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section 5

drilling fluid rheology

section 5a - rheology of drilling fluids


section 5b - rheology and hydraulics
of drilling fluids

section 5a

rheology of drilling fluids

section 5a
theory of rheology

Scomi Oiltools

rheology background

shear rate

shear stress

viscosity

fluid models

Herschel-Bulkley (modified power law) model

measurement of shear stress - shear rate


relationship

n and K constants

10

laminar and turbulent flow regimes

12

rheology field application

13

plastic viscosity (pv)

13

yield point (yp)

13

gel strength

14

funnel viscosity

15

low shear rheology

16

shear rates in the drilling fluid circulating system

16

cuttings transportation theory

16

cuttings transport ratio

16

general transport ratio (gtr)

17

annular cutting concentration and optimum rop 17

Section

5a

rheology of drilling fluids

rheology of drilling fluids


theory of rheology
rheology background
Rheology is derived from the Greek words rheo, meaning flow and logi, meaning science. It can
be defined as the science of the deformation and/or flow of solids, liquids and gases under applied stress.
In essence, the science deals with the stress-strain-time relationships of any matter.
The rheological characteristics of materials form a continuous spectrum of behaviour ranging from
that of the perfectly elastic solid at one extreme to that of the purely viscous Newtonian fluid at the
other. Between these extremes lies the behaviour of fluids which possess varying degrees of the
character of both extreme materials, such materials are termed visco-elastic.
Relatively little theoretical or experimental work was done in the field of rheology until the early
twentieth century. The science is in fact still in its infancy in terms of the ability to provide accurate
predictions of the behaviour of real systems. This is particularly true with regard to both the polymer
and invert oil emulsion muds being used in drilling operations today, which have far more complex
behaviour than true fluids.
Despite this it is still common practice to express flow characteristics in terms of simple viscosity
terms such as the constants used in the Bingham Plastic and Power Law models. It is also recognized
that surface measurements do not truly represent the fluid behaviour under downhole conditions
at temperature and pressure, but extensive field studies have resulted in a high degree of success
in predicting a fluids performance from this data.
Certain basic concepts of rheology require to be understood to make optimum use of collected
data. Of these concepts the relationship between shear stress and shear rate is most important in
predicting drilling fluid behaviour.
Knowledge of the flow characteristics of circulating fluids is of advantage in almost all phases of
down hole operations. Some of the more important applications relate to selection and design of
fluids to obtain optimum rates of circulation to transport and suspend drill cuttings, increase drilling
rates and reduce hole erosion.
In the drilling situation the application of rheological concepts for drilling fluids are primarily directed
towards:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Suspension.
Hydraulic calculations.
Hole cleaning and hole erosion.
Filtrate migration.
Solids Control.

Although these applications may be of equal importance, drilling requirements vary with time and
location so that one may take precedence over another at a particular time.
In all applications, whether or not a fluid performs a specific function can be attributed to the absence
or presence of viscosity at the shear rate of interest.

shear rate
In a moving fluid shear rate can be defined as the rate at which one layer of fluid is moving by another
layer divided by the distance between the layers. It is the velocity gradient i.e. the ratio of velocity to
distance between layers.
Consider a fluid between two flat plates one centimetre apart. If the bottom plate is fixed while the
top plate slides parallel to it at a constant velocity of 1 cm per sec, a velocity profile will be found
within the fluid. The fluid layer in contact with the bottom plate is static while the layer in contact with
the top plate is moving at 1 cm per sec. Halfway between the plates the fluid velocity is the average
0.5 per sec.
If a moving layer of fluid has a velocity 1cm/sec relative to a static layer at separation distance of 1cm
then the shear rate between these layers will be:
1 cm/sec
1cm

= 1 sec 1

The reciprocal second is the standard unit of shear.


In a drilling fluid circulating system the shear rate is determined by the flow rate through a particular
geometrical configuration. Since the relative velocity between fluid layers is greatest adjacent to the
pipe or hole wall the shear rate is highest at this point. An average shear rate may be used, but the
shear itself is not constant everywhere in the flow.

shear stress
Shear Stress is defined as the force required to move a given area of the fluid. In this case one Newton
is required for each square meter of area. The units of shear stress are Newtons per square metre,
also known as Pascals. Alternative units for shear stress are dynes per square centimetre and pounds
force per square inch. Shear stress is related to the force required to sustain fluid flow. In a drilling
fluid circulating system this is analogous to the pump pressure.

This diagram shows the forces acting on a theoretical liquid. The liquid is contained between the
two 1 square metre plates which are separated by one metre. The bottom plate is stationary and
the top plate is moved at a rate of 1 metre per second. The amount of force required to maintain
this movement is measured in Newtons.
In a drilling fluid circulating system the shear rate is determined by the flow rate through a particular
geometrical configuration. Since the relative velocity between fluid layers is greatest adjacent to the
pipe or hole wall the shear rate is highest at this point. An average shear rate may be used, but the
shear itself is not constant everywhere in the flow.
If, in the parallel plate example used to describe shear rate, a force of 1.0 dyne was applied to each
square centimetre of the top plate to keep it moving. Then the shear stress would be 1.0 dyne per cm2.
The same force in the opposite direction would be needed on the bottom plate to keep it from moving.
The same shear stress would be found at any level in the fluid. Shear stress is constant only as long as
the flow system geometry is constant. It is more common to find the shear stress varying from one part
of a flow system to another.
3

Section

5a

rheology of drilling fluids

The units of shear stress are the same as for pressure, but whereas pressure defines the applied force
per unit area, shear stress is the internal resistance to an applied stress.
Shear stress can be expressed:
shear stress = F/A
Where

F = force
A = area of surface subject to stress.

The standard unit of shear stress is dynes/cm2


Shear rate and shear stress are the two basic quantities involved in the sliding (shearing) flow of a
fluid. Then shear rate is related to the velocity of motion and the shear stress to the forces being
transmitted both to the fluid and from one part of a fluid to another.

viscosity
Viscosity can be described as the resistance to flow and is defined as the ratio of shear stress to
shear rate
shear stress.dynes/cm2
Viscosity=
= Poise
shear ratesec1
Viscosity = shear stress dynes / cm2 = Poise
Shear rate sec1
The units of Poise are too large for drilling fluid studies and viscosity is reported in centipoises or
millipascal.second (1cP = 1 mPa.s).
Since viscosity is dependent on both shear rate and shear stress, one or the other must be specified
when a viscosity measurement is stated. Shear rate is the usual variable defined, either as an actual
shear rate in reciprocal seconds or as speed in rpm from a concentric cylinder viscometer.

fluid models
Fluids can be separated into different classes according to the relationships which exists in a fluid
between shear rate and shear stress. The most simple class of fluids are called Newtonian. Water and
light oils are examples of Newtonian fluids.

In these fluids the shear stress is directly proportional to the shear rate. When the shear rate is doubled
the shear stress is doubled i.e. when the circulation rate is doubled the pressure required to pump the
fluid is doubled. Such fluids have a constant viscosity.
For most fluids, viscosity is not a constant, but varies with the shear rate. Such non Newtonian fluids
are called rate dependent. Almost all drilling fluid viscosifiers provide rate dependent fluids.
To illustrate rate dependent effects a fluid is tested for shear stress or viscosity at a number of shear
rates. When these data are plotted on a log-log scale a viscosity profile of the fluid is obtained.
Examples of types of flow are:

The shear rate / shear stress ratio of non Newtonian fluids is not constant, which is true of most
drilling fluids. The two most popular mathematical models for describing non-Newtonian drilling fluids
are called the Bingham Plastic model and Power Law model.

SHEAR STRESS,

Non Newtonian Fluid Behaviour

SHEAR RATE

G,

Section

5a

rheology of drilling fluids

Some fluids have a critical yield stress which must be exceeded before flow is initiated. If the
fluid has essentially Newtonian flow after the yield stress is exceeded it is termed a Bingham Plastic
fluid. The major shortcoming of the application of this model to drilling fluids is that it only
describes fluid flow over a short shear rate range of 511 - 1022 sec-1. Consequently the Bingham model
may not accurately describe fluid rheological characteristics in all drilling situations.
Most drilling fluids are Pseudoplastic. In this case increased shear rate produces a progressive
decrease in viscosity. In polymer solutions this is due to the alignment of the long polymer chains
along the flow lines. If the application of any shear stress above zero produces fluid flow, i.e. no critical
yield stress, the fluid is termed a Power Law fluid. This model more accurately describes flow
characteristics of drilling fluids over the shear rate ranges experienced in the annulus of a well bore.
Polymeric drilling fluids can be shown to follow the Power Law model very closely. Some other fluids
show a profile which falls between Power Law and Bingham Plastic.
Although the API has selected the Power Law model as the standard model, the Power Law
model, however, does not fully describe drilling fluids because it does not have a yield stress and
underestimates low shear rate viscosity. The modified Power Law or Herschel-Bulkley model can be
used to account for the stress required to initiate fluid movement (yield stress).

The diagram shows the differences between the modified Power Law, the Power Law and Bingham
Plastic models. The modified Power Law falls between the Bingham Plastic model, which is highest,
and the Power Law, which is lowest and consequently more closely resembles the flow profile of a
typical drilling mud.

Herschel-Bulkley (modified power law) model


In reality, most drilling fluids have a yield stress. The Herschel-Bulkley or the modified power law is
the best model to precisely describe the rheological behaviour of drilling fluids compared to any
other models. It is a three parameter model that reproduces the results of the previous models (Bingham
Power Law, Newtonian) when the appropriate parameters have been measured. The Herschel-Bukley
model uses the following equation to describe fluid behaviour:
TT O+ (K

Gn)

Where
T = shear stress in lb/100 ft2
T O = fluids yield stress (shear stress at zero shear rate) in lb/100 ft2
K = fluids consistency index in cP - secn or lb - secn/100 ft2
n = fluids flow index
G = shear rate in sec-1
In Herschel-Bulkley model, the K and n values are worked out differently than their counterparts in
the power law model. The Herschel-Bulkley reflects more to Bingham model when n = 1 and it
reflects to the power law model when T0 = 0. [One obvious advantage the Herschel-Bulkley model has
over the power law model is that, from a set of data input, only one value for n and K are calculated.]
Hydraulics calculations for Herschel-Bulkley (modified power law) fluids cannot be solved by simple
equations. For quick solutions, consult the Scomi Oiltools hydraulics programs using HyPR-CALC.
Calculated Results
Rheology Model

YP
(Ibf/100ft2)

Newtonian
Bingham-Plastic
Power-Law
Herschel-Bulkley

0
13.1257
0
10.9075

Vis., PV or K
(cp)
46.8023868
37.2818854
2842.1364294
97.1097869

Standard
Deviation

1
1
0.3578
0.8627

3.9039
0.7181
3.6169
0.1644

Draw
Curve

Figure 1: Calculated rheology model in HyPR-CALC

Viscometer Reading

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Measurement
Newtonian
Herschel-Bulkley

100

200

300

400

500

600

Speed (rpm)
Figure 2: Rheology models available in Scomi Oiltools hydraulic program HyPR-CALC
Herschel-Bulkley graph usually reflects a yield stress where the shear stress is greater than zero where as
a Newtonian graph is usually a straight line that originates from shear stress equal to zero.

Section

5a

rheology of drilling fluids

Invert emulsion muds are suspensions of both solids and emulsions and there is no accepted
rheological model that can be applied to both emulsions and suspensions, in addition these fluids
show pronounced pressure and temperature effects. A Casson Model is sometimes used to describe
invert fluids though some oil muds can be shown to follow the Bingham Plastic model between
shear rates of 127- 340 sec1 (75-250 rpm). Below 1271 the characteristics lie between Power Law and
Bingham Plastic.
The Newtonian, Bingham Plastic, and Power Law models are specific cases of the Robertson-Stiff
model. It is a three parameter model that includes the 3 rpm rheometer dial reading and is written in its
general form as:
T = K(G 0 + G)n
To use common rheometer data for the analysis of a fluid conforming to the Robertson-Stiff model,
the general equation becomes

T1
T2


n

N3 N2
N3 N1

T3
T2


n

N2 N1
N 3 N1



Where:
N3, N2, and N1 are rpm speeds and N3 > N2 > N1,
T3, T2, and T1 are rheometer sheer stress readings at N3, N2, and N1, respectively.
This equation must be solved iteratively to find n. G0 and k can then be calculated by solving the
following equations.

30 ln(b)

ln(b)
where
b = the ratio of the rheometer sleeve radius to the bob radius.
The Robertson-Stiff equation will generally provide the best approximation for pressure losses in
the circulating system in most drilling situations. It will not, however, emulate a fluid that follows
the Casson equation.
If a fluid profile shows a critical yield stress and then flows like the pseudoplastic model it is referred
to as an Ellis fluid. This model has been used to describe Xanthan Gum solutions. The yield stress is
equivalent to the elastic modulus of the solution.
Some rare fluids show Dilatant or reverse pseudoplastic behaviour. These are characteristically
suspensions having a high solids loading e.g. high concentration gypsum suspensions. These
fluids increase in viscosity with increasing shear rate and can show a negative calculation of yield
point, the true figure is zero.
8

Besides shear rate dependent effects some fluids can also exhibit time dependent effects. In these
cases the viscosity changes with continued shear at constant rate.

Time Dependent Effects

VISCOSITY

RHEOPECTIC

THIXOTROPIC

TIME

Fluids which are thixotropic in nature decrease in viscosity with time. This type of fluid shows a
memory effect or hysteresis when subjected to varying rates of shear. There is a time lag in
establishing an equilibrium viscosity when the shear rate is changed, the fluid will initially tend
towards to the viscosity associated with the previous shear rate.
Some highly concentrated suspensions can display herpetic flow. In this case the viscosity of the fluid
will increase with time at a constant shear rate.

measurement of shear stress - shear rate relationship.


The most commonly used instrument for the rheology evaluation of a drilling fluid is the concentric
cylinder or cup and bob viscometer. This is typically a Fann 35A six speed model.
In operation the rotor and bob is immersed in the fluid sample and the rotor is turned at a
constant speed. The fluids resistance to flow imparts a torque on the bob which deflects the dial
proportionally to the viscous properties of the fluid.
The geometry of rotor and bob determines the shear rates obtainable with this viscometer.
The standard rotor bob combination has a 0.117cm gap and the conversion of rpm to shear rate
in sec1 is given by the formula
Shear rate (sec1) = rpm x 1.703
The shear stress from this instrument is taken from the dial reading R.
Shear Stress (lb/100ft2)
= R x 1.067
2
Shear Stress (dynes/cm ) = R x 5.1

Section

5a

rheology of drilling fluids

The six speeds of the Fann 35A and the corresponding shear rates are:600 rpm
300 rpm
200 rpm
100 rpm
6 rpm
3 rpm

- 1022.0 sec1
- 511.0 sec1
- 340.7 sec1
- 170.3 sec1
- 10.22 sec1
- 5.11 sec1

In order to obtain accurate correlations, it is important that viscometer readings are taken at the same
temperature, normally 120 F (49 C).
Using the Bingham Plastic model for data interpretation, the following values are reported.
PV
YP

=
=

R600 reading R300 reading


R300 reading PV
or
(R300 reading PV) x 0.48 in Pa
Bingham Plastic Model Parameters

Shear Stress, T

PV

YP

300

600

Shear Rate (RPM), G

The Bingham values PV and YP give a poor definition of the flow characteristics of the fluid over
a wide shear range, but shear stress values at all six speeds can be converted to viscosity values
for the six shear rates and plotted on a log/log viscograph. This gives a good viscosity profile in a
form readily correlated with the various shear ranges experienced in the circulating system and solids
control equipment.
Measurement of initial gel strength is indicative of the elastic modulus and hence suspension
characteristics of the fluid and the relationship of initial and 10 minute gel strength illustrates the
degree of thixotropy present.
The R6 value is directly relevant to annular viscosity of some hole diameters and this value is
increasingly being used as a control parameter in ensuring good hole cleaning properties.

n and K constants
Although the Bingham Model constants, PV and YP are the most widely used properties for
evaluating drilling fluid rheology, it has to be recognised that this model does not always
accurately predict drilling fluid performance. This applies in particular to annular rheological
calculations.

10

Shear Stress v Shear Rate

The Power Law Model more closely approximates to the actual drilling fluid, in particular to low
solids polymer based systems. This model can be calculated over the annular region (normally less
than 100 rpm or 150 sec1 shear rate), it will more accurately predict a drilling fluids performance.
Power Law Model T = KG n
Where

T = shear stress dynes / cm2


K = Consistency index dynes secn/ cm2
G = Shear rate sec1
n = Power Law Index

The n constant indicates the degree of non-Newtonian character that a fluid exhibits over a
defined shear rate range. Newtonian Fluids have an n value of equal to one. As n decreases
from one the fluid becomes more pseudoplastic or shear thinning with increase in shear rate.
Lowering the n value improves hole cleaning performance by increasing the effective annular
viscosity and flattening the annular velocity profile. This reduces any turning effect on cuttings,
helping to prevent particle breakage and moves the solids more directly up the hole.
The n constant is dependant upon the type of viscosifier used. Every material has an inherent
n constant, but it may vary with concentration and shear rate. Xanthan Gum provides the lowest
n constant, the only material providing a similar value being extended bentonite.

11

Section

5a

rheology of drilling fluids

K the consistency index is the shear stress or viscosity of the fluid at a shear rate of one sec1 . It
relates directly to the system viscosity at low shear rates. An increase in K raises the effective
annular viscosity and therefore the hole cleaning capacity. It can also increase, however, the bit
viscosity and circulating pressure loss. The K constant is controlled by both the type of viscosifier
and the total solids content of the fluid. It will increase with decrease in the n constant or by
increase in solids concentration. K can be reported as dynes/cm2 secn or lbs/100ft2 secn. An
increase in K value should if possible be obtained via a decrease in n value to avoid increasing the
circulating system viscosity.
The n and K values can be calculated from any two viscometer dial readings. For Hydraulic
calculations determining n and K in the range of interest (i.e. 5 -150 sec1 for annular calculations)
will provide more accurate results.
" n"

log (rpm2 wrpm1)

" K"

where:

log R2 w R 1

5.11R2

(1.7 rpm 2 )

R1 = Dial reading at rpm1


R2 = Dial reading at rpm2

laminar and turbulent flow regimes


Single phase flow can be either laminar or turbulent. In a drilling situation it is usually important
to know which of these two flow regimes are present in a hole interval.
In laminar flow, motion is parallel to the walls of the flow channel. The particles of fluid move in
straight lines or in long smooth curves. Flow tends to be laminar when it is slow or the fluid is viscous.
In laminar flow the force required to move the fluid increases with increase in the velocity and viscosity.
In turbulent flow the fluid is continually swirling and eddying as it moves along the flow channel.
There is an average movement of the fluid in a particular direction but individual particles of the
fluid move along in random loops and circles. In turbulent flow these velocity fluctuations arise
spontaneously and are not caused by wall projections or changes in direction. These factors can
however increase the degree of turbulence. Flow tends to be turbulent when the flow is rapid or when the
fluid has low viscosity. In turbulent flow, the force required to move the fluid increases linearly with
density and as the square of viscosity.
Transition Velocity - The flow of any particular fluid in any particular flow channel can be either
laminar or turbulent. At low velocities, the flow will be laminar. If the velocity of a fluid in laminar
flow is increased, the flow at some point will suddenly become turbulent. If the velocity is reduced
again, the flow will return to its laminar character. Thus for any particular system there will be a
transition velocity where the flow shifts between laminar and turbulent.
The transition between laminar and turbulent flow occurs because the inertial forces vary as the
square of the flow rate, while viscous forces vary only as the flow rate. The ratio of inertial forces to
viscous forces is the Reynolds Number.

