is the preferred
choice. Q the open circuited line and short circuited lines behave like inductance or
capacitance or series resonant or parallel resonant circuit depending on (i) the length of
the line at a given frequency (ii) wavelength for a given length of the line.

The above circuits find applications in the following areas :(1) They are used for single stub and double sstub matching.
They are used as band pass or band stop filters at microwave frequency.
Infinite TX line :We already know that :-

1 L e 2 l
2 l
1 Le

Z (l ) Z 0

and

1 L e 2 l
Z in Z 0
2 l
1 Le

When the length of the TX line is infinite, l (also l ).

e2 l 0 and e2 l 0

Z (l ) Z 0 and Z in Z 0 .
Thus, for an infinite line, Zin = Z0 and Z (l ) = Z0, irrespective of the value of ZL.
Phase velocity and group velocity :Phase velocity () or velocity of propagation () ;
It is defined as the velocity with which a signal of single frequency propagates along the
line at a particular frequency f.

m/s or km/s
2

Group Velocity (vg) :If the TX line or the transmission medium is such that different frequency travel with
different velocities, then the line or the medium is said to be dispersive. In that case,
signals are propagated with a velocity known as group velocity, vg

d 2 1

.
d 2 1

Some important observations :1) Normalized impedence inverts every /4.

We have already seen that the normalized impedence at a distribution of l from the load
is:

Z L cos l j sin l
... for a lossless line.
cos l jZ L sin l

Z (l )

The normalized impedence at a distribution of /4 from the above is :2

Z L cos
(l ) j sin
(l )

4
4

4
Z (l )
2

4
cos
(l ) jZ L sin
(l )
4
4

Z L sin l j cos l
sin l jZ L cos l

1
Z (l )
4
Z (l )
i.e., the normalized impedence inverts every /4 distance. The actual impedence at a
location l is Z 0 Z (l ) and at l

Z0

is
.
4
Z (l )

2) A deeper look at open and short circuited TX line :We had :(Zin)SC = j Z0 tanl
(Zin)OC = j Z0 cotl
( Z in ) SC ( Z in )OC Z 02

TX line as a circuit element :As the frequency increase, the realization of lumped reactive elements becomes more
and more difficult. Eg. if we wind a coil to get a certain inductance, the distributed

capacitance of the coil may be so large that the coil, instead of showing inductive
reactance, may show capacitive reactance. Similarly, at times the lead inductance of a
capacitor may be large enough to millify the capacitive reactance.
At frequencies of 100s and 100s of MHz, where lumped elements are difficult to realize,
the use of sections of TX line as reactive elements may be more.
From the impedence relation, we can see that if a line of length l is terminated in a short
circuit or open circuit, the i/p impedence of the TX line is purely reactive.

Zin = j Z0 tanl = jX

Zin =jZ0 cotl = jX

lSC

lOC

Q the range of tan and cot functions is from to +, any reactance can be realized by
proper choice of l or l. Any reactance can be realized by either open or short circuit
termination.
If a reactance is to be realized in a high frequency circuit, one can use a short circuited
line lSC or an open circuited line of lOC.

lSC

X
X
1
1
tan 1 and lOC cot 1

Z 0
Z 0

The below frequency shows the range of TX line lengths and the corresponding
reactances which can be realized at the i/p terminals of the line :-

0 < lSC < /4

/4 < lSC < /2

0 < lOC < /4

/4 < lOC < /.2

(P11) In a printed circuit board (PCB), an inductance of 0.01 H is to be realized at 6
GHz, using a section of a TX line. The of the signal on the PCB is 4 cm. Design the T X
line section as a reactive element.
Solution : The reactance to be realized is :
X = L = 2fL = 2 6 109 0.01 106 = 377
Generally, in a PCB, it is difficult to provide a short circuit, Q a hole has to be drilled
through the substrate. So it is convenient to use open circuited section of a T X line. The
length of the line is :-

lOC

X
X
1

cot 1
cot 1

2
Z 0
Z0

We have to choose Z0 in such a way /4 < lOC < /4 ; given = 4 cm.

Let us assume Z0 = 150 (such that X / Z0 is not too large).

 lOC

4
377
cot 1
1.76 cm
2
150

(A) Voltage and current at any point on a T X line at a distribution of l from the load in
terms of sending end voltage (VS) only :We have already deduced that ;
V (x) = VS cosh x IS Z0 sinhx
I ( x) I S cosh x

VS
sinh x
Z0

where VS, IS generation point voltage and current, i.e., at x = 0.

We want to express the above two equations in terms of VS only.
The driving point impedence ;

Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l

Z 0 cosh l Z L sinh l

Z in ( x 0) Z 0

IS

VS
Z in

Substituting the above in the equation of V (x), we get :

V ( x) VS cosh x

VS
Z0

Z 0 cosh l Z L sinh l

.Z 0 sinh x
Z
cosh

Z
sinh

l
0
L

Multiplying the RHS and rearranging :

V ( x)

VS [ Z L cosh (l x) Z 0 sinh (l x)]

( Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l )

Considering l x = l distribution from the load end;

Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l

Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l

V (l ) VS

The above equation gives the voltage at any point on the T X line at a distribution of l
from the load in terms of VS only. Similarly, substituting IS = VS / Zin in the equation of
I(x) and rearranging, we get :

I (l )

VS
Z0

Z L cosh l Z L sinh l

Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l

The above equation gives the current at any point along the line at a distribution of l
from the load end in terms of sending voltage VS.
NOTE : The above equations are similar to V (l ) = V+ ejl
I (l )

[1 | L | e j ( 2 l ) ] and

V j l
e [1 | L | e j ( 2 l ) ] , which we already derived earlier. But in the latter case,
Z0

we have expressed V (l ) and I (l ) w.r.t. VS only.

(B) Voltage and current in terms of l and voltage VL across the load :(WBUT 2004, EC-502 : EM Theory, propagation and antenna and WBUT 2004, EC-501:
Line Communication Engg)
We have already derived (Pg.11) :
I ( x)

and

1
(a sinh x b cosh x)
Z0

V (x) = a cosh x + b sinh x

At load end (i.e., at x = l ) ;

and

V (l) = a cosh l + b sinh l

I (l )

1
(a sinh l b cosh l )
Z0

To find the values of a and b :Multiplying the equation of VL above by

adding the two, we get :-

cosh l
and the equation of IL by sinhl and
Z0

VL
a
cosh l I L sin l
Z0
Z0

a VL cosh l I L Z 0 sinh l
Similarly, multiplying the equation of VL by

sinh l
and the equation of IL by coshl and
Z0

adding the two, we get :VL sinh l

b
I L cosh l
Z0
Z0

b (VL sinh l I L cosh l )

Substituting the values of a and b in the equation of I (x) and V (x) and rearranging, we
get:V ( x ) VL cosh (l x ) I L Z 0 sinh (l x)
or,

I ( x)

VL
sinh (l x) I L cosh (l x)
Z0

Substituting l x = l , we get ;
V (l ) VL cosh l

and

I (l )

VL
V
Z 0 sinh l ; as I L L
ZL
ZL

VL
V
V
sinh l L cosh l ; as I L L
Z0
ZL
ZL

The above two equations are also TX line general equations, but giving the current and
voltage at any point l from the load in terms of receiving end voltage VL only.
(C) Voltage and current variation for a lossless short circuited and open circuited
terminations :(1) Line terminated in an open circuit.
We have already seen that ;
V (x) = V+ ex + V ex

and

I ( x)

1
V e x V e x
Z0

where x = 0 is the generator end.

The above equation S could be modified and express voltage and current in terms of the
distribution parameter l , where l = 0 is the load end. Putting x = l in the above
equations, we get :V (l ) V e l V e l
1
I (l )
(V e l V e l )
Z0
Now, at the load end, l = 0, I (0) = IL
IL

1
(V V )
Z0

But for an open circuit termination, IL = 0

V V
V (l ) V e l V e l V (e l e l )
or,

V (l ) = 2V+ coshl

and

I (l )

2V
sinh l
Z0

For a lossless TX line or for a line operating at high frequency ( = 0) and = j . Thus:V (l ) 2V cosh j l 2V cos l
and

I (l )

2V
2V
sinh j l j
sin l
Z0
Z0

In terms of magnitude :| V (l ) | 2V cos l

and

| I (l ) |

2V
sin l
Z0

Variation of |V (l ) | and | I (l ) | with distance l for open circuited termination :

l

0
0

| V (l ) | 2V
| I (l ) |

2
0

2V
Z0

2V
0

3
4

3
2
0

2V
Z0

2
2V
0

Line terminated in a short circuit :We already have :

V (l ) V e l V e l and I (l )

1
(V e l V e l )
Z0

Now, at the load end; l = 0, V (0) = 0

V V 0 V V

V (l ) V e l V e l V (e l e l ) 2V sinh l
and

I (l )

2V
cosh l
Z0

For a lossless TX line, or a line operating at high frequencies, = 0.

= j . Hence;
V (l ) 2 jV sin l and I (l )

2V
cos l
Z0

in terms of magnitude;
| V (l ) | 2V sin l and | I (l ) |
Power transfer on a TX line :-

2V
cos l
Z0

Consider a lossless line with characteristic impedence Z0. Let the line is terminated in a
complex load impedence ZL such that ZL Z0. Hence, there is reflection on the line and
hence we have;
V (l ) V e j l [1 L e j 2 l ]

and

I (l )

V j l
e [1 Le j 2 l ]
Z0

Qthe reference point is at l = 0, the load end, the power delivered to the load is :PL

1
Re(VI *); at l 0
2

(1 L )
= Re V (1 L )
2
Z0

1 | V |2
Re
[1 | L |2 ( L *L )]

2
Z0

Q the difference of any complex number and its conjugate is purely imaginary, ( L *L )
is a purely imaginary quantity. Therefore the power delivered to the land is:PL

| V |2
(1 | L |2 )
2Z 0

The above expression is derived on the basis of circuit theory. The same result can be
achieved by using the wave concept.
The wave which travels towards the load has an amplitude of V +. A travelling wave
always sees the characteristic impedence irrespective of the terminating load. The power
carried by the wave travelling towards the load is known as incident power.

PinC

V
1
1
Re V ( I ) * Re V

2
2
Z 0

| V |2
2Z0

V
Now, L V LV
V
The reflected wave also sees characteristic impedence and therefore the power taken
back by the reflected wave is ;

Pref

| V |2 | V |2

| L |2
2Z 0
2Z0

Q PinC is the power travelling towards the load and Pref is the power travelling back from
the load, the difference of the two powers is the power delivered to the load.
PL PinC Pref
or, PL

| V |2
(1 | L |2 )
2Z 0

Q the line is lossless, the resistive power (or power loss) at any point on the line is same
as the power delivered to the load.
(P12) A 50 TX line is connected to a load of 50 + j 50. The maximum voltage
measured on the line is 50V. Find the power delivered to the load and the peak voltage at
the load-end of the line.
Solution : Do it yourself.
Transmission lines as resonant circuits :We have already seen in pg.31 and 32 that depending on the length of a T X line, it will
behave as a series or parallel resonant LC circuit for a short and open circuited line.
For a short circuited TX line :1) It behaves like a parallel resonant circuit,

for l = (2n+1) /4; n = 0, 1, 2,

2) It behaves like a series resonant circuit,

for l = 2n./4; n = 1, 2, 3,

For a open circuited TX line :1) It behaves like a series resonant circuit

for l = (2n+1) /4; n = 0, 1, 2,

2) It behaves like a parallel resonant circuit

for l = 2n . /4; n = 1, 2, 3,

The Q of a LCR resonant circuit is defined as :Q 2

Energy stored in a circuit or line

Energy loss per cycle

For an ideal loss-less line, there is no energy loss and hence Q = . But for a lossy line
or a low loss line ( = + j; >> ), the value of Q is finite.
We have i/p impedence as ;
ZSC = Z0 tanhl short circuit
ZOC = Z0 cothl open circuit
tanh l tanh( j )l

1 tanh l tanh( j )l

Z SC Z 0 tanh( j ) Z 0

For a low loss line, l << 1, tanh l l . Also tanh (j) l = j tanl.
l j tan l

1 j l tan l

Z SC Z 0

Similarly, for an open circuited line;

1 j l tan l

l j tan l

Z OC Z 0

For resonant lines, l is an integral multiple of /4, and l = integral multiple of /2. If we
take odd multiplies of /4, tanl = . Hence,
Z SC

Z0
parallel resonance
l

Z OC Z 0 l series resonance
If we take even multiples of /4, tanl = 0. Hence ;
Z SC Z 0 l series resonance
Z OC

Z0
parallel resonance
l

Now, the Quality factor;

Q 2

Energy storied in the circuit or line

Energy lost per cycle

or,

Q 2 f 0

Energy stored in the circuit or line

Energy lost per second

Let us now consider a short circuited section of a line having length equal to odd
multiplies of /4. This line is equivalent to a parallel resonant circuit. Let the line be
applied with a voltage VS between its i/p terminals.
Voltage and current standing wave patterns will be generated on the line. The voltage is
zero at the short circuited end of the line and is max at the i/p end of the line. Similarly,
current is max at the short-circuit end and minimum at the i/p end of the line.
For a short circuited line, the voltage and current on the line is :
| V (l ) || V sin l |
and

| I (l ) ||

from pg.40

V
cos l |
Z0

The energy stored in a (2n + 1) /4 long section of the line is :1 (2 n 1) / 4

1 (2 n 1) / 4
U C
[V (l )]2 dl L
[ I (l )]2 dl
0
0
2
2

1
2
= C |V |
4
Q Z0

1 | V |2 (2n 1)
(2n 1)

L 2

4
4
Z0
4

1
1
2 C.
C
Z0

Substituting the above in the equation of U, we note that the two terms of U are equal,
i.e., the inductive and capacitive energies are equal.
Therefore, the total energy :1
(2n 1)
U C | V |2
2
4

The energy lost per second is nothing but power loss in the line. At resonance, the line
effectively appears like a resistance of value Z0 / l. The power loss in the line is (for l =
(2n+1)/4) :-

Ploss

| V |2 | V |2 (2n 1)

Z0 / l
Z0
4

Substituting the above in Q, we get :Q 2 f 0

Z 0C
2

Again, noting that Z 0C

L
C LC . Also 2 f 0
C

LC
2

But LC
Q

Clearly, Q is independent of the length of the line. To achieve high Q, we should have
<<.
(P13) A 75 lossless TX line has a loss of 1.5 dB/m. The velocity of the voltage wave on
the line is 2 108 m/sec. A section of the line is used to make a series resonant circuit at
1 GHz. Find the i/p impedence of the line, its quality factor and the 3 dB BW of the
resonant circuit.
Solution. The wavelength on the line is :

The phase constant is:

v 2 108

0.2 m
f
109

2
10 rod/m

If we take open circuited section on the line, for series resonance, the length of the
section would be :LOC = /4, 3/4, = 0.05, 0.15, , m.
If we take short circuited section on the line, for series resonance, the length of the
section is : lSC = /2, 2/2, = 0.1, 0.2, , m.

The loss of the line is = 1.5 dB/m = 1.5/8.68 = 0.173 nepers/m.

For series resonance, the i/p impedence is :Zin = Z0 l = 12.95 l

where l = lOC or lSC.
Q

10

90.95
2 2 0.173

The 3dB bandwidth is :BW=

f 0 1 GHz

10.99 MHz
Q 90.95

SUMMARY :(1) A TX line is commonly described by its distributed parameters. They are :
R (/m); L (H/m); C (F/m); G (/m). Equations for calculating R, L, C and G are
provided in a table at pg.6 for co-axial and two-wire line.
(2) The distributed parameters are used in an equivalent circuit model to represent a
differential length of the line. The TX line equations are obtained by applying Kirchoffs
laws and allowing the length of the line to approach zero. The voltage and current waves
on the line are :V ( x) V e x V e x and I ( x) I e x I e x
V ( x) a cosh x b sinh x and I ( x )

1
(a sinh x b cosh x)
Z0

where, a, b arbitrary constants.

If VS and IS voltage and current at the sending end, then :V ( x ) VS cosh x I S Z 0 sinh x
I ( x) I S cosh x

VS
sinh x
Z0

(3) The characteristic impedence, Z0 of the line is :Z0

R j L

G j G

and the propagation constant, (in per metre) is given by :-

j ( R j L)(G j C )
where attenuation constant (in NP/ or dB/m).
1 NP = 8.68 dB.
For a loss less line, = 0
phase constant (rad/m).
The wave length and wave velocity are :
= 2/ ; = / = f .
(4) R, L, C and G are known as primary parameters of the line, while Z0 and are known
as secondary parameters of the line.
(5) For a lossless line :
= 0 = j
also,

R, G = 0 = j

LC LC

For a distortionless line :R/L = G/C =

RG , =

LC .

It is desirable that power lines be lossless and telephone lines be distortionless.

(6) Line terminated by a load ZL :The i/p impedence or driving point impedences is ;
Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l
Z L Z 0 tanh l

Z0
Z 0 cosh l Z L sin l
Z 0 Z L tanh l

Z in Z 0

For a lossless line, = 0 and = j.

Z L cos l jZ 0 sin l
Z L jZ 0 tan l
Z 0

Z 0 cos l jZ 0 sin l
Z 0 jZ L tan l

Z in Z 0

where l length of the line, measured from the source end.

(7) Voltage and current at a distribution x from the source :V ( x ) V e x V e x
x

I ( x) I e

V x V x
I e
e
e
Z0
Z0
x

(8) Voltage and current at a distribution l from the load :By replacing x = l in the equations of 7 :V (l ) V e l V e l
I (l )

V l V l
e
e , where x l l
Z0
Z0

(9) Impedence at any point on the line at a distribution of x from the source or l from
the load :
Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l
Z Z 0 tanh l
Z 0 L

Z 0 cosh l Z L sinh l
Z 0 Z L tanh l

Z (l ) Z 0

For a lossless line : = j

Z L cos l jZ 0 sin l
Z jZ 0 tan l
Z 0 L

Z 0 cos l jZ L sin l
Z 0 jZ L tan l

Z (l ) Z 0

(10) Reflection coefficient :

L reflection coefficient at the load end.
L

reflected voltage at the load end

incident voltage at the load end

or,

V
V

In general, (l )
or,

V e l V 2 l

e
V e l V

(l ) L e 2 l

For lossless lines; = j

(l ) L e j 2 l .
(11) From (8) :
V (l ) V e l [1 (l )]
I (l )

V l
e [1 (l )]
Z0

Thus, impedence on any point on the line;

Z (l )

Thus, (l )

1 (l )
V (l )
Z0

I (l )
1 (l )
Z (l ) Z 0
Z (l ) Z 0

At the load end, l = 0, and Z (l ) = ZL

L

Z L Z0
Z L Z0

(12) From (11); we got :V (l ) V e l [1 (l )] V e l [1 L e 2 l ]

and

I (l )

V l
V l
e [1 (l )]
e [1 L e 2 l ]
Z0
Z0

For loss less lines; = j

 V (l ) V e j l [1 L e j 2 l ]
I (l )

V j l
e [1 L e j 2 l ]
Z0

If L is complex, then L = |L| ej

V (l ) V e j l [1 | L | e j ( 2 l ) ]
V j l
I (l )
e [1 | L | e j ( 2 l ) ]
Z0
(13) The max and min voltages and currents are :
| V |max | V | (1 | L |)

| I |max

|V |
V
1 | L | max
Z0
Z0

| I |min

V
|V |
1 | L | min
Z0
Z0

and
| V |min | V | (1 | L |)
(14) Standing Wave Ratio :VSWR Voltage standing wave ratio (S)
S

| V |max 1 | L |
S 1

| L |
| V |min 1 | L |
S 1

CSWR Current stanging wave ratio (S1)

S1

| I |max 1 | L |
S 1

| L | 1
| I |min 1 | L |
S1 1

(S)dB = 20 log10 S.
(a)

|<S<

(b) 0 < |L| < 1

(15) For |L| = 0 no reflection, S = 1 matched condition.

(16) Location of maxima and minima :|V |max and |I |min occurs at the same points.
Similarly, | V |min and | I |max occurs at the same other points.

| V |max and | I |min occurs at :

lmax

,
4

,
4 4

,...
4

| V |min and | I |max occurs at :

lmin

,
4 4

3
,
4 4

,...
4 4

(17) Impedence variation :The maximum impedence occurs at points where voltage is max and current is
minimum.

Z (l ) max
or,

1 | L |
| V |max
Z0
Rmax
| I |min
1 | L |

Rmax = SZ0

The minimum impedence occurs at points where voltage is minimum and current is
maximum.

Z (l ) min
Rmin

1 | L |
| V |min
Z0
Rmin
| I |max
1 | L |

Z0
.
S

(18) Important characteristics of a lowless TX line :(a) Line ch. repeats every at /2.
i.e., Z (l + /2) = Z (l )
Thus, a study of /2 section of the line is sufficient to understand the behaviour of the
whole line.
(b) For ZL= Z0 matched condition.
L

Z L Z0
Z (l ) Z 0
0 S 1, also (l )
0 as Z (l ) = Z0
ZL ZL
Z (l ) Z 0

(19) Short and open-circuit terminations :

Short-circuit termination;
ZL = 0

Zin SC Z 0 tanh l

Zin SC

jZ 0 tan l

Z (l ) SC Z 0 tanh l
Also, L

Z (l ) SC jZ 0 tan l

Z L Z0
| L |=1
ZL ZL

1 | L |

1 | L |

(a) For l = (2n + 1)/4 parallel resonance

(b) For l = n /2 series resonance
(c) For 0 < l < /4, inductive
(d) For /4 < l < /2, capacitive.
Open-circuit termination :
ZL =
(Zin)OC = Z0 coth l

(Zin)OC = j Z0 cotl

Z (l )OC = Z0 coth l

Z0
Z Z0
ZL
L L

L 1
Z L Z L 1 Z0
ZL
1

also,

Z (l )OC = j Z0 cotl

1 | L |

1 | L |

(a) For l = (2n + 1)/4 parallel resonance

(b) For l = n /2, parallel resonance
(c) For 0 < l < /4 capacitive
(d) For /4 < l < /2, inductive
Also, Z02 = (Zin)SC (Zin)OC.
(20) Expression of voltage and current on a TX line at a distribution of l from the load in
terms of sending end voltage (VS) only : Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l

Z L cosh l Z 0 sinh l

V (l ) VS

I (l )

VS Z 0 cos l Z L sin l

Z 0 Z L cos l Z 0 sin l

(21) Expression of voltage and current in terms of l and voltage VL across the load :
V (l ) VL cosh l
I (l )

VL
sinh l
ZL

as, I L

VL
ZL

VL
V
sinh l L cosh l
Z0
ZL

(22) Expression of voltage and current variation for a lossless short circuited
termination:V (l ) 2V sin l and | I (l ) |

2V
cos l
Z0

(23) Expression of voltage and current variation for a lossless open circuited
termination:V (l ) 2V cos l and
(24) Power transfer on a TX line :

I (l )

2V
sin l
Z0

Power delivered to the load, PL

| V |2
1 L
2Z 0

(25) TX line as resonant circuits :Depending on the length of a TX line, it will behave as a series or parallel resonance
circuit for a short and open circuited termination.
SEE PAGE 42 and 43.
The quality factor, Q

,
2

The 3 dB BW is, BW = f0/Q,

where Np/m and rad/m.

f0 resonance frequency (Hz)

(P14) A lossless line of 300 characteristic impedence is terminated in an admittance

0.01 + j0.02. Find (a) reflection coefficient at the load end (b) reflection coefficient at
a distribution of 0.2 from the load end (iii) impedence at a distribution of 0.2 from the
load end.
Solution : Reflection coefficient at the load end;
Z L Z0
Z L Z0

(a)

or,

1 1

YL Y0 Y0 YL
L

1 1 Y0 YL

YL Y0

Given Z0 = 300, Y0 = 1/Z0 = 3.33 103

L = 0.8462 0.2308 j
(b) Reflection coefficient at a distribution of l from the load end;
(l ) L e j 2 l
or,

(l ) L e

j 2

2
0.2

as l = 0.2

or,

(l ) = 0.5489 + 0.684 j

(c) Impedence at a location of l = 0.2 on the line;

Z (l ) Z 0

1 (l )
103.11 611.3 j
1 (l )

FOR PRACTICE; PLS SOLVE THE PROBLEMS FROM :ELEMENTS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS SADIKU
(PG.533 TO 541) 54 PROBLEMS.