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section 5a
section 5a
theory of rheology
Scomi Oiltools
rheology background
shear rate
shear stress
viscosity
fluid models
n and K constants
10
12
13
13
13
gel strength
14
funnel viscosity
15
16
16
16
16
17
Section
5a
Suspension.
Hydraulic calculations.
Hole cleaning and hole erosion.
Filtrate migration.
Solids Control.
Although these applications may be of equal importance, drilling requirements vary with time and
location so that one may take precedence over another at a particular time.
In all applications, whether or not a fluid performs a specific function can be attributed to the absence
or presence of viscosity at the shear rate of interest.
shear rate
In a moving fluid shear rate can be defined as the rate at which one layer of fluid is moving by another
layer divided by the distance between the layers. It is the velocity gradient i.e. the ratio of velocity to
distance between layers.
Consider a fluid between two flat plates one centimetre apart. If the bottom plate is fixed while the
top plate slides parallel to it at a constant velocity of 1 cm per sec, a velocity profile will be found
within the fluid. The fluid layer in contact with the bottom plate is static while the layer in contact with
the top plate is moving at 1 cm per sec. Halfway between the plates the fluid velocity is the average
0.5 per sec.
If a moving layer of fluid has a velocity 1cm/sec relative to a static layer at separation distance of 1cm
then the shear rate between these layers will be:
1 cm/sec
1cm
= 1 sec 1
shear stress
Shear Stress is defined as the force required to move a given area of the fluid. In this case one Newton
is required for each square meter of area. The units of shear stress are Newtons per square metre,
also known as Pascals. Alternative units for shear stress are dynes per square centimetre and pounds
force per square inch. Shear stress is related to the force required to sustain fluid flow. In a drilling
fluid circulating system this is analogous to the pump pressure.
This diagram shows the forces acting on a theoretical liquid. The liquid is contained between the
two 1 square metre plates which are separated by one metre. The bottom plate is stationary and
the top plate is moved at a rate of 1 metre per second. The amount of force required to maintain
this movement is measured in Newtons.
In a drilling fluid circulating system the shear rate is determined by the flow rate through a particular
geometrical configuration. Since the relative velocity between fluid layers is greatest adjacent to the
pipe or hole wall the shear rate is highest at this point. An average shear rate may be used, but the
shear itself is not constant everywhere in the flow.
If, in the parallel plate example used to describe shear rate, a force of 1.0 dyne was applied to each
square centimetre of the top plate to keep it moving. Then the shear stress would be 1.0 dyne per cm2.
The same force in the opposite direction would be needed on the bottom plate to keep it from moving.
The same shear stress would be found at any level in the fluid. Shear stress is constant only as long as
the flow system geometry is constant. It is more common to find the shear stress varying from one part
of a flow system to another.
3
Section
5a
The units of shear stress are the same as for pressure, but whereas pressure defines the applied force
per unit area, shear stress is the internal resistance to an applied stress.
Shear stress can be expressed:
shear stress = F/A
Where
F = force
A = area of surface subject to stress.
viscosity
Viscosity can be described as the resistance to flow and is defined as the ratio of shear stress to
shear rate
shear stress.dynes/cm2
Viscosity=
= Poise
shear ratesec1
Viscosity = shear stress dynes / cm2 = Poise
Shear rate sec1
The units of Poise are too large for drilling fluid studies and viscosity is reported in centipoises or
millipascal.second (1cP = 1 mPa.s).
Since viscosity is dependent on both shear rate and shear stress, one or the other must be specified
when a viscosity measurement is stated. Shear rate is the usual variable defined, either as an actual
shear rate in reciprocal seconds or as speed in rpm from a concentric cylinder viscometer.
fluid models
Fluids can be separated into different classes according to the relationships which exists in a fluid
between shear rate and shear stress. The most simple class of fluids are called Newtonian. Water and
light oils are examples of Newtonian fluids.
In these fluids the shear stress is directly proportional to the shear rate. When the shear rate is doubled
the shear stress is doubled i.e. when the circulation rate is doubled the pressure required to pump the
fluid is doubled. Such fluids have a constant viscosity.
For most fluids, viscosity is not a constant, but varies with the shear rate. Such non Newtonian fluids
are called rate dependent. Almost all drilling fluid viscosifiers provide rate dependent fluids.