12

In general laminar flow is the desired regime, but exceptions occur where turbulent flow is
desired for specialized applications e.g. turbulent sweeps to remove cutting beds and clean out
enlarged hole sections. Turbulent flow is often chosen by preference to drill horizontal intervals.
Turbulent flow however, does give larger annular pressure losses, increased wellbore erosion and cause
drill cutting attrition through the tumbling effect in the annulus.
In a turbulent regime the fluid viscosity has no contribution to hole cleaning, but the viscosity of a
fluid determines whether a flow regime is turbulent or laminar for a given velocity and hole diameter.

rheology field application


plastic viscosity (pv)
Drilling muds are usually composed of a continuous fluid phase in which solids are dispersed.
Plastic viscosity is that part of the resistance to flow caused by mechanical friction. The friction is caused
by:
Solids concentration.
Size and shape of solids.
Viscosity of the fluid phase.
For practical field applications, plastic viscosity is regarded as a guide to solids control. Plastic
viscosity increases if the volume percent of solids increases or if the volume percent remains
constant, and the size of the particle decreases. Decreasing particle size increases surface area, which
increases frictional drag. Plastic viscosity can be decreased by decreasing solids concentration or
by decreasing surface area. Plastic viscosity is decreased by reducing the solids concentration by
dilution or by mechanical separation. As the viscosity of water decreases with temperature, the
plastic viscosity decreases proportionally. Therefore, controlling PV of a mud in practical terms involves
controlling size, concentration and shape of the solids and minimising the viscosity of the liquid
phase - such as avoiding viscosifying polymers and salts unless absolutely needed.
The value of plastic viscosity is obtained by subtracting the 300 rpm reading from the 600 rpm reading:
PV = 600 rpm reading 300 rpm reading
PV of a mud is the theoretical minimum viscosity a mud can have because it is the effective viscosity
as shear rate approaches infinity. The highest shear rate occurs as the mud passes through the bit
nozzles; therefore, PV will approximate the muds viscosity at the nozzles.

yield point (yp)


The yield point is the initial resistance to flow caused by electrochemical forces between the particles.
This electrochemical force is due to charges on the surface of the particles dispersed in the fluid
phase. Yield point is a measure of these forces under flow conditions and is dependent upon:

The surface properties of the mud solids


The volume concentration of the solids and
Ionic environment of the liquid surrounding the solids

13

Section

5a

rheology of drilling fluids

High viscosity resulting from high yield point is caused by:


Introduction of soluble contaminant (ions) such as: salt, cement, anhydrite or gypsum, which interact
with the negative charges on the clay particles.
Breaking of the clay particles through mechanical grinding action creating new surface area of
the particles. These new charged surfaces (positive and negative) pull particles together as a floccs.
Introduction of inert solids (barite) into the system, increasing the yield point. This is the result of
the particles being forced closer together. Because the distance between the particles is now
decreased, the attraction between particles is greatly increased.
Drilling hydratable shales or clays which introduces new, active solids into the system, increasing
attractive forces by bringing the particles closer together and by increasing the total number of
charges.
Insufficient deflocculant treatment.
Yield point can be controlled by proper chemical treatment. As the attractive forces are reduced by
chemical treatment, the yield point will decrease. The yield point can be lowered by the following
methods:
Charges on the positive edges of particles can be neutralised by adsorption of large negative
ions on the edge of the clay particles. These residual charges are satisfied by chemicals such as:
tannins, lignins, complex phosphates, lignosulphonate, etc. The attractive forces that previously
existed are satisfied by the chemicals, and the negative charge of the clay particles predominates,
so that the solids now repel each other.
In the case of contamination from calcium or magnesium, the ions causing the attractive force
are removed as insoluble precipitants, thus decreasing the attractive forces and YP of the mud.
Water dilution can lower the yield point, but unless the solids concentration is very high, it is
relatively ineffective.
Yield point (YP) is calculated from VG measurements as follows:
YP = 300 rpm reading (600 rpm reading - 300 rpm reading)
YP = 300 rpm reading PV
or
YP = (300 rpm reading PV) x 0.48 in Pa

The limitation of the Bingham plastic model is that most drilling fluids, being pseudoplastic,
exhibit an actual yield stress which is considerably less than calculated Bingham yield point. This
error exists because the Bingham plastic parameters are calculated using a VG meter at 600 rpm
(1022 sec-1) and 300 rpm (511 sec-1); whereas, typical annular shear rates are much less (Table 1).

gel strength
Gel strengths, 10-second and 10-minute, measured on the VG meter, indicate strength of attractive
forces (gelation) in a drilling fluid under static conditions. Excessive gelation is caused by high solids
concentration leading to flocculation.

14

Types of Gel Strengths Diagram (to convert to Pa multiply gel strength by 0.48)

Signs of rheological trouble in a mud system often are reflected by a muds gel strength
development with time. When there is a wide range between the initial and 10-minute gel readings
they are called progressive gels. This is not a desirable situation. If initial and 10-minute gels are
both high, with no appreciable difference in the two, these are high-flat gels, also undesirable.
The magnitude of gelation with time is a key factorin the performance of the drilling fluid.
Gelation should not be allowed to become much higher than is necessary to perform the function
of suspension of cuttings and weight material. For suspension low-flat gels are desired.
Excessive gel strengths can cause:

Swabbing, when pipe is pulled.


Surging, when pipe is lowered.
Difficulty in getting logging tools to bottom.
Retaining of entrapped air or gas in the mud.
Retaining of sand and cuttings while drilling.

Gel strengths and yield point are both a measure of the attractive forces in a mud system. A
decrease in one usually results in a decrease in the other; therefore, similar chemical treatments
are used to modify them both. The 10-second gel reading more closely approximates the
true yield stress in most drilling fluid systems. Water dilution can be effective in lowering
gel strengths, especially when solids are high in the mud.

funnel viscosity
The funnel viscosity is measured with the Marsh funnel and is a timed rate of flow in seconds per
quart. It is basically a quick reference check that is made routinely on a mud system; however,
there is no shear rate/shear stress relationship in the funnel viscosity test. Thus, it cannot be related to
any other viscosity nor can it give a clue as to why the viscosity may be high or low.

15

Section

5a

rheology of drilling fluids

low shear rheology


While many invert emulsions, particularly high o/w ratio formulations, approximate Bingham
plastic behaviour at shear rates most commonly examined (600 & 300 rpm) they do not maintain this
behaviour as shear rates decrease. This is of particular importance when studying hole cleaning
with inverts particularly in large diameter holes where annular shear rates are low. The use of Yield
Point derived from 600 & 300 viscometer readings can be misleading when considering efficient
hole cleaning particularly in large diameter or deviated holes. Both experimental and field data have
shown that it is of great importance to study the viscosity at shear rates nearer to those prevailing at
the wall of the hole. The 6 rpm reading, equivalent to a shear rate of 10.2 sec-1, is the best approximation
of low annular shear rate for fluids in laminar flow available on a standard V-G meter. This shear rate of
10.2 sec-1 is equivalent to a mean annular velocity of 53 ft/min (16.2 m/min) in 17 1/2 hole.
The following rule of thumb for 6 rpm readings for fluids in laminar flow is useful:
Hole deviation

0 - 45
45 - 90

1.0 x Hole Diameter (inches)


1.2-1.5 x Hole Diameter (inches)

In water based fluids, increases in low shear viscosities are best achieved with biopolymers e.g.
XCD, Rhodopol.
In invert emulsions the required 6 rpm readings can usually be attained with the normal organophilic
clay viscosifiers. Several rheology modifiers are currently available which claim to boost low
end viscosity without greatly altering overall viscosity. The success of these products appears
to vary greatly with base oil type hence laboratory pilot testing is necessary before inclusion in invert
formulations.

shear rates in the drilling fluid circulating system.


Shear rates present in the circulating system of a drilling operation usually fall within the following
ranges.

Mud Pits
Annulus
Solids Removal Equipment
Bit

Shear Rate
1 - 5 sec -1
5 - 170 sec -1
170 -10,000 sec -1
10,000 - 100,000 sec -1

V-G Meter rpm


0-3
3 - 100
100 - 600 (+)
N/A

cuttings transportation theory


cuttings transport ratio
Cuttings transport ratio is the ratio of the cuttings transport velocity (Vt) and the mean annular velocity (Va).
Cuttings transport velocity is the difference between the mean annular velocity and the cuttings slip
velocity (Vs).
Transport Ratio (Tm)

= Vt / Va
= (Va - Vs) / Va
= 1 - Vs/Va

This ratio is a measure of the effectiveness of hole cleaning. Any positive value indicates that
some cuttings will be removed. A value of 100% indicates the removal of all cuttings from the hole.
Any value in excess of 75% is generally considered to indicate efficient hole cleaning.

16

Slip Velocity

Where

= Particle diameter (cm)


= Particle density (kg/m3)
= Fluid density (kg/m3)
= Fluid viscosity (cps) (Equivalent thickness)

Dp
Pp
Pf
u

The above equation approximates to slip velocity, in fact the equation varies with Reynolds number.
Many PC and hand held calculator programmes exist for slip velocity calculations and first
principle calculations for all cases will not be given here. It suffices to say that in all cases slip
velocity can be reduced by increasing viscosity and fluid density, or by reducing particle size (by
bit selection). The most practical approach is to increase fluid viscosity bearing in mind that this will
increase ECD, and oil retention figures and hinder efficient solids removal.
It can be seen from the second equation that the transport ratio can be increased by increasing
annular velocity or by decreasing slip velocity.

general transport ratio (gtr)


The application of Cuttings Transport Ratio, in hole cleaning calculations works well in vertical
holes, but its effectiveness is reduced as hole angle increases. To allow for this fact, in calculations of
optimum rates of penetration a constant (the GTR) is required and has been determined by
experimentation to fall within the following range:
Hole Angle
GTR

0
1.0

20
0.8

30
0.5

40
0.3

50
0.25

60
0.2

annular cutting concentration and optimum rop


It is generally accepted that the recommended cuttings concentration in the annulus should not
exceed 4% v/v and that an optimum ROP should be employed to achieve this figure is not exceeded.
The optimum ROP is calculated as follows: -

where
F
= cuttings concentration (0.04)
Tm = cuttings transport ratio
GTR = general transport ratio

17

section 5b

rheology and hydraulics of


drilling fluids

section 5b

Scomi Oiltools

bit hydraulics

equivalent circulating density

power law inside the drillpipe for each hydraulic


interval

power law inside the annulus for each hydraulic


interval

bingham-plastic inside the drillpipe for each


hydraulic interval

bingham-plastic inside the annulus for each


hydraulic interval

Section

5b

rheology and hydraulics of drilling fluids

rheology and hydraulics of drilling fluids


Bit hydraulics
Nozzle area
AN (in 2 ) 

Jet s0.000767
n

2
i

i l

Nozzle velocity
POGPM s 0.32

V N  ft / sec 

AN

Bit pressure drop


PD Bit psi 

V N2 s R
1120

Bit hydraulic horsepower


HHPBit hp 

PD Bit s POGPM
1714

Bit hydraulic horsepower per unit bit area


HHP / area 

HHPBit
ABit

Percent pressure drop at bit


PD Bit
s 100
Pr ess Pump

Jet impact force


Im p Bit lbf 
Where
Rmud
Presspump
POGPM
Jeti
ABit
AN
VN
PDBit
2

V N s POGPM s R mud
1932

= Mud density in lb/gal


= Pump press in psi
= Pump output in gal/min
= Nozzle diameter in 32nds of an inch
= Area of the bit
= Total nozzle area in in2
= Nozzle velocity in ft/sec
= Bit pressure drop in psi

Equivalent circulating density


The following formulas can be used to calculate pressure drop (PD) and equivalent circulating density
(ECD).
Where
PDa
n
Li
LVI
Rmud

= pressure drop in the annulus in psi


= number of intervals
= length of intervals in feet
= vertical length of the interval in feet
= density of mud in lb/gal

The sum of the pressure drops for each annular section (regardless of hole angle) is:
PD a 

i l

PDi

The equivalent circulating density (ECD) for any vertical wellbore is:

ECD 

R mud
n
Li s 0.052
i l

PD a

In deviated wellbores, the TVD must be taken into account when calculating ECD values. The above
equation then becomes:

PD a

ECD  n
R mud
i  l LV i s 0.052

Power Law inside the drillpipe for each hydraulic interval


Average velocity inside the drillpipe (Vp)
V p  ft / sec 

Where
IDDP
POGPM
Vp

POGPM s 0.408
2
ID DP

= inside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2


= pump output in gal/min
= average mud velocity inside drillpipe in ft/sec

Reynolds number (NRep)


2 n p

N Re p 

Where
IDDP
Kp
Rmud
np
Vp

89,100 s R mud s V p
Kp

0.0416 ID DP
3 1 n p

np

= inside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2


= consistency index in drillpipe, eq cP
= mud density in lb/gal
= flow index n inside drillpipe
= average mud velocity inside drillpipe in ft/sec

Section

5b

rheology and hydraulics of drilling fluids

Friction factor (f)


If the Reynolds number is greater than 2100 the flow is turbulent and the friction factor is:
a
f 
N RE b
Where
a=

log n 3.93
50

b=

1.75 log n
7

If the Reynolds number is less than 2100 the flow is laminar and the friction factor is:
f 

16
N RE

Turbulent flow pressure drop


PD p 

Where
IDDP
fp
L
Rmud
Vp

f p s R mud s V p2
25.8 ID DP

sL

= inside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2


= friction factor inside drillpipe
= length of drillpipe in feet
= mud density in lb/gal
= average mud velocity inside drillpipe in ft/sec

Laminar flow pressure drop

PD p 

Where
IDDP
Kp
np
Rmud
Vp

n 3 1 n p
K p s V p p
0.0416

1 n p

np

sL

144,000 ID DP

= inside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2


= consistency index inside drillpipe, eq cP
= flow index n inside drillpipe
= mud density in lb/gal
= average mud velocity inside drillpipe in ft/sec

Power Law inside the annulus for each hydraulic interval


Average velocity inside the annulus (Va)
V a  ft / sec 

Where
IDHOLE
ODDP
POGPM
Va

POGPM s 0.408
2
2
ID HOLE
OD DP

= diameter of borehole or inside diameter of casing in in2


= outside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2
= pump output in gal/min
= average mud velocity inside drillpipe in ft/sec

Reynolds number (NRea)


N Re a 

109,100 s R mud s V a2 na 0.0208ID HOLE OD DP

K
2 1 n
p

Where
IDHOLE
ODDP
Ka
Rmud
na
Va

na

= diameter of borehole or inside diameter of casing in in2


= outside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2
= consistency index in annulus, eq cP
= mud density in lb/gal
= flow index n inside annulus
= average mud velocity inside drillpipe in ft/sec

Friction factor (f)


If the Reynolds number is greater than 2100 the flow is turbulent and the friction factor is:
a
f 
N RE b
Where
a=

log n 3.93
50

b = 1.75 log n
7

If the Reynolds number is less than 2100 the flow is laminar and the friction factor is:
16
f 
N RE

Turbulent flow pressure drop in annulus


PDa 

Where
IDHOLE
ODDP
fa
L
Rmud
Va

f a s R mud s V a2
sL
21.1ID HOLE OD DP

= diameter of borehole or inside diameter of casing in in2


= outside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2
= friction factor inside annulus
= length of drillpipe in feet
= mud density in lb/gal
= average mud velocity inside annulus in ft/sec

Laminar flow pressure drop in annulus


PD a 

Where
IDHOLE
ODDP
Ka
na
Rmud
Va

2 1 na
K a s V ana
0.0208

np

1 na

144,000ID HOLE OD DP

sL

= diameter of borehole or inside diameter of casing in in2


= outside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2
= consistency index inside annulus, eq cP
= flow index n inside annulus
= mud density in lb/gal
= average mud velocity inside annulus in ft/sec

Section

5b

rheology and hydraulics of drilling fluids

Bingham-plastic inside the drillpipe for


each hydraulic interval
Average velocity inside the drillpipe (Vp)
V p  ft / sec 

Where
IDDP
POGPM
Vp

POGPM s 0.408
2
ID DP

= inside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2


= pump output in gal/min
= average mud velocity inside drillpipe in ft/sec

Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.

Calculate the Hedstrom number in the drillpipe (NHep)


N Hep 

Where
Rmud
IDDP
Vp
YP
PV

2
37,000 s R mud s YP s ID DP

PV 2

= mud density in lb/gal


= inside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2
= average mud velocity inside drillpipe in ft/sec
= yield point in lb/100 ft2
= plastic viscosity in Cp

Determine critical Reynolds number (NRec) from figure 1 (page 8) using the calculated Hedstrom number

Calculate the Reynolds number in the drillpipe (NRep)


N Re p 

Where
Rmud
IDDP
Vp
YP
PV

928 s R mud s V p s ID DP
PV

= mud density in lb/gal


= inside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2
= average mud velocity inside drillpipe in ft/sec
= yield point in lb/100 ft2
= plastic viscosity in cP

If NRep < NRec, the flow is laminar. If NRep > NRec, the flow is turbulent.

Turbulent flow pressure drop


PD P 

R
Vp
PV
IDDP
L

R 0.75 s V p1.75 s PV 0.25


.25
1800 s ID 1DP

sL

= mud density in lb/gal


= average mud velocity inside drillpipe in ft/sec
= plastic viscosity in Cp
= inside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2
= length of the drillpipe in feet

Laminar flow pressure drop


Where
Vp
YP
IDDP
L
PV

PV s V p
YP

PD P 
1500 s ID 2
225
s
ID DP
DP

s L

= average mud velocity inside drillpipe in ft/sec


= yield point in lb/100 ft2
= inside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2
= length of the drillpipe in feet
= plastic viscosity in cP

Bingham-plastic inside the annulus for each


hydraulic interval
Average velocity inside the annulus (Va)
V a  ft / sec 

Where
IDHOLE
ODDP
POGPM
Va

POGPM s 0.408
2
2
OD DP
ID HOLE

= diameter of borehole or inside diameter of casing in in2


= outside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2
= pump output in gal/min
= average mud velocity inside annulus in ft/sec

Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent

Calculate the Hedstrom number in the annulus (NHea)


24,700 s R mud s YP s ID HOLE OD DP

N Hea 

Where
IDHOLE
ODDP
YP
PV
Rmud

PV 2

= diameter of borehole or inside diameter of casing in in2


= outside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2
= yield point in lb/100 ft2
= plastic viscosity in cP
= mud density in lb/gal

Determine critical Reynolds number (NREC) from figure1 using the calculated Hedstrom number

Calculate the Reynolds number in the annulus (NRea)


Where
Rmud
Va
IDHOLE
ODDP
PV

N Re a 

757 s R mud s V a s ID HOLE OD DP


PV

= mud density in lb/gal


= average mud velocity inside annulus in ft/sec
= diameter of borehole or inside diameter of casing in in2
= outside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2
= plastic viscosity in cP

If NRea < NRec, the flow is laminar. If NRea > NRec, the flow is turbulent.

Section

5b

rheology and hydraulics of drilling fluids

Turbulent flow pressure drop in annulus


PD a 

Where
Rmud
Va
PV
IDHOLE
ODDP
L

0.75
s V a1.75 s PV 0.25
R mud

1396 s ID HOLE OD DP 1.25

sL

= mud density in lb/gal


= average mud velocity inside annulus in ft/sec
= plastic viscosity in cP
= diameter of borehole or inside diameter of casing in in2
= outside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2
= length of the drillpipe in feet

Laminar flow pressure drop in annulus

Critical Reynolds number, NRec

Where
PV
YP
Va
IDHOLE
ODDP
L

PV s V a
YP
sL

PD P 
2
1000ID
200ID HOLE OD DP
HOLE OD DP

= plastic viscosity in cP
= yield point in lb/100 ft2
= average mud velocity inside annulus in ft/sec
= diameter of borehole or inside diameter of casing in in2
= outside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2
= length of the drillpipe in feet

1.0E+05

Critical Reynolds numbers for


Bingham Plastic Fluids

1.0E+04

1.0E+03

1.0E+02
1.00E+03

1.00E+04

1.00E+05

1.00E+06

1.00E+07

Hedstrom number, NHe

Figure 1: Critical Reynolds numbers for Bingham-plastic fluids. This graph shows Hedstrom numbers vs
Reynolds numbers for Bingham-plastic fluids.

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