NEBOSH International Diploma in Occupational Health and Safety

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Element IB2: Hazardous Substances & Other Chemicals - Assessment of Risk

Learning outcomes.
On completion of this element, candidates should be able to:
1. Outline the factors to consider when assessing risks for chemicals which are hazardous to
health.
2. Explain elimination of risk or control measures for chemicals which are hazardous to
health.
3. Explain the specific requirements for asbestos.
Relevant Standards
International Labour Office, Safety in the Use of Chemicals at Work, an ILO Code of Practice,
ILO, 1993.
International Labour Office, Safety in the Use of Asbestos, an ILO Code of Practice, ILO, 1984.
International Labour Office, Ambient Factors in the Workplace, an ILO Code of Practice, ILO,
2001.
Minimum hours of tuition: 5 hours.

1.0 Assessing Risks

Introduction
In this element we shall be looking at the risk assessment procedures with regards to chemicals
at work, including the appraisal of control measures, the elimination of risk, the action programme
and the review of the assessment.
Guidance on risk assessment procedures is available from three ILO publications, the ILO Code
of Practice `Safety in the Use of Chemicals at Work, ILO Code of Practice `Ambient Factors in
the Workplaceand more specifically on the use of asbestos, the ILO Code of Practice `Safety in
the Use of Asbestos'.
Reference has also been made to UK legislation for controlling the use of chemicals in the workplace, The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002 (as amended
2005).

1.1 ILO Code of Practice - Safety in the Use of Chemicals at Work

ILO Code of Practice - Safety in the Use of Chemicals at Work.
ILO Cop on the Safety in the Use of Chemicals at Work was published in 1993. Chemicals are
widely used in work activities, and in substantial qualities. Such use of chemicals presents a risk
and the code of practice recognises the need for a systematic approach to safety in the use of
chemicals at work. The code provides practical guidance on the implementation of the provisions
of the Chemicals Convention, 1990 (No. 170), and Recommendation, 1990 (No. 177).
In this section we shall be focussing on Chapter 6.2 procedures for assessment.
6.2. Procedures for assessment
The assessment should be carried out by employers or by persons acting on their behalf who
have the necessary information, instruction and training and are competent to do so. It should
include:

(a) Assessment of risk

(b) Appraisal of control measures
(c) Action programme
Assessment of risk
This should include the nature of the hazard:
acute or chronic ill-health through routes of entry into the body inhalation, absorption through
the skin or ingestion.
injury or ill-health from skin or eye contact.
injury from fire, explosion or chemical reactivity.
Appraisal of control measures
The estimate of risk should cover the hazards and control measures covered in chapter 6.5. Account should be taken of whether the risk can be eliminated, and engineering controls and systems of work. Account should be taken of exposure limits and other exposure criteria specified.
Personal protective equipment should only be considered as a control method when other methods are insufficient.
Action Programme
The risk estimation should be compared with formulated criteria and a programme of work drawn
up. The assessment of risk should take into account:
Quantity of the chemical.
Operating conditions and processes.
Range and used of chemicals (production, handling, storage, transport and disposal).
Variety of tasks (particularly those where the engineering controls provided are not available).
Nature of the chemical and the way it is used.
The consequences and likelihood of failure of control measures provided.
Atmospheric sampling should be used where appropriate.
It is recommended that candidates familiarise themselves with the recommendations of the Code
of Practice. The Code of Practice is available on the following link:
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_protect/@protrav/@safework/documents/normativ
einstrument/wcms_107823.pdf

1.2 ILO Code of Practice - Ambient Factors in the Workplace

ILO Code of Practice - Ambient Factors in the Workplace
The ILO Code of Practice `Ambient Factors in the Workplace was published in 2001. The code is
not intended to replace national laws, standards and regulations.The code provides practical recommendations for assessing, controlling and eliminating hazardous ambient factors in the workplace. It gives guidance on the roles and obligations of competent authorities and the responsibilities, duties and rights of employers, workers and others involved in preventing illness and injury
among the workforce. The hazards include hazardous substances, ionizing radiation, electric and
magnetic fields, optical radiation, as well as noise, vibration, thermal conditions and humidity. It
also focusses on education and training programmes to ensure workers receive relevant and up
to date information on their working conditions. The code consists of ten chapters and an annex.
1. General provisions
2. General obligations, responsibilities, duties and rights
3. General principles of prevention and control
4. Hazardous substances
5. Ionizing radiation
6. Electric and magnetic fields
7. Optical radiation

8. Heat and cold

9. Noise
10. Vibration
Annex
In this section we shall be focussing on Chapter 4.2
The ILO Code of Practice Ambient Factors in the Workplace, Chapter 4.2 , recommends three
stages to an assessment of hazardous substances.
Stage 1 workplace inspection and obtaining of information.
Stage 2 Using the information obtained to assess the risks to health.
Stage 3 - Determination of a programme for the measurement of airborne contaminants.
Stage 1 - Workplace inspection and obtaining of information
The following information should be obtained on the hazardous substances:
The hazardous substances;
Activities that take place;
any hazardous substances or processes that may be eliminated;
the intrinsic hazards of the raw materials, products and byproducts according to the physical
states (e.g. solid, liquid, gas) in which they occur or are produced;
the ambient conditions (e.g. barometric pressure, temperature, etc.) under which the hazardous
substances are used or produced;
the impact of either the change in phase of the hazardous substances (e.g. solid to liquid phase)
or fluctuations in the ambient conditions on the health of workers exposed, the public and the environment.
Where can information on chemicals be obtained?
- Information can be obtained from suppliers in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 5 of the
ILO Code of Practice Safety in the use of chemicals at work (Geneva 1993)
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)
- The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS)
- The European Communities and other international/national institutions.
Where can information on mineral or synthetic fibres, mineral dusts and vegetable dusts
be obtained?
- Provisions in the Asbestos Convention (No. 162), and Recommendation (No. 172), 1986.
- ILO codes of practice Occupational exposure to airborne substances harmful to health (Geneva,
1980).
- Safety in the use of asbestos (Geneva, 1984).
- ILO guide on Safety and health in the use of agrochemicals (Geneva, 1991); Dust control in the
working environment (silicosis) (Geneva, 1997) (ILO Occupational Safety and Health Series No.
36).
Assessment information should take into account specific work situations where workers are
likely to be exposed to hazardous substances.
hazardous fumes as by-products (e.g. welding);
hazardous substances and/or oxygen deficiency in confined spaces;
prolonged periods (such as during overtime) with the risk of accumulation of higher doses;
higher concentrations due to fluctuations in ambient conditions;
absorption through multiple routes;
hazardous substances that may be present even in concentrations below exposure limits while
performing arduous tasks.
As these are not normal work situations, exposure limits specified by the competent authority may
be invalid and practical information should be sought from the competent authority (ILO, WHO,
IPCS)
Stage 2 Using the information obtained to assess the risks to health.

To assess the risks to health of exposure the following should be taken into account:
routes of entry (skin, inhalation, ingestion);
the risk of penetration through damaged skin or seepage through personal protective equipment;
the risk of ingestion (due to personal hygiene levels and cultural variations);
levels of airborne concentrations of hazardous substances;
the rate at which work is performed (e.g. arduous tasks);
the length of exposure (e.g. higher exposures resulting from prolonged overtime);
the influence of other ambient factors (e.g. heat) in enhancing the risk of exposure.
Stage 3 - Determination of a programme for the measurement of airborne contaminants.
Information already obtained in stage 2, can be used to determine a programme of airborne contaminants. It may also be preceded by simple qualitative tests such as the use of smoke tubes to
determine ventilation characteristics, and the use of dust lamps for dust emissions. A programme
for the measurement of airborne contaminatnts is required to:
(a) determine the extent of exposure of workers; and/or
(b) check the effectiveness of engineering control measures.
The monitoring of airborne contaminants should be performed only by persons technically competent to do so, and who can determine the compatibility of sampling equipment and interpret the
results of monitoring.
The employer should arrange for regular inspection, maintenance and proper calibration of monitoring equipment and review the assessment. Employers should keep dated records of measurements of airborne
Contaminants.
What should be included in records of measurement of airborne contaminants?
technique and type (e.g. static, personal)
data on plant location
work area
work processes
nature of hazardous substances
names and lists of exposed workers and control measures in place.
Such records should be kept for a period to be determined by the competent authority.
It is recommended that candidates familiarise themselves with the recommendations of the Code
of Practice. The Code of Practice is available on the following link:
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_protect/@protrav/@safework/documents/normativ
einstrument/wcms_107729.pdf

1.3 Chemical Agents - COSHH Assessing Risks

What COSHH requires.
To comply with COSHH, you need to follow these eight steps:
Step 1 Assess the risks
Assess the risks to health from hazardous substances used in or created by your workplace activities.
Step 2 Decide what precautions are needed
You must not carry out work which could expose your employees to hazardous substances without first considering the risks and the necessary precautions, and what else you need to do to

comply with COSHH.

Step 3 Prevent or adequately control exposure
You must prevent your employees being exposed to hazardous substances. Where preventing
exposure is not reasonably practicable, then you must adequately control it. The advice in this
leaflet, and in the other guidance to which it refers, will help you to make correct assessments
and to put the appropriate controls into place
Step 4 Ensure that control measures are used and maintained
Ensure that control measures are used and maintained properly, and that safety procedures are
followed.
Step 5 Monitor the exposure
Monitor the exposure of employees to hazardous substances, if necessary.
Step 6 Carry out appropriate health surveillance
Carry out appropriate health surveillance where your assessment has shown this is necessary, or
where COSHH sets specific requirements.
Step 7 Prepare plans and procedures to deal with accidents, incidents and emergencies
Prepare plans and procedures to deal with accidents, incidents and emergencies involving hazardous substances, where necessary
Step 8 Ensure employees are properly informed, trained and supervised
You should provide your employees with suitable and sufficient information, instruction and training.
What is a chemical hazard and risk assessment?
Many of the substances that we encounter in our work, not only in laboratories but also in offices
and other not so likely places, can cause ill-health or fire and even explosion. The properties that
cause these effects are called hazards. In some activities we do not start with a hazardous substance but one is produced from the process as a fume or residue.
In most cases, the harm is not caused by the substance alone but by an unsafe condition arising
from:
the way a substance is used or produced; or
incorrect storage. In many instances, the substances must be released in some way for an unsafe condition to arise:
as a gas, vapour, fume, dust, aerosol;
from a liquid spill.
Unsafe conditions include:
an atmosphere contaminated with gas, dust, vapour, fume, aerosol;
oxygen deficiency;
spills or splashes of liquids;
mixing of incompatible substances;
overheating, excess pressure, exposure to source of ignition.
An unsafe condition may cause:
personal exposure by inhalation or eye or skin contact;
asphyxiation;
spills or splashes of liquids;
violent reaction and/or release of further hazardous substances;
ignition or detonation leading to fire or explosion.
The likelihood that an unsafe condition will actually arise is called the risk. In order to determine
whether an unsafe condition may arise and what to do about it, we need information about both

the substances and the processes involving them. That is, we need to do a chemical hazard and
risk assessment of the activity.
Chemical hazard and risk assessment involves:
identifying the substances used or produced or released in an activity;
gathering information about the hazards, the harmful or adverse effects of the substances;
considering whether and how harm or adverse effects could actually arise from the way the
substances are used or produced, the risk to health and safety;
identifying the people whose health and safety may be endangered;
considering what methods of prevention or control and any other measures are needed;
identifying the need for monitoring:
performance of control measures;
workplace conditions;
personal exposure;
health;
determining the management of foreseeable emergencies;
identifying the information, training and instruction needs of those who may be affected.
In addition to these general principles, there will also be the need to consider what else may need
to be done to satisfy specific requirements of relevant health and safety law.
In some instances, explicit legal requirements will apply to parts of this process. For example,
fume cupboards must be thoroughly checked every 14 months and undergo simple checks every
week; a health record must be maintained for anyone whose work involves a carcinogen.
The purpose of a chemical hazard and risk assessment is therefore to provide the information
and evaluations necessary to allow decisions to be made about the measures needed to ensure
no personal harm or adverse effects will arise from activities involving hazardous substances.
What it is not.
A chemical hazard and risk assessment is not:
a list of the hazards of a substance;
a collection of substance safety data sheets.
Scope and Application.
The requirement for risk assessment applies to all work activities, catering, cleaning, maintenance, research, teaching, etc. that use, or that may produce or release, hazardous substances.
However, separate arrangements apply for substances that are hazardous solely because of radiation or biological hazards.

1.4 Assessment Strategy Generic Assessment

This is not a bureaucratic exercise. In many instances, the assessment may have been largely or
even wholly completed at enterprise level. In such cases, all that is required is to confirm local
arrangements conform to enterprise Policy.
For example, Hazardous Substances Policy specifies the requirements for the storage of highly
flammable solvents. Hazardous Substances Policy is developed from hazard and risk assessment. The assessment does not need to be repeated for a particular storage if the enterprise's
requirements are fully met and this is stated in the local arrangements.
This is known as generic assessment. There are many examples of generic assessment. Follow-

ing a generic assessment is the easiest option, provided that local conditions do not invalidate it.
Guidance.
THE SUBSTANCES.
What is involved?
All the substances used or produced by an activity must be identified. Percentage compositions
will be required for mixtures.
It will be necessary to know what form the substance(s) will be in: gas, vapour, liquid, fume, dust,
mist, aerosol or solid. The form of a substance may change during an activity because of the effect of temperature. For example, the flux used in soldering electronic components becomes liquid and therefore volatile, and also fumes during the soldering process.
Physical and chemical properties.
Physical and chemical properties are very relevant to hazard and risk. Especially important to risk
are physical properties such as boiling point, vapour pressure, evaporation rate and particle size
which influence the mobility of a substance.
In addition to the hazardous properties mentioned below, stability and incompatibility or reactivity
with other substances are important chemical properties.
All of this information should be available in suppliers' catalogues and on suppliers' Material
Safety Data Sheets. Information about substances produced during or from an activity may be
available from other standard reference sources.
Is it hazardous?
A substance is hazardous if it is:
listed under the labelling regulations or has properties similar to listed substances;
listed in the COSHH regulations;
assigned a Workplace Exposure Limit;
a dust of any kind;
any other substance, such as an asphyxiant, that because of its properties or the way in which it
is used or is present can cause a risk to health and safety.
The statutory labelling that appears on containers is very useful for identifying the hazards of a
substance.
Additionally, labelling will display explicit risk phrases such as:
Spontaneously flammable in air.
Contact with water liberates extremely flammable gases.
Causes severe burns.
May cause cancer.
The statutory hazard classifications of substances are included in various Hazardous Substances
Databases. This information may also be found in suppliers' catalogues and on suppliers' Material
Safety Data Sheets.
Where the classification of a substance is not known or is in doubt, refer to the CHIP Regulations
Approved Classification and Labelling Guide.
In the COSHH Regulations, certain substances that cause cancer, heritable genetic damage or
asthma are identified as particularly hazardous.
Dust, even if not a toxic substance, may still be harmful to health if inhaled in excessive quantity.
Dust, even if not a flammable or combustible substance may form an explosive atmosphere. In

both cases, particle size is important. The particle size for respiratable dust is defined in BS EN
481 1993. The range for explosive atmospheres may be many times greater, up to about 400 micrometres.
Asphyxiants are gases which, even if inert, present a risk to health if present in sufficient amount
to significantly reduce the proportion of oxygen to other gases in the air.
Harmful and adverse health effects.
Toxicity and other health effects data will be needed to determine what amount of substance
would harm health, whether the risk is acute or chronic or both and whether it is additive:
acute, from a single contact causing serious effects or death, either immediate or delayed;
chronic, from repeated contacts, even at low level, causing harmful effects or even death;
whether both short-term or long-term effects could occur;
additive either from mixed or from consecutive contacts to different substances.
Some health effects are considered serious at all levels of contact because of the nature or irreversibility of the consequences:
mutagenic, capable of changing the genetic material that determines the heritable characteristics of living cells; carcinogenic, can cause uncontrolled cell growth to give rise to a cancer;
reproductive, may impair fertility or cause developmental damage before conception, during
pregnancy or after birth;
allergenic, can cause hypersensitive condition.
Reactivity and Instability.
Will the substance readily set on fire or explode, or produce a flammable mixture with air? Data
such as FLASH POINT, EXPLOSIVE LIMITS, AUTOIGNITION TEMPERATURE, SELFACCELERATING DECOMPOSITION TEMPERATURE will be needed. Is the substance sensitive
to heat or shock? Are any of the substances incompatible or react with air or water?
The Activity.
The risk of harmful or adverse effects usually arises from the activity, that is, the way in which
substances are used or produced. Thus the assessment must consider what happens during an
activity.
Important features include:
how much substance is used;
are two or more substances mixed;
procedures used, such as pouring, mixing, spraying, abrading, etc;
experimental conditions such as temperature, pressure;
containment or otherwise of the equipment, that is, the ability of the equipment to prevent a release of the substance.
The assessment must also consider:
any potential for change in the activity that would alter the risk;
what could go wrong.

1.5 Risk Assessment

The likelihood that an unsafe condition will actually arise is called the risk.
Unsafe conditions include:
excessive personal exposure to a substance, sufficient to cause harm to health;
Contact with a substance can be brought about in a variety of ways and circumstances:
working with it directly so as to touch it or to inhale it after discharge to air;
the inadvertent mixing of incompatible substances that produces a harmful product (e.g., the
release of chlorine gas from the mixing of hypochlorite with an acid);
being near to where it is handled, transported, used, worked upon, collected, packed, stored,

disposed of, discharged or given off etc.;

entering an enclosed space where it might be present;
disturbing deposits of the substance on surfaces (e.g., during cleaning or maintenance) and
making the substance airborne;
failure of controls;
wearing previously contaminated clothing or protective equipment;
coming into contact with contaminated surfaces;
having a substance passed on from someone else, e.g., from another person's contaminated
clothing or from personal contact.
creation of an explosive atmosphere;
exposure of a flammable substance or explosive atmosphere to a source of ignition;
mixing a substance with one with which it is violently incompatible;
exposure of an unstable substance to shock, heat or flame;
loss of control arising from a mishap or equipment malfunction.
Criteria For Determining Excessive Personal Exposure.
Harm to health can only arise if there is exposure to a substance, that is, contact with it that could
lead to its absorption into the body. Is the substance likely to be present in a form in which it could
be:
inhaled;
swallowed (either directly, or by settling on food, or from putting contaminated fingers to the
mouth);
absorbed through the skin or eyes (either directly, or from contact with contaminated surfaces or
clothing);
in contact with skin or eyes;
injected into the body by high pressure, equipment or contaminated sharp objects.
Exposure is judged excessive if the level exceeds a set standard, such as the Health and Safety
Executive's Workplace Exposure Limit for airborne substances, or oxygen deficiency in the case
of inert gases. Exposure may also be judged excessive according to the severity of the effect,
such as destruction of tissue by a "corrosive" substance.
Especially in research where small amounts of novel or little-known substances may be used,
there may be no official classification or standard applied to particular substances. In these
cases, data from the literature or supplier should be used in conjunction with the official criteria for
hazard classification to determine appropriate in-house standards.
Exposures to airborne substances.
Exposure to contaminated atmospheres will need to be controlled so as not to exceed the Workplace Exposure Limit (WEL). However, where a substance causes cancer, heritable genetic
damage or asthma, then the requirement is to control exposure to a level as far below the limit as
is practicable.
To predict whether the WEL is likely to be exceeded during an activity, it is necessary to estimate
the scale of evaporation or release of substance into the air and the resulting airborne concentration.
Alternatively, compare the amount that may become airborne with the amount needed to produce
the WEL.
For example, 0.67 cm3 of chloroform evaporated into 100 m3 of air will produce the WEL vapour
in air concentration of 2 ppm. In some cases, there is also a risk from skin absorption.
Oxygen deficiency.
Oxygen deficiency may arise when inert gases such as nitrogen and helium displace atmospheric
oxygen. The normal concentration of oxygen in air is 20.9%, and should not be allowed to fall below 18%. The release of about 17% of the room volume of an inert gas will lower the oxygen con-

centration to 18%.
Exposures to substances absorbed through the skin.
Any exposure to hazardous substances that can be absorbed through the skin is excessive and
should be prevented. Such substances include those assigned the skin (sk) notation in EH40,
and those labelled with the specific risk phrases.
Exposures judged excessive by severity of effect.
The emphasis will be on preventing exposure. The classes of hazard to which this category applies are:
corrosive;
carcinogenic;
mutagenic;
allergenic;
toxic to reproduction.
Criteria for excessive risk of fire or explosion.
As with excessive personal exposures, there is scope for assessment by comparison with an appropriate standard, and also by severity of effect.
Flammable/explosive atmospheres and flammable substances.
Three components are usually needed to cause fire and/or explosion:
a flammable gas or vapour or a dust;
oxygen;
a source of ignition.
Controlling any one of these components should control the risk. In the case of gases, vapours
and dusts, it is usual to control the release of the substance because many flammable substances are also harmful to health. The limits for the control of flammable/explosive concentrations in air are at percentage levels, thousands of times higher than WELs.
Where it is possible for an explosive atmosphere to form the DSEAR regulations require the place
to be classified "hazardous" or "non-hazardous" according to whether this may occur in such
quantities as to require special precautions.
Some solid substances readily catch fire on brief contact with a source of ignition. Here the emphasis would be on control of contact with air and the source of ignition.
Certain very unstable substances can catch fire/explode in the absence of an external source of
oxygen or ignition energy. This may be as a result of auto-oxidation as can happen with cellulose
nitrate. The decomposition of acetylene can continue in the absence of oxygen.
Unstable substances.
Some substances explode on brief contact with heat or flame or are sensitive to pressure change.
Here the emphasis will be on controlling the condition that invokes the instability.
Incompatible substances.
Some substances react violently with air or water. Some combinations of substances are incompatible.
Frequency Or Duration Of Unsafe Condition.
The frequency and duration of an unsafe condition are also important considerations in the
evaluation of risk and the actions required for control.

Some adverse effects may be time-dependent, and may not occur if the duration of the dangerous condition is too short.
Some adverse effects from brief exposure are less serious, such as simple reversible irritation
that is not likely to cause long-term harm. The same applies to exposure that is infrequent.

1.6 IPCS Methods for Chemicals Assessment.

In the field of methodology, the work of the IPCS aims at promoting the development, harmonisation and use of generally acceptable, scientifically sound methodologies for the evaluation of risks
to human health and the environment from exposure to chemicals.
The results of such work enhance mutual acceptance of risk assessment products. The work includes the development of general principles of various areas of risk assessment, published as
Environmental Health Criteria, the IPCS Harmonisation Project and addressing the risk assessment uncertainties and challenges associated with new and emerging scientific issues, such as
toxicogenomics. With foresight, international collaboration in this latter area can avoid the need
for subsequent harmonisation. To ensure best use of limited resources, the IPCS and OECD
have developed a framework for cooperation in the field of risk assessment methodologies, which
ensures complementarity, mutual support and mutual involvement in the projects conducted by
each organisation.
The following list provides details of all IPCS methodology publications and projects. It is organised by topic area rather than type of publication.
- Listing of IPCS publications and projects on risk assessment methodology
- Numerical list of EHCs
Environmental Health Criteria dealing with aspects of risk assessment methodology are included
in the numerical listing of EHC and are included in the topic listing of all IPCS methodology work
above.
- IPCS Harmonisation Project
- Human data initiative
- Integrated risk assessment
- Toxicogenomics
- Nutrient Risk Assessment

1.7 People Who May be at Risk from the Work Activity.

Risks to health and safety from a work activity involving hazardous substances may endanger not
only the person performing the activity, but also colleagues working nearby, and a variety of other
people who may be in the vicinity at some time or other.
The risk assessment must identify the people who are performing the activity, and also assess
the extent to which any others from the following categories may be at risk:

research staff;

technical staff;
students;
supervisors;
office staff;
maintenance and cleaning staff;
security staff;
contractors, including service engineers;
visitors;
persons living or working nearby;
persons using public footpaths on company property;
emergency service personnel.

Also, certain groups of people could suffer more than others, e.g., pregnant women and nursing
mothers.
Conclusions about risk.
Possible conclusions are:

an unsafe condition is not likely under any circumstances - no further action required
unless there are specific statutory measures for substance/activity (e.g. health record for
work with carcinogens);
an unsafe condition is not likely during normal operation, but could arise from potential
changes in the activity - define potential changes and specify criteria for review of assessment;
an unsafe condition is not likely during normal operation, but could arise from mishap or
equipment malfunction - assess emergency measures;
an unsafe condition is likely during normal operation - assess and specify measures for
prevention/control of risk.

1.8 Prevention and Control of Risk.

If exposure cannot be prevented, preferably by avoiding, so far as is reasonably practicable, the
use of a hazardous substance by substituting a substance or process which eliminates or reduces the risks to health, then employers must adequately control exposure.
To achieve this, apply protection measures appropriate to the activity and consistent with the assessment in the priority order specified by COSHH. That order is:

first, a high level of inherent safety by careful design, selection and use of appropriate
work processes, systems and engineering controls, and use of suitable work equipment
and materials, e.g. use systems and processes which reduce to the minimum required for
the work the amount of hazardous substance used or produced, or equipment which totally encloses the process;
second, control exposure at source, e.g. by including adequate ventilation systems and
appropriate organisational measures such as reducing to a minimum the number of employees exposed, and the level and duration of their exposure;
and lastly, use personal protective equipment in addition to the previous measures where
adequate control cannot be achieved by them alone.

The protection measures to be put in place should be determined by:

the extent of the risk of ill-health to employees resulting from their exposure to any hazardous substance; and

the scope for reducing the risk to a minimum.

COSHH permits protection measures to be proportionate to the risk the exposure poses. Therefore, the measures should be appropriate to the work activity and consistent with the findings of
the assessment.
This means that the greater the level of risk determined by the assessment, the greater should be
the effort in terms of the time, cost and trouble taken to avert the risk.
In practice, the assessment may result in identification of a number of suitable and appropriate
protection measures that would achieve adequate control of exposure.
In those circumstances, implement the control measures that will work best to protect the health
of employees without imposing a disproportionate effort to the risk arising from the work.
COSHH essentials: Easy steps to control chemicals. The step-by-step guidance in COSHH essentials can be used to identify the appropriate controls for a range of hazardous substances/task
combinations.
Case study.
A company which manufactures lacquers buys liquid citox in drums. They transfer it from the
drum, in a 50 to 100 litre batch process, to a reactor containing resins, where it gets mixed to
make lacquers. They do this twice a day, for a period of two hours for each batch.
Using the Internet version of COSHH essentials (www.coshh-essentials.org.uk), they click 'Go' to
start an assessment, enter the process name 'lacquer making' and tick 'transferring and mixing'
as the tasks.
They choose the option that they are using one substance, type citox and confirm that this is a
liquid.
The next stage determines to which hazard group the chemical belongs (one of A-E, with E being
the most hazardous, and group S for substances that can cause harm as a result of skin contact).
The supplier's safety data sheet (section 15) shows that citox has the risk phrase R21/2236/37/38 - harmful in contact with skin and if swallowed, and irritating to the eyes, respiratory system and skin.
After ticking these combinations and 'Go', the software decides the chemical belongs to hazard
groups C and S.
For liquids, they then need to know how volatile the chemical is. For the first task of transferring,
this is at room temperature (taken to be 25C) and the safety data sheet gives its boiling point as
134C. So they enter this and proceed to consider how much they are using. For each batch, the
company adds litres of citox to the reactor, so they click 'medium quantity' followed by the time
they spend on the transferring task.
At this point, the assessment on transferring citox is completed and they get a summary of their
inputs. Unless they wish to change anything, they can then view the advice offered.
Based on a medium amount of a group C chemical with medium volatility, COSHH essentials allocates the right control approach as 'Containment'.
It lists seven control guidance sheets as downloadable PDF files: the general control guidance
sheet 300; four specific sheets on transferring (of which they decide 306 is most relevant); and,
because citox is also hazard group S, two sheets with advice on protecting employees' skin and
eyes, and selecting and using personal protective equipment.
They also download a summary of the assessment as a record, and this reminds them of other
actions they may need to take.
They then do a similar assessment on the second task of mixing citox at 50C. The key new control guidance sheet from this is 318 about mixing liquids.
As a result of sheet 306 about drum emptying, they realise that their current system of controlling

exposure when transferring citox from the drums to the reactor needs updating. They use the advice to purchase a suitable drum pump. This is installed, and the firm trains its staff on how and
why to use the pump. The firm also improves storage facilities and buys suitable personal protective equipment to protect workers' skin.
Both COSHH and DSEAR specify the measures required, and in order of preference.
Prevention.
The law places the emphasis on prevention. Elimination of a risk is the most effective form of prevention.
Elimination of risk may be by:

not performing the activity;

a change in the way the work is done;
substituting a less hazardous substance; or
removing one of the risk factors, e.g. source of ignition.

Control.
Both COSHH and DSEAR are explicit about methods of control and the order of preference in
which they should be considered. Some controls are inherently more effective than others.
Choice should be of the most effective and reliable controls that minimise the escape and spread
of substances.
The most effective and reliable is eliminating the substance. If a substance is not used, it cannot
be a risk to health and safety. Especially for more dangerous substances, an assessment should
include a brief statement of why it could not be eliminated.
Amounts of substances and release rates should be restricted, and residual risk must be controlled at source by appropriate engineering measures. Examples include a totally enclosed system so that the substance is not released, or local exhaust ventilation to contain or capture the
substance, before it is released to air.
Local exhaust ventilation performance varies according to type and individual specification. The
assessment will need to identify the specification needed to control risk to an acceptable level.
However, a COSHH principle of good practice is that control measures should be proportionate to
the risk.
If potential exposure is 100 times the WEL, then the performance of control measures will need to
be much greater than if the potential exposure were only twice the WEL. However, if a particular
measure is more convenient or acceptable, it does not matter if it reduces exposure more than is
strictly necessary.
However, where there is potential exposure to a carcinogen or mutagen, and it is not reasonably
practicable to prevent it, additional measures required by COSHH include:

total enclosure;
designation of areas that may be contaminated.

All the requirements of DSEAR Regulation 7 must be fulfilled for an area classified "hazardous".
Further Measures.
Information, instruction and training will always be needed. Do the basic arrangements need to
be supplemented because of specific features of the activity or control measures?
Personal protective equipment may also be needed in addition to all other control measures if the
combination of all control measures fails to achieve adequate control of exposure.
The performance of personal protective equipment varies according to type and individual specification. For example, no single glove material will give protection against all substances.

The assessment will need to identify the specification needed to give adequate protection, and
whether personal fitting is required.
Personal fit testing of tight-fitting respirator face pieces is a specific requirement for compliance
with COSHH. The performance of such respirators depends on a good contact between the
wearer's face and the face seal of the mask.

1.9 Monitoring.
Performance of Control Measures.
Are special arrangements needed for checking the performance of controls? COSHH requires
that controls are kept in efficient working order, good repair and clean and that they are visually
checked at least once a week. Engineering controls and respiratory protective equipment have to
be examined and, where appropriate, tested at suitable intervals. The assessment will need to
indicate whether the standard checking procedures will be adequate, if they are not, they need to
specify what extra needs to be done.
Workplace Conditions.
Monitoring workplace conditions might be necessary if there is a risk of a dangerous condition
arising unexpectedly. Examples include toxic, explosive or oxygen-deficient atmospheres. How
will this be done? By installing sensors linked to alarms? Will any interlocking of sensors and control measures be needed?
Personal Exposure.
If the work will cause people to be exposed to a substance, and either it is not known whether the
exposure will be excessive or exposure is expected to be close to the limit, personal monitoring
may be required. Personal monitoring may also be necessary if exposure could occur unexpectedly from a failed control. The type and frequency of monitoring should be specified. However,
personal exposure monitoring may not be necessary if, for example, workplace monitoring gives
advance warning of potentially unacceptable personal exposure.
Health.
Some form of health surveillance is mandatory for specified activities or work with certain substances and if it is believed likely that exposure may give rise to observable health effects.
Relevant examples of substances for which health surveillance is required:

Substances of recognised systemic toxicity (e.g. carcinogens, substances labelled "may

cause cancer" or "may cause cancer by inhalation" or heavy metals such as lead, cadmium).
Substances labelled "May cause sensitisation by inhalation" and other substances known
to cause occupational asthma.
Substances labelled "May cause sensitisation by skin contact" and other substances
known to cause severe dermatitis.
Soldering using rosin flux.

Emergency measures.
What could foreseeably go wrong?

Equipment failure or malfunction.

Spills and leaks.

Other loss of control.

What hazards and risk would arise from foreseeable emergencies?

Fire/explosion.
Contamination of the workplace.
Personal exposure to hazardous substances.
Contamination of water courses/sewers.

What arrangements will be needed to:

stop the incident and bring the hazards under control;

protect people;
provide first aid to people exposed to hazardous substances;
decontaminate/clean up/return to normal;
contact emergency responders.

In particular, are special arrangements indicated, such as the need for hydrofluoric acid burns gel,
or not using water on a fire involving water-reactive substances?
Recording the assessment.
The significant findings of the assessment should be recorded when the assessment is made, or
as soon as is practicable afterwards.
In some circumstances, not all the findings will have been determined at the same time. Some
may be awaiting further information before they can be resolved, and it will not be possible to record these until then, e.g. where there is a pilot operation which runs for a period before being
assessed completely, or where air monitoring results are awaited.
In these circumstances, complete or update the record of the significant findings as information
becomes available.
Review of the assessment.
The need for review is indicated if there is any reason to suppose that the original assessment is
no longer valid, or if any of the circumstances of the work should change significantly.
For example, if there are any significant changes in:

the scale of the activity, quantities of substances involved;

the substances;
the equipment;
control measures.

It is also necessary to be alert for the need of review if, for example:

ill health related to work is reported;

there are fire or explosion incidents;
there is new evidence about the hazards of the substances;
monitoring or health surveillance results show any loss of control;
new or improved techniques of control become feasible.

Hazardous Substances Policy specifies that risk assessments are reviewed at least annually to
ensure that they remain relevant.

1.10 Appendix.

COSHH Requirements, Regulation 7 Prevention or Control of Exposure to Substances

Hazardous to Health.
Exposure to substances hazardous to health must be prevented or, where this is not reasonably
practicable, adequately controlled using protection measures including, in order of priority:
1. the design and use of appropriate work processes, systems and engineering controls and the
provision and use of suitable work equipment and materials;
2. the control of exposure at source, including local exhaust ventilation and work procedures; and
3. as a last resort, where adequate control cannot be achieved by other means, in addition to the
above, personal protective equipment.
The measures referred to above to include:

safe handling, storage and transport, including waste;

suitable maintenance procedures;
reducing, to the minimum number of employees exposed;
restricting level and duration of exposure, and quantity of substances;
control of the working environment, including appropriate general ventilation;
appropriate hygiene measures, including adequate washing facilities.

Control of exposure will only be regarded as adequate if:

the principles of good practice set out in Schedule 2 to the regulations are applied;
any workplace exposure limit is not exceeded;
for carcinogens, mutagens and asthmagens, exposure is to as low a level as is reasonably practicable.

Principles of Good Practice for the Control of Exposure to Substances Hazardous to

Health (COSHH Schedule 2).
(a) Design and operate processes and activities to minimise emission, release and spread of
substances hazardous to health.
(b) Take into account all relevant routes of exposure - inhalation, skin absorption and ingestion when developing control measures.
(c) Control exposure by measures that are proportionate to the health risk
(d) Choose the most effective and reliable control options which minimise the escape and spread
of substances hazardous to health.
(e) Where adequate control of exposure cannot be achieved by other means, provide, in combination with other control measures, suitable personal protective equipment.
(f) Check and review regularly all elements of control measures for their continuing effectiveness.
(g) Inform and train all employees on the hazards and risks from the substances with which they
work, and the use of control measures developed to minimise the risks.
( h ) Ensure that the introduction of control measures does not increase the overall risk to health
and safety.
DSEAR Requirements, Regulation 6 Elimination or Reduction of Risks.
Risk must be either eliminated or reduced SFARP.
Preference should be given to risk reduction by substitution. Otherwise, use controls including, in
order of priority:
1. the reduction of quantities to a minimum;
2. avoidance or minimising of release;

3. control of the release at source;

4. prevention of the formation of an explosive atmosphere, including the application of appropriate ventilation;
5. any release which may give rise to risk is suitably collected, safely contained, removed to a
safe place, or otherwise rendered safe, as appropriate;
6. avoidance of
(i) ignition sources, including electrostatic discharges, and
(ii) adverse conditions that could cause harmful effects;
7. segregation of incompatible dangerous substances;
and mitigate effects of fire/explosion or dangerous substances, including these measures:

reduction to a minimum number of employees exposed;

the avoidance of the propagation of fires or explosions;
explosion pressure relief arrangements;
explosion suppression equipment;
equipment able to withstand the pressure likely to be produced by an explosion;
suitable personal protective equipment;
arrange for the safe handling, storage and transport of dangerous substances including
waste;
risk reduction conditions must be maintained;

Use the following general measures:

Workplace and Work Procedures.
Workplace designed, constructed and maintained so as to reduce risk.
Designing, constructing, assembling, installing, providing and using suitable work processes so
as to reduce risk.
Maintaining work processes in an efficient state, in efficient working order and in good repair.
Ensuring that equipment and protective systems meet the following requirements:
i) where power failure can give rise to additional risk, independent supply needed for equipment
and protective systems;
ii) manual override operated by employees competent to do so;
iii) on operation of emergency shutdown, accumulated energy must be dissipated or isolated as
quickly and as safely as possible;
iv) necessary measures must be taken to prevent confusion between connecting devices.
Organisational Measures.
appropriate systems of work including the issuing of written instructions for the carrying out of the
work; and a system of permits to work, where the work is carried out in hazardous places or involves hazardous activities.
DSEAR Requirements, Regulation 7 Places where Explosive Atmospheres May Occur

Classify places where an explosive atmosphere may occur into hazardous or nonhazardous, and hazardous places into zones in accordance with Schedule 2.
Equipment in hazard zones must conform to Schedule 3.
Hazard zones must be signed.
Before a place is used for first time, the explosion safety must be verified by a person
competent in explosion protection.

Work clothing used in hazard zones must not give rise to electrostatic discharges.

1.11 Factors Affecting the Hazard/Risk to the Individual.

Factors which affect hazard/risk to the individual include:

solubility in body fluids;

synergy;
individual susceptibilities (e.g. atopic persons, women of child bearing capacity);
age;
sensitisation;
and morphology.

We will now look at the above in more detail.

Solubility in Body Fluids.
In the previous study unit, we encountered a number of examples where the harmful effect of an
agent depends on its particular chemical properties and its ability to interact with absorbing areas
of the body.
Examples include:

ammonia gas which can dissolve in moist areas of the respiratory tract (and there are
many other examples of soluble gases which can cause harm by this route);
toxic metals which are only soluble in water at a particular pH which determines where in
the gastrointestinal tract dissolution and absorption can take place; and
organic chemicals which are not water soluble but will dissolve in fats or lipids in the body,
and consequently accumulate in target organs which are susceptible, (e.g. chlorinated hydrocarbons).

Consequently, the particular physical form of the substance (gas, liquid, solid) and its chemical
properties (water soluble, organic liquid soluble in lipids/fats, soluble in acid or alkaline solutions)
gives us an indication of the way in which the material may interact with the body, and hence its
potential for harm.
Synergy.
Chemical agents are able to exert a harmful effect on the body if exposure to the substance in
isolation occurs.
However, if exposure to a combination of agents occurs, it is possible, in some cases, for one or
other of the agents to enhance the harmful effect of the other.
This is called synergy and means that the effect of the combination of agents on the body is
greater than the sum of the individual effects.
The most common example of this is the effect of exposure to asbestos fibres on smokers. Tobacco smoke is known to contain carcinogenic substances, and it is possible to estimate the likelihood of a smoker contracting lung cancer. Asbestos fibres are also a recognised carcinogen,
and epidemiological data gives us the probability of an asbestos worker developing lung cancer
following exposure to asbestos dust.
However, if epidemiological data for asbestos workers who smoke is studied, it is found that the
likelihood of these individuals contracting lung cancer is much higher than that expected from exposure to each agent individually.
As a result of this, in assessing the risk from exposure to a range of chemical agents, it is necessary to consider any synergic effects that may enhance the harmful effect of one or more of the

substances.
Individual Susceptibility.
It is not only the particular properties of the chemical agent in question that determines the risk to
the worker; an equally important consideration is the individual susceptibility, and this can depend
on a number of factors:
Pregnancy or women who have recently given birth.
CHIP 4 provides a number of risk phrases which are of particular significance to pregnant
women:
R40: possible risk of irreversible effects.
R45: may cause cancer.
R46: may cause heritable genetic damage.
R61: may cause harm to the unborn child.
R63: possible risk of harm to the unborn child.
R64: may cause harm to breastfed babies.
Examples of chemicals which can have an adverse effect on pregnant women include:

Organic mercury (slows growth and affects development of the central nervous system)
Carbon monoxide (crosses the placenta and affects the foetus)
Lead (can cause miscarriage, stillbirth and infertility)

Younger or older workers.

Younger workers are vulnerable to chemicals which affect the reproductive system (e.g. insecticides/pesticides), and older workers may have pre-existing medical conditions (e.g. respiratory or
skin problems) that increase the risk from certain substances.
Lifestyle.
Personal habits can contribute to the vulnerability to harm from exposure to certain chemicals.
The effects of some chemicals will be increased where the person is a smoker, drinker or drug
user. We have already referred to the synergistic effect of exposure to asbestos fibres in smokers. Respiratory and lung disorders arising from smoking will compound the effects of exposure to
airborne contaminants.
Excessive alcohol consumption leading to liver damage will reduce the body's ability to metabolise toxic chemicals. Dietary intake will affect the rate of absorption of certain occupational chemicals.
In practice, these factors should be addressed through the occupational health screening and
health surveillance programmes that should support the use of chemical agents in the workplace.

1.12 Exposure Time.

We are already familiar with the concept of dose, i.e. level of exposure combined with duration of
exposure, and therefore the significance of exposure time.
The basic concept is that any "assault" on the body by a harmful agent is immediately countered
by the body's natural defences. Study Unit B1 has considered various defence mechanisms that
the body employs. However, these defence mechanisms take time to respond.
If a low-level exposure occurs over a short finite time and then stops, the body has time to recover.
(If I suffer an acute exposure to ammonia gas, for example, at the STEL OES (3 times the LTEL
OES) for a short period, my lungs have time to clear the contaminant and recover from the inci-

dent, and I should suffer no ill-effects.)

If a higher level exposure occurs over a short finite time and then stops, a greater degree of damage is done and the body will take much longer to repair the damage. However, recovery will take
place since exposure has now ceased.
(If I suffer an acute exposure to ammonia gas, for example, at a much higher concentration than
the STEL OES, my lungs will suffer short-term damage (corrosion, irritation), but recovery will
commence as soon as exposure ceases, although it may take me some time to fully recover from
the damage done to the respiratory tract.)
If a higher level exposure occurs over a longer period of time, damage continues, which eventually overwhelms the body's defences. The level and duration of the exposure is such that recovery is not possible because the body's defences are not able to cope with the continued assault,
and there is no break from exposure to allow the body to recover.
(If I suffer chronic exposure to ammonia gas, for example, at a much higher concentration than
the STEL OES, my lungs will suffer continual damage from the corrosive and irritant effects, and
the respiratory defences will not be able to cope.)
We encountered the concepts of exposure time and dose when we examined hygiene standards
in unit B2, and you will remember that reduced time exposure is a possible control option for
harmful agents. However, it is important to be aware of the significance of likely duration of exposure when assessing risk.

1.13 Exposure to Chemical Agents in the Workplace.

So far in this study unit, we have examined the broad categories of harm under which chemical
agents are classified and considered some of the factors that affect the risk to health arising from
exposure to these types of substances.
Now we look at the range of typical substances that might be encountered in an occupational setting and study, in more detail, their specific harmful effects.
However, to begin with, let us quickly review the types of substances that we are likely to come
across in the workplace before examining typical examples along with occupations that present
exposure risk.
We have already seen how chemical health hazards may be divided into the following categories:

Toxic, including carcinogenic.

Corrosive and irritant.
Dermatitic.

In addition, we have noted that chemical hazards can be classified according to their physical
state as liquids, dusts, fumes, mists, vapours or gases.
Liquids.
It has been estimated that two-thirds of all industrial injuries from chemicals are skin injuries
caused by direct bodily contact with liquid acids and alkalis, due to the corrosive effect of these
substances.
Dusts.
Dusts consist of solid particles, and are created by such operations as grinding or sieving of solid
materials, controlled detonations and various drying processes.
Dusts can, in the event of constant exposure, cause serious lung damage in the form of pneumoconiosis. General poisoning can result from the inhalation of toxic dusts (e.g. lead).
Fumes.

Fumes are finely particulate solids which are created by condensation from a vapour, very often
after a metal has been converted to the molten state. The metallic fumes are usually the oxide of
the metal, and produce highly toxic fumes.
Lead, cadmium, zinc, copper and magnesium are particularly hazardous and inhalation of these
fumes can give rise to an illness known as 'metal fume fever'. Complete removal from the exposure sees full recovery within a matter of days.
Mists.
Mists consist of finely suspended droplets formed by condensation from a gas, or the atomising of
a liquid, or from aerosols.
Mists are created by many industrial processes, such as chromium plating or the charging of lead
acid batteries, and serious hazards can arise. The mists are caused by chemical reaction.
Vapours/Gases.
Vapour is the gaseous form of a solid or a liquid. Rise in temperature causes the vaporisation.
Examples of vapours are petroleum and solvent vapours.
Mercury is a particularly hazardous chemical, as we will see later, since it can vaporise at room
temperature and create a toxic atmosphere. Poisoning has been caused by the inhalation of mercury in a laboratory where mercury has been spilled, with rapid vaporisation.
Gas is a formless chemical which occupies the area in which it is enclosed. Its form can be
changed by the combined effect of increased pressure and decreased temperature.
There are many toxic gases used in industry, such as chlorine, hydrogen sulphide, etc. Many are
nasal and respiratory tract irritants. This irritant factor can give rise to immediate evacuation (e.g.
sneezing) before too much harm is done to the tissues lining the respiratory passages.
Liquids, particulates, gases and various aerosols are all physical states, which are liable to create
hazards in terms of corrosion or toxicity.

1.14 ACGIH - American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc.

The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), is an organisation
open to all practitioners in industrial hygiene, occupational health, environmental health or safety.
Their web site is http://www.acgih.org/.
ACGIH publishes over 400 titles in occupational and environmental health and safety. They are
most famous for their Threshold Limit Values publication which lists the TLVs for over 700 chemical substances and physical agents, as well as 50 Biological Exposure Indices (BEI) for selected
chemicals.
There was considerable controversy concerning the regulatory implications of TLVs, and the
ACGIH was sued by a manufacturer's association in December 2000. See the links below for
more information. ACGIH's press release on the TLV lawsuit settlement.

1.15 Video: [News bulletin] Asbestos.

http://www.sheilds-elearning.co.uk/file.php/4/videos/NEWs-Asbestos.flv

1.16 Summary
The application of toxicological data requires interpretation; the following issues need to be con-

sidered:
relation of materials in use to substances for which toxicological data is available;
type of effect (stochastic or non-stochastic) of the substance;
interpretation of carcinogen, mutagen and reproductive data; and
sensitisers.

2.0 Elimination of Risk or Control Measures

In this section we shall be looking at the elimination of risk or control measures. Guidance is
available from two ILO publications, the ILO Code of Practice `Safety in the Use of chemicals at
Work and the ILO Code of Practice `Ambient Factors in the Workplace.
ILO Code of Practice - Safety in the Use of Chemicals at Work.
In this section we shall be focussing on Chapters 6.4 and 6.5.
6.4. Elimination
Employers should include in their assessment consideration as to whether the risks from the hazardous chemicals used can be eliminated by:
(a) ceasing to use the chemicals;
(b) replacing them by less hazardous chemicals or by the same substances in a less hazardous
form. Care should be taken to consider all the known risks of the proposed substitutes, and action
should be taken on precautionary measures before substitution;
(c) using an alternative process.
Where the use of hazardous chemicals cannot be prevented, the control measures outlined in
sections 6.5 - 6.9 should be followed.
6.5. Control measures for chemicals hazardous to health
(a) good design and installation practice
(b) Work systems and practices
(c) personal protection
Workers should be protected against the risk of injury or disease from chemicals hazardous to
health. Control measures to provide protection for workers could be any combination of the following:
(a) good design and installation practice:
(i) totally enclosed process and handling systems;
(ii) segregation of the hazardous process from the operators or from other
processes;
(iii) plants processes or work systems which minimise generation of, or suppress
or contain, hazardous dust, fumes, etc., and which limit the area of
contamination in the event of spills and leaks;
(iv) partial enclosure, with local exhaust ventilation;
(v) local exhaust ventilation;
(vi) sufficient general ventilation;
(b) work systems and practices:
(i) reduction of the numbers of workers exposed and exclusion of non-essential
access;
(ii) reduction in the period of exposure of workers;
(iii) regular cleaning of contaminated walls, surfaces, etc.;
(iv) use and proper maintenance of engineering control measures;
(v) provision of means for safe storage and disposal of chemicals hazardous to
health;

(c) personal protection:

(i) where the above measures do not suffice, suitable personal protective
equipment should be provided until such time as the risk is eliminated or
minimised to a level that would not pose a threat to health;
(ii) prohibition of eating, chewing, drinking and smoking in contaminated areas;
(iii) provision of adequate facilities for washing, changing and storage of
clothing, including arrangements for laundering contaminated clothing;
(iv) use of signs and notices;
(v) adequate arrangements in the event of an emergency.

2.1 ILO Code of Practice - Ambient Factors in the Workplace

ILO Code of Practice - Ambient Factors in the Workplace
In this element we shall be focussing on Chapter 4.3 Prevention and control.
4.3 Prevention and Control
4.3.1. Where the assessment of hazards or risks shows that control measures are
inadequate or likely to become inadequate, risks should be:
(a) eliminated by ceasing to use such hazardous substances or replacing them with less hazardous substances or modified processes;
(b) minimized by designing and implementing a programme of action;
(c) reduced by minimizing the use of toxic substances, where feasible.
4.3.2. Control measures for implementing such a programme could include any combination of
the following:
(a) good design and installation practice:
(i) totally enclosed process and handling systems;
(ii) segregation of the hazardous process from the operators or from other
processes;
(iii) plants, processes or work systems which minimize generation of, or suppress or contain hazardous dusts, fumes, etc., and which limit the area of contamination in the event of spills and
leaks;
(iv) partial enclosure, with local exhaust ventilation;
(v) local exhaust ventilation;
(vi) sufficient general ventilation;
(b) work systems and practices:
(i) reduction of the numbers of workers exposed and exclusion of non-essential access;
(ii) reduction in the period of exposure of workers;
(iii) regular cleaning of contaminated walls, surfaces, etc.;
(iv) use and proper maintenance of engineering control measures;
(v) provision of means for safe storage and disposal of substances hazardous to health;
(c) personal protection:
(i) where the above measures do not suffice, suitable personal protective equipment should be
provided until such time as the risk is eliminated or minimized to a level that would not pose a
threat to health;
(ii) prohibition of eating, chewing, drinking and smoking in contaminated areas;
(iii) provision of adequate facilities for washing and changing and for storage of clothing (everyday clothing separated from work clothing), including arrangements for laundering contaminated
clothing;

(iv) use of signs and notices;

(v) adequate arrangements in the event of an emergency.
4.3.3. With regard to control measures for hazardous chemicals in respect of storage, transport,
disposal and treatment, the provisions laid down in the ILO code of practice Safety in the use of
chemicals at work (Geneva, 1993) should apply, to the extent practicable with due regard to their
flammability, reactivity and explosivity.
4.3.4. Additional precautions should be taken by the employer to protect the workers against risks
to safety and health presented by those hazardous substances as may be specified by the competent authorities or in the ILO Conventions, Recommendations, codes of practice and guides
and other standards issued by international organizations and other bodies (see section 4 of the
annex).

3.0 Asbestos
It is generally accepted that the type of asbestos classified as crocidolite (blue asbestos) is the
causative agent for mesothelioma. It belongs to a group of inorganic crystalline fibrous silicates
generally called asbestos.
Mesothelioma is the name given to malignant tumours that develop in the pleura and the peritoneum. It is a very rare disease in normal circumstances. Where there has been exposure to asbestos, however, the possibility of developing the disease is markedly increased.
Evidence from many studies indicates that not only are the workers directly involved with the material at risk, but also those who work in the vicinity of its use.
The problem also affects the localities around the area where the material is used, and a high incidence of the disease often occurs in areas 'down wind' from factories involved with asbestos
products. The families of asbestos workers are also at risk, as cases have been reported where
wives and children have succumbed to the disease.
The risk of mesothelioma from the other types of asbestos in general use, i.e. amosite (brown
asbestos) and chrysotile (white asbestos), is considerably reduced, but there is a risk.

Asbestos Types - Crocidolite( Blue) Chrysotile (White) Amosite (Brown)

The mode of entry into the body is generally by inhalation into the lungs. Mesothelioma of the
pleura occurs when the asbestos fibres have migrated through the lung structure into the pleura,
where they can remain undisturbed until they trigger off this sinister disease.
Mesothelioma of the peritoneum can result from fibres migrating through the gastrointestinal tract
to reside in the relative physiological calm of the peritoneum. The fibre may enter the gastrointestinal tract by simple ingestion, but the mechanism most likely is the swallowing of fibres removed
from the respiratory system by the cilia escalator after inhalation.
Tumour development in the peritoneum sometimes occurs from tumours which began in the
pleura.
Factors Involved in Tumour Formation.
The carcinogenic potential of asbestos substances is generally accepted as being related to the
physical size of the fibre and not its chemical composition.
The importance of size has been demonstrated experimentally on rats, where crocidolite fibres

which had been reduced to a non-fibrous dust did not evoke a carcinogenic response in the
pleura, compared with fibrous crocidolite which did evoke a response.
The evidence as to the precise size of fibre required to evoke the carcinogenic response is still
subject to considerable debate, although a general area of potential harm is agreed. Fibres having diameters greater than 0.2 m but less than 0.5 m have been given in research literature.
Fibre lengths in excess of 10 m or between the range 10 to 80 m have been put forward.
The aspect ratio, i.e. the ratio of fibre length to diameter, has been quoted as 10:1 and 5:1.
The general standard for defining risk fibres are those which have a length greater than 5 m and
a diameter less than 3 m, with an aspect ratio of 3:1. There is still some doubt about the validity
of these dimensional characteristics in determining risk.
An important question arising from the relationship between the physical dimension of crocidolite
fibres and their ability to evoke a carcinogenic response is: 'Can other fibrous materials evoke the
same response?'
The answer is unfortunately 'yes'. Aluminium silicate fibres and glass-fibres of equivalent dimension have induced pleural tumours in experimental animals.
The ability of crocidolite to migrate into the pleura and peritoneum and evoke a harmful response
is generally believed to be related to its ability to produce fine, straight fibres. They are able to
break up into the size range which can migrate fairly freely in body tissue and take with them their
potential for harm. When they cease their wandering and 'retire' to a quiet haven, they are then
able to concentrate their irritation in that particular area.
Amosite tends to produce less fine fibres than crocidolite; its potential for harm is therefore reduced.
Chrysotile forms curly fibres which tend to gather into bunches. These properties reduce its ability
to migrate through tissue, which considerably reduces its potential to evoke mesothelioma; but, if
finely milled, the curly fibres can be reduced to dimensions comparable with crocidolite fibres, so
the potential of white asbestos to evoke mesothelioma becomes dramatically increased. It is a
point which is not well publicised.
The exact mechanism by which the cell damage is caused is unknown. One tentative hypothesis
postulates that the potentially harmful size range of the fibres equates to that of viruses, but the
exact relationship has not been explained.
Symptoms:
Pleural Mesothelioma.
In the early stages of tumour growth, there is an increase in fluid around the lungs, which causes
breathlessness and a feeling of heaviness within the chest. It is often mistaken for a heart condition or the ageing process.
As tumour growth rate increases, the lungs and structures in the thoracic cavity become more
compressed until the effects are fatal. Pain usually only develops in the final stages of the disease, due to the effects upon the nerves in the walls of the thoracic cavity and in the spine. The
pain level is very difficult to control.
Peritoneal Mesothelioma.
The tumour development follows a similar course to that in the pleura. Initially, a general swelling
of the abdomen occurs which is often mistaken as 'middle-age' spread. As the tumour size increases, normal movement of the intestine is impeded and constipation follows. Pain is sometimes experienced when defecation takes place. Eventually, cramp pains cause the victim to seek
medical help.
In both cases, the medical diagnosis of the condition is of no value. The victim has, by this time,
long passed the point of no return. One glimmer of hope is that in a few cases, tumours have
spontaneously disappeared.
About six months after recognising there is something wrong with their bodies, the victims will

usually seek medical advice. Few live longer than about a year after consultation; many less.
It is not possible to define conditions or safety limits whereby this form of cancer can be prevented. There is little or no hope of recovery if the condition develops.
The condition occurs fairly readily where there is exposure to blue asbestos. It is likely to arise
from brown asbestos and may possibly arise from white asbestos.
The latency period of mesothelioma is not well-defined. Values ranging from 5 to 60 years are
quoted; the average is about 25 years. Exposure times have been as low as two months.
Except for laggers and insulators whose exposure ranges over the working lifetime, i.e. 25-50
years, the average exposure for victims in one epidemiological survey was about 10 years.
These facts are put forward as the basis of the argument that not only should blue asbestos be
banned from use, but the other forms as well. There are counter arguments of economics related
to employment in the asbestos industry, and the value of asbestos as an industrial and social material of construction.

3.1 ILO Code of Practice - Safety in the Use of Asbestos

You will remember from your studies of element IB1, that The Asbestos Convention, 1986 (No.
162), and Recommendation, 1986 (No. 172), were adopted by the International Labour Conference at its 72nd Session, in 1986.
In this element we shall look at the ILO Code of Practice `Safety in the Use of Asbestos, published in 1984. The code is not intended to replace national laws , regulations or accepted standards but to provide guidance to those who are responsible for framing provisions. The Code is
based on principles established by:
the Occupational Cancer Convention, 1974 (No. 139), and Recommendation, 1974 (No. 147).
the Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977 (No. 148), and
Recommendation, 1977 (No. 156).
the Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981 (No. 155), and Recommendation, 1981
(No. 164).
There are three main objectives of the code of practice which are:
1. to prevent the risk of exposure to asbestos dust at work;
2. to prevent harmful effects on the health of workers arising from exposure to asbestos dust;
3. to provide reasonably practicable control procedures and practices for minimising occupational
exposure to asbestos dust.
The code of practice consists of two parts, eighteen chapters and five appendices.
A. General
1. Objects, application and definitions
2. General duties
3. Exposure limits
4. Monitoring in the workplace
5. General preventive methods
6. Personal protection
7. Cleaning of premises and plant
8. Packaging, transport and storage
9. The disposal of asbestos waste
10. Supervision of the health of workers
11. Information, labelling, education and training
B. Control of asbestos exposure in specific activities
12. Mining and milling

13. Asbestos cement

14. Textiles
15. Encapsulation or removal of friable thermal and acoustic insulation
16. Friction materials
17. Handling of asbestos fibre in ports and container terminals
18. Construction, demolition and alteration work
Appendices A-E
The NEBOSH syllabus requires a closer examination of chapters 5 11 of this Code of practice.

3.2 ILO CoP Safety in the Use of Asbestos - Chapter 5 General Preventive Methods
Chapter 5 of the Code of Practice makes recommendations on General Preventive Methods including using alternative materials, eliminating or reducing exposure to the lowest possible level
through engineering, work practices and administrative controls. This Chapter outlines what
should be included in a control programme and the requirements for the design and installation of
materials, processes and equipment, local exhaust and general ventilation.
5. General Preventive Methods
5.1Alternative materials
Whenever possible, harmful substances should be replaced by substances which offer the same
technical advantages but which are harmless or less harmful. Account should be taken of all
health hazards associated with the manufacture, handling, use, transportation, storage and disposal of the alternatives proposed. Primary consideration should be given to their associated
health hazards; and regard should also be paid to the technological and economic circumstances
which determine the need for the alternatives.
5.2 Methods of control
Exposure of workers to asbestos dust should be eliminated or reduced to the lowest possible
level. All appropriate and practicable measures should be taken including:

Engineering controls

should include mechanical handling, ventilation and redesign of the process to eliminate, contain
or collect asbestos dust emissions by such means as:
(a) process separation, automation or enclosure;
(b) bonding asbestos fibres with other materials to prevent dust generation;
(c) general ventilation of the working areas with clean air;
(d) local ventilation of processes, operations, equipment and tools for the prevention of dust dissemination;
(e) use of wet methods where appropriate;
(f) separate workplaces for certain processes.

Work practices

should be followed where materials or processes are used which may give rise to asbestos dust
in the working environment. Such work practices should include:
(a) requirements to use and maintain process machinery, installations, equipment, tools, local
exhausts and ventilation systems in accordance with instructions;
(b) damping where appropriate of asbestos products and materials at workplaces before processing, handling, using, machining, cleaning, stripping or removing;
(c) regular cleaning of machinery and work areas by appropriate methods;

(d) proper use of personal protective equipment.

Administrative controls

5.3 Control Programme

Each employer, after consultation with workers' representatives, should establish and implement
a general control programme to reduce the exposure of workers to asbestos dust. This should be
in written form.
What should be included in a control programme?
(a) a description of each operation in which airborne asbestos is emitted:
-the processes and machinery used,
-the materials handled
-the control devices
-the number of exposed workers
-the job responsibilities of each worker
-the operating procedures
-the maintenance practices;
(b) a description of the specific means for controlling exposure to asbestos dust;
(c) engineering plans, safety data sheets, study reports or other relevant technical information;
(d) air monitoring data on the efficiency of control measures;
(e) a description of the work practices or administrative controls needed; and
(f) a detailed schedule for implementation of the control programme.
Upon request, the written programme should be made available at the workplace to the labour
inspector and the workers' representatives. And the programme regularly revised and updated. It
is the employers responsibility to define and assign technical responsibilities for this.
5.4. Design and installation
The materials, processes and equipment should be so designed that the exposure of workers to
asbestos dust is eliminated or reduced to the lowest practicable level. Manufacturers of machinery, equipment and materials should provide information concerning the nature and level of asbestos dust emissions as well as the means of control. This includes the design of workroom to
separate the hazardous operations from the remainder of the premises, reduce the surfaces on
which asbestos dust and waste may accumulate, facilitate the cleaning of the premises and the
collection of asbestos dust which may escape should an incident occur.
Automated processes or remote systems should be used to avoid direct handling where practicable. Enclosure of the total process should be designed and constructed for use, where practicable
to prevent the emission of dust. Internal exhaust ventilation can supplement the enclosures and
create negative pressure. Building materials such as boards, sheets and plates should be so designed, prefabricated and packed in the factory that no further cutting, drilling or other machining
is needed by the user, where practicable. Measurements of asbestos dust emission and worker
exposure should be made after installation of equipment to establish the required standard of the
competent authority.
5.5. Local exhaust ventilation
Local exhaust ventilation equipment should be:
provided and maintained where total enclosure is not practicable.
located as close as possible to the source of dust emission by the use of captor hoods, booths
or enclosures.
designed to collect and remove all dust-laden air.
Openings in the enclosures should be as small as possible while still allowing access to the
necessary work operation.
In the case of captor hoods and booths, the ventilation equipment should be so constructed that
air turbulence and eddies created by the work process or by the workers do not prevent the effec-

tive removal of dust.

used for factory operations.
The design of local exhaust ventilation should be referred to a suitably qualified person, and the
nature and quantity of dust emission taken into consideration. The code of practice also sets outs
recommendations for the suppliers of exhaust ventilation systems.
5.6. General ventilation
The code of practice sets out recommendations for general ventilation, in conjunction with the use
of local exhaust ventialation where appropriate.

3.3 ILO CoP Safety in the Use of Asbestos - Chapter 6 Personal Protection
6. Personal protection
Chapter 6 of the Code of Practice makes recommendations for the Provision and Use, Selection,
Training, Cleaning, Maintenance and Storage of personal protection.
6.1 Respiratory equipment (RPE)
Provision and use
The use of RPE should be regarded only as a temporary or emergency measure.
A sufficient and suitable supply of RPE should be available in the workplace.
RPE should be provided for all workers employed in any situation where levels of airborne asbestos fibre exceed or are liable to exceed the exposure limits.
Workers should be informed when concentrations of airborne asbestos fibre reach such levels
and they should use RPE provided.
Workers required to wear RPE they should be fully instructed in its use and supervised.
RPE should be provided and maintained by the employer without cost to the worker.
Selection
RPE should :
Only be worn if tested and approved by the competent authority.
Be of the correct type. The competent authority should provide guide-lines for classifying the
range of concentrations that the type of RPE is recommended for.
be selected in consultation with workers' representatives, on the basis of the maximum concentration of airborne asbestos likely to be encountered. Employers should offer workers a choice to
ensure maximum comfort in use where alternative respirators providing the same standard of protection are available.
Where an adequate facial seal cannot be ensured (e.g. as in the case of bearded workers), a
positive-pressure respirator should be worn, but full protection will not be achieved.
Training
All workers required to use respiratory equipment should be instructed in its use, including:
(a) the reasons for the use of the equipment, and the importance of using it conscientiously;
(b) the circumstances in which it should be used and how these circumstances should be recognised;
(c) the manner in which the equipment operates;
(d) the correct method of use and of checking the fit;
(e) the method of checking for correct operation;
(f) the need for regular servicing.
Cleaning, maintenance and storage
Respirators should be :
issued for the exclusive use of the workers to whom they are supplied.

 regularly cleaned and serviced by appropriately trained operators before reissue.

Stored individually in a suitable container when not in use.
Cleaned weekly or more when in regular use. Pre-filters on filtered air respirators should be
changed and filters should be checked on each occasion.
Records should:
Be kept for each respirator showing the worker to whom it is issued
Include dates of when each respirator is cleaned and serviced
Be made detailing the training and instruction received in the use of RPE for each worker
Detail when respiratory protection is used and should be recorded on the monitoring records of
dust exposure for the particular job.
6.2 Protective clothing.
Provision and use
The employer should provide appropriate works clothing where personal clothing may become
contaminated with asbestos dust.
Where respirators are worn, special protective clothing should also be provided and worn, and it
should completely cover all works clothing so that no asbestos dust is retained when the clothing
is removed. Suitable head covering should also be provided. When re-usable protective or works
clothing is provided, separate locker rooms should be available so that contaminated clothing can
be stored separately from personal clothing.
Laundering
Provision should be made for the laundering of works clothing and should be laundered under
controlled conditions. The laundering of protective or works clothing in workers homes should be
strictly prohibited. Contaminated clothing sent for laundering outside the factory it should be
packed in dust-proof containers, secured at the neck, which should be clearly and suitably identified and containing asbestos-contaminated clothing. The contactor employed to carry out the
laundering should fully understand the precautions necessary for the handling of asbestos contaminated clothing.

3.4 ILO CoP Safety in the Use of Asbestos - Chapter 7 Cleaning of Premises and Plant
7.Cleaning of premises and plant
7.1 General
Every employer should ensure, as far as is practicable, that the work premises are maintained in
a clean state and are free of asbestos waste. All machinery, plant and equipment should be kept
free from dust, together with all external surfaces of exhaust ventilation equipment and all internal
surfaces of the building. Where cleaning by a dustless method is impracticable, workers undertaking the cleaning should wear appropriate protective clothing and respiratory equipment. Such
cleaning should be carried out as far as is practicable when no other workers are present.
7.2 Floors
Floors should be regularly cleared of accumulated dust and waste material. Floor cleaning should
be carried out by vacuum equipment or by some other means that causes no secondary dust
generation.
7.3 Walls
New buildings should be constructed in such a way that their walls have smooth surfaces. Walls
of existing buildings should be rendered smooth as far as is practicable. Walls should be cleaned
annually or more frequently should this be necessitated by the nature of the building or the process.
7.4 Machinery and equipment

Where machinery is fitted with exhaust equipment, the exhaust ventilation should be in operation
while cleaning is in progress. Cleaning should be carried out, wherever practicable, by vacuum
cleaner.
7.5 Overhead structures
The overhead structures of new buildings should be constructed with smooth surfaces and high
ledges should be avoided.
Where practicable, dust should be removed by vacuum cleaner, with extension hoses being used
as required, or by some other means that causes no secondary dust generation. Where dustless
methods of cleaning are not practicable, protective clothing and respiratory equipment should be
worn by all present in the building
7.6 Vacuum-cleaning equipment
Only vacuum equipment with appropriate filters should be used for collecting asbestos dust and
waste and such equipment should be so designed that the dust cannot escape from the equipment back into the workplace. A suitable high-efficiency filter should be used. The collection bags
within the vacuum-cleaning units should be disposable.

3.5 ILO CoP Safety in the Use of Asbestos - Chapter 8 Packaging, Transport & Storage
8. Packaging, transport and storage
8.1 Initial packing of fibre
Asbestos fibre should always be packed in impermeable bags. Where water-soluble bags are
used, they should not be transferred from one container to another but should be transported in
closed containers. Plastic material used for bags should incorporate an ultra-violet inhibitor to protect the bags from sunlight and thus prevent deterioration during trans-shipment.
Bags should be:
closed by either heat-sealing or stitching. If stitched, the stitching should be at not less than two
stitches per centimetre.
printed with an approved label identifying the contents as asbestos and carrying a health warning.

8.2 Packaging for transport

Packaging for transport should eliminate the handling of individual bags as far as is practicable
and should minimise damage to bags which could result in spillage.
Before being transported, Bags should be assembled as unit loads before being transported and

should be stabilised and protected from damage by the use of plastic covers. These should be
applied as shrink or stretch wrapping, or should be strapped into position. The top of the unit as
well as the four sides should be covered by plastic which should incorporate an ultra-violet inhibitor.
The code of practice also makes recommendations where small tonnages are being carried in
mixed cargo vessels and where very large shipments are to be stowed.
8.3 Transport
Where practicable, unit loads other than in very large shipments should be stacked on pallets and
carried in closed road vehicles or railway wagons for overland shipment and in closed containers
for overseas shipment. Loading and unloading should be carried out by forklift truck or by some
other equally effective method, to prevent the handling of single bags and therefore the risk of
damaging bags. Hooks and other sharp equipment should not be used on bags or unit load and
vehicles used for the transport of asbestos should be properly cleaned after they have been
unloaded.
8.4 Damaged loads and bags
Suitable adhesive tape should be available for the repair of damaged loads which should be repaired immediately. Damaged loads should be repaired immediately. Damaged bags which are
not part of unit loads should be repaired with tape and, if need be, placed in a second impermeable bag which should be sealed and clearly identified before being forwarded.
8.5 Warehousing
Before final storage, all units should be carefully inspected for cleanliness and for damage. All
bags should be stacked on pallets. All damaged bags should be repaired immediately. All units
having loose asbestos or other debris on them should be cleaned as soon as possible by vacuum
equipment or by some other means that causes no secondary dust generation. The worker
should be provided with appropriate protective clothing and respiratory equipment. Final storage
should be in a warehouse. If outside storage cannot be avoided, units should be protected by tarpaulins, black plastic sheeting or other suitable covering.

3.6 ILO CoP Safety in the Use of Asbestos - Chapter 9 The Disposal of Asbestos Waste
9. The disposal of asbestos waste
9.1 Waste avoidance
The creation of asbestos waste should be minimised by the adoption of the most effective production techniques.
9.2 Waste collection
The code of practice outlines measures for the collection of waste types, including:
Dust
loose fibre
swarf
floor sweepings
waste materials from fixing or removing insulation
Offcuts,
broken pieces and rejects of high-density materials
sacks or bags containing asbestos
Wet waste: asbestos sludge or slurry
Candidates should refer to paragraphs 9.2.1 - 9.3.3 in the code of Practice.
9.3 Identification and isolation of waste

All asbestos waste awaiting disposal should be:

adequately identified by markings on the bag or receptacle.
stored in such a way that it is not exposed to damage likely to cause spillage.
not be mixed with other waste for which there are no special disposal requirements.
Where practicable, a special area should be set aside for its storage.
9.4 Transport of waste
Asbestos waste, whether loose or in sealed containers, should be transported to the disposal
point in such a way that no asbestos dust is emitted into the air during transport. In the event of
accidental spillage (for example, as the result of a road accident) during transport to the disposal
site, action appropriate to the extent of the spillage should be taken immediately.
Small spillage - the waste should be collected into its original receptacle and reloaded without
delay.
Substantial spillage - and the material dusty, it should be wetted if practicable and covered immediately. The material should then be removed and during this process appropriate safety precautions, which may include the use of protective clothing and respiratory equipment, should be
taken.
Written instructions on the action to be taken in the event of accidental spillage should be issued
to drivers of vehicles carrying asbestos waste.
9.5 Disposal of waste
Before a site is used for the disposal of asbestos waste, care should be taken to establish that
the site is both suitable and acceptable for the purpose. The disposal site chosen should have
vehicular access to the working face, or to a hole or trench dug to receive the asbestos waste.
The waste should wherever practicable be deposited at the foot of the working face of the landfill
site or at the bottom of an excavation dug for it.
Where the waste has to be deposited from above the working face, or into an excavation, care
should be taken to prevent spillage from bags. When deposited, all waste other than high-density
waste should be covered to an acceptable depth (for example 20-25 cm (8-10 in)) as soon as
possible. No asbestos waste should be left uncovered at the end of a working day. Final covering
of asbestos waste should be to a minimum depth of 2 metres (6 ft 6 in). If wet waste is deposited,
it should be covered in the same way as dry waste to prevent the escape of asbestos dust on drying out. Wet pits should not normally be used for the disposal of any asbestos waste other than
high-density material.
Where high-density waste is deposited on a dry site, care should be taken to ensure that it is not
ground to dust by the passage of vehicles over it.
9.6 Personal protection and hygiene
Workers occupied in the collection, transport or disposal of asbestos waste who may be at risk of
exposure to airborne asbestos should be provided with suitable protective clothing and respiratory equipment.
Where vehicles and reusable receptacles and covers have been in contact with asbestos waste,
they should be cleaned after use by means of a vacuum cleaner or by an alternative dustless
method.
9.7 Supervision
Where an undertaking disposes of its own asbestos waste, written instructions should be issued
to the workers concerned. Periodic supervision should be undertaken to ensure that the necessary safety precautions are being followed.

If a waste disposal contractor is employed, the relevant sections of the code should be incorporated in the contract.
The contract should state that the contractor is responsible for ensuring that safety measures are
observed at the disposal site. Periodic checks should also be made by the undertaking to ensure
that the contractor is observing the code.
Besides what has already been stated, appropriate measures should be taken to prevent pollution of the soil, subsoil, air and water.

3.7 ILO CoP Safety in the Use of Asbestos - Chapter 10 Supervision of the Health of
Workers
10. Supervision of the health of workers
10.1 General
Workers whose jobs involve exposure to asbestos dust should be provided with health supervision.This supervision is designed for the individual and collective benefit of workers.
Workers submitting themselves to supervision of their health should have the following rights:
(a) confidentiality of personal and medical information;
(b) full and detailed explanations of the purposes and results of the supervision;
(c) the right to refuse invasive medical procedures which infringe the integrity of their bodies.
A medical examination of the worker potentially exposed to asbestos dust should take place upon
recruitment or prior to assignment to a place of work involving exposure to asbestos dust.
Supervision of health should be provided at no expense to the exposed worker, and medical examinations should, so far as is practicable, be conducted during working hours. Results of medical examinations should not be used to discriminate unfairly against the worker or prospective
employee.
Health supervision should also include:
(a) advice to and care of individual workers;
(b) health education;
(c) identification of workers requiring workers' compensation;
(d) statistics of occupational disease;
(e) research.
10.2 Organisation
Workers' health supervision should include:
(a) pre-assignment medical examinations;
(b) periodic medical examinations;
(c) medical examination on, and where practicable following, cessation of employment.
The objectives of the pre-assignment medical examination should be:
(a) to determine any condition which would be a contraindication to occupational exposure to asbestos dust;
(b) to establish baseline records for the future supervision of the health of workers;
(c) to educate and advise workers about the risks associated with exposure to asbestos dust.
The objectives of the periodic medical examination should be:
(a) to detect the earliest signs of asbestos-related disease;
(b) to detect any significant change in health status relative to the baseline examination;
(c) to continue to educate and advise workers about health risks and to ensure that appropriate
preventive measures are being taken to minimise risk.
Workers should be informed of the results of their medical examination. They should be informed
if, in the occupational physician's opinion, they are suffering from an asbestos-related disease.

Copies of the worker's medical record should be made available to the worker or, upon the request of the worker, to his physician. The medical records of workers should be maintained by the
appropriate physician.
It is recognised that governmental agencies which have authority and responsibility for occupational health research, and which will maintain the confidentiality of the medical record, may be
given access to such records for specific research investigations.

3.8 ILO CoP Safety in the Use of Asbestos - Chapter 11 Supervision of the Health of
Workers
11. Information, labelling, education and training
11.1 General
Because of the importance as a risk factor of cigarette smoking interacting with asbestos, particularly in relation to bronchogenic carcinoma, specific information regarding the importance of cigarette smoking as a risk factor m this disease and in causing other health effects should be provided to all groups concerned with occupational exposure to asbestos dust.
11.2 Labelling of products and of risk areas
All asbestos-containing products should have an internationally recognised warning symbol designating the product as asbestos-containing and warning the user that inhalation of asbestos dust
may cause serious damage to health.
Where practicable, asbestos-containing products should be accompanied by a safety data sheet
or other approved form, containing such information as:
(a) the product designation on both front and back of the sheet or form to facilitate filing and retrieval;
(b) the name and address of the manufacturer or supplier of the product;
(c) the chemical or widely recognised common name of all asbestos ingredients;
(d) the approximate percentage by weight or volume (indicate basis) which asbestos bears to the
whole mixture;
(e) health hazard data including dangerous properties of asbestos;
(f) detailed procedures for the cleaning up and safe disposal of leaked or spilled asbestos, including procedures for the proper labelling and disposal of containers retaining residues or contaminated materials;
(g) requirements for personal protective equipment, such as respirators and protective clothing;
(h) any other general precautionary information on handling the product.
All workplaces where asbestos dust may cause a hazard should be clearly indicated as an asbestos dust exposure area through the use of a well-displayed sign which identifies the hazard and
the associated health effects.
The information on warning labels and signs should be written in the vernacular language understood by the workers.
11.3 Education and training
All workers should, on employment and periodically, be provided with education and training in
regard to sources of asbestos dust exposure, potential health effects, risks associated with asbestos dust exposure and smoking, and methods of prevention.
This education and training should be provided by the employer and written, oral, visual and

worker participation approaches should be used in order to ensure adequate awareness of health
risks, methods of prevention and proper work practices.
All categories of personnel involved in the prevention of the asbestos-related diseases should be
given appropriate training, including:
Managers
Technicians
trade union representatives
labour inspectors
administrators
safety and health personnel, etc.
Specialised training in sampling, in analytical methods and in engineering aspects of asbestos
dust exposure should be provided for occupational hygienists and for other occupational safety
and health workers.
Occupational physicians and other occupational health personnel should have specialised training in the health effects associated with asbestos dust exposure, chest radiography, the technical
aspects of carrying out and interpreting pulmonary function tests and the principles of screening.

3.9 Summary
In this section we looked at the three main types of asbestos, crocidolite (blue asbestos), amosite
(brown asbestos) and chrysotile (white asbestos), and the health effects of asbestos. Exposure to
asbestos causes a range of diseases, such as lung cancer, mesothelioma, and asbestosis (fibrosis of the lungs), as well as pleural plaques, thickening and effusions. `The ILO estimates that
100,000 people die each year from work-related asbestos exposure. Asbestos-caused cancers
will kill at least 15,000 people in Japan in the next five years, and up to 100,000 people in France
over the next 20 to 25 years...asbestos is still the No.1 carcinogen in the world of work. In developing countries, asbestos use increased in the last three decades of the 20th century, while the
United States and other industrialized countries were phasing out their use of the substance'
(source ILO, Article 10 January 2006).
The ILO code of practice - Safety in the Use of Asbestos, chapters 5 - 11, published in 1984, has
also been covered. The code is not intended to replace national laws , regulations or accepted
standards but to provide guidance to those who are responsible for framing provisions.
The ILO have continued to encourage member States to ratify and give effect to the Asbestos
Convention, 1986 (No. 162) - Convention concerning Safety in the Use of Asbestos (Entry into
force: 16 Jun 1989) and the Occupational Cancer Convention, 1974 (No. 139) - Convention concerning Prevention and Control of Occupational Hazards caused by Carcinogenic Substances
and Agents (Entry into force: 10 Jun 1976) by :
promoting the elimination of the future use of all forms of asbestos and asbestos-containing materials;
promoting the identification and proper management of all forms of asbestos currently in place;
and
encouraging and helping ILO member States to include measures in their national programmes
on occupational safety and health to protect workers from exposure to asbestos.
The Resolution on Asbestos of the 95th International Labour Conference (2006) also indicates
that the Asbestos Convention, 1986 (No.162), should not be used to provide a justification for, or
endorsement of, the continued use of asbestos.

Page 1.
Asbestos classified as Crocidolite is _____ in colour
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1:

Blue

Response 1:
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Answer 2:

White

Response 2:
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Answer 3:

Brown

Response 3:
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Page 2.
When exposure to a combination of agents occurs, it is possible, in some cases, for one or other
of the agents to enhance the harmful effect of the other, this is referred to as
Multiple Choice (HP)
Answer 1:

Synergy

Response 1:
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Answer 2:

Individual susceptibility

Response 2:
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Answer 3:

Epidemiology

Response 3:
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Page 3.
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), is an organisation
open to all practitioners in industrial hygiene, occupational health, environmental health or safety.
True/False (HP)
Answer 1:

True

Response 1:
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Answer 2:

False

Response 2:
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