To illustrate rate dependent effects a fluid is tested for shear stress or viscosity at a number of shear
rates. When these data are plotted on a log-log scale a viscosity profile of the fluid is obtained.
Examples of types of flow are:
The shear rate / shear stress ratio of non Newtonian fluids is not constant, which is true of most
drilling fluids. The two most popular mathematical models for describing non-Newtonian drilling fluids
are called the Bingham Plastic model and Power Law model.
SHEAR STRESS,
SHEAR RATE
G,
Section
5a
Some fluids have a critical yield stress which must be exceeded before flow is initiated. If the
fluid has essentially Newtonian flow after the yield stress is exceeded it is termed a Bingham Plastic
fluid. The major shortcoming of the application of this model to drilling fluids is that it only
describes fluid flow over a short shear rate range of 511 - 1022 sec-1. Consequently the Bingham model
may not accurately describe fluid rheological characteristics in all drilling situations.
Most drilling fluids are Pseudoplastic. In this case increased shear rate produces a progressive
decrease in viscosity. In polymer solutions this is due to the alignment of the long polymer chains
along the flow lines. If the application of any shear stress above zero produces fluid flow, i.e. no critical
yield stress, the fluid is termed a Power Law fluid. This model more accurately describes flow
characteristics of drilling fluids over the shear rate ranges experienced in the annulus of a well bore.
Polymeric drilling fluids can be shown to follow the Power Law model very closely. Some other fluids
show a profile which falls between Power Law and Bingham Plastic.
Although the API has selected the Power Law model as the standard model, the Power Law
model, however, does not fully describe drilling fluids because it does not have a yield stress and
underestimates low shear rate viscosity. The modified Power Law or Herschel-Bulkley model can be
used to account for the stress required to initiate fluid movement (yield stress).
The diagram shows the differences between the modified Power Law, the Power Law and Bingham
Plastic models. The modified Power Law falls between the Bingham Plastic model, which is highest,
and the Power Law, which is lowest and consequently more closely resembles the flow profile of a
typical drilling mud.
Gn)
Where
T = shear stress in lb/100 ft2
T O = fluids yield stress (shear stress at zero shear rate) in lb/100 ft2
K = fluids consistency index in cP - secn or lb - secn/100 ft2
n = fluids flow index
G = shear rate in sec-1
In Herschel-Bulkley model, the K and n values are worked out differently than their counterparts in
the power law model. The Herschel-Bulkley reflects more to Bingham model when n = 1 and it
reflects to the power law model when T0 = 0. [One obvious advantage the Herschel-Bulkley model has
over the power law model is that, from a set of data input, only one value for n and K are calculated.]
Hydraulics calculations for Herschel-Bulkley (modified power law) fluids cannot be solved by simple
equations. For quick solutions, consult the Scomi Oiltools hydraulics programs using HyPR-CALC.
Calculated Results
Rheology Model
YP
(Ibf/100ft2)
Newtonian
Bingham-Plastic
Power-Law
Herschel-Bulkley
0
13.1257
0
10.9075
Vis., PV or K
(cp)
46.8023868
37.2818854
2842.1364294
97.1097869
Standard
Deviation
1
1
0.3578
0.8627
3.9039
0.7181
3.6169
0.1644
Draw
Curve
Viscometer Reading
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Measurement
Newtonian
Herschel-Bulkley
100
200
300
400
500
600
Speed (rpm)
Figure 2: Rheology models available in Scomi Oiltools hydraulic program HyPR-CALC
Herschel-Bulkley graph usually reflects a yield stress where the shear stress is greater than zero where as
a Newtonian graph is usually a straight line that originates from shear stress equal to zero.
Section
5a
Invert emulsion muds are suspensions of both solids and emulsions and there is no accepted
rheological model that can be applied to both emulsions and suspensions, in addition these fluids
show pronounced pressure and temperature effects. A Casson Model is sometimes used to describe
invert fluids though some oil muds can be shown to follow the Bingham Plastic model between
shear rates of 127- 340 sec1 (75-250 rpm). Below 1271 the characteristics lie between Power Law and
Bingham Plastic.
The Newtonian, Bingham Plastic, and Power Law models are specific cases of the Robertson-Stiff
model. It is a three parameter model that includes the 3 rpm rheometer dial reading and is written in its
general form as:
T = K(G 0 + G)n
To use common rheometer data for the analysis of a fluid conforming to the Robertson-Stiff model,
the general equation becomes
T1
T2
n
N3
N2
N3 N1
T3
T2
n
N2
N1
N 3 N1
Where:
N3, N2, and N1 are rpm speeds and N3 > N2 > N1,
T3, T2, and T1 are rheometer sheer stress readings at N3, N2, and N1, respectively.
This equation must be solved iteratively to find n. G0 and k can then be calculated by solving the
following equations.
30 ln(b)
ln(b)
where
b = the ratio of the rheometer sleeve radius to the bob radius.
The Robertson-Stiff equation will generally provide the best approximation for pressure losses in
the circulating system in most drilling situations. It will not, however, emulate a fluid that follows
the Casson equation.
If a fluid profile shows a critical yield stress and then flows like the pseudoplastic model it is referred
to as an Ellis fluid. This model has been used to describe Xanthan Gum solutions. The yield stress is
equivalent to the elastic modulus of the solution.
Some rare fluids show Dilatant or reverse pseudoplastic behaviour. These are characteristically
suspensions having a high solids loading e.g. high concentration gypsum suspensions. These
fluids increase in viscosity with increasing shear rate and can show a negative calculation of yield
point, the true figure is zero.
8
Besides shear rate dependent effects some fluids can also exhibit time dependent effects. In these
cases the viscosity changes with continued shear at constant rate.
VISCOSITY
RHEOPECTIC
THIXOTROPIC
TIME
Fluids which are thixotropic in nature decrease in viscosity with time. This type of fluid shows a
memory effect or hysteresis when subjected to varying rates of shear. There is a time lag in
establishing an equilibrium viscosity when the shear rate is changed, the fluid will initially tend
towards to the viscosity associated with the previous shear rate.
Some highly concentrated suspensions can display herpetic flow. In this case the viscosity of the fluid
will increase with time at a constant shear rate.
Section
5a
The six speeds of the Fann 35A and the corresponding shear rates are:600 rpm
300 rpm
200 rpm
100 rpm
6 rpm
3 rpm
- 1022.0 sec1
- 511.0 sec1
- 340.7 sec1
- 170.3 sec1
- 10.22 sec1
- 5.11 sec1
In order to obtain accurate correlations, it is important that viscometer readings are taken at the same
temperature, normally 120 F (49 C).
Using the Bingham Plastic model for data interpretation, the following values are reported.
PV
YP
=
=
Shear Stress, T
PV
YP
300
600
The Bingham values PV and YP give a poor definition of the flow characteristics of the fluid over
a wide shear range, but shear stress values at all six speeds can be converted to viscosity values
for the six shear rates and plotted on a log/log viscograph. This gives a good viscosity profile in a
form readily correlated with the various shear ranges experienced in the circulating system and solids
control equipment.
Measurement of initial gel strength is indicative of the elastic modulus and hence suspension
characteristics of the fluid and the relationship of initial and 10 minute gel strength illustrates the
degree of thixotropy present.
The R6 value is directly relevant to annular viscosity of some hole diameters and this value is
increasingly being used as a control parameter in ensuring good hole cleaning properties.
n and K constants
Although the Bingham Model constants, PV and YP are the most widely used properties for
evaluating drilling fluid rheology, it has to be recognised that this model does not always
accurately predict drilling fluid performance. This applies in particular to annular rheological
calculations.
10
The Power Law Model more closely approximates to the actual drilling fluid, in particular to low
solids polymer based systems. This model can be calculated over the annular region (normally less
than 100 rpm or 150 sec1 shear rate), it will more accurately predict a drilling fluids performance.
Power Law Model T = K G n
Where
The n constant indicates the degree of non-Newtonian character that a fluid exhibits over a
defined shear rate range. Newtonian Fluids have an n value of equal to one. As n decreases
from one the fluid becomes more pseudoplastic or shear thinning with increase in shear rate.
Lowering the n value improves hole cleaning performance by increasing the effective annular
viscosity and flattening the annular velocity profile. This reduces any turning effect on cuttings,
helping to prevent particle breakage and moves the solids more directly up the hole.
The n constant is dependant upon the type of viscosifier used. Every material has an inherent
n constant, but it may vary with concentration and shear rate. Xanthan Gum provides the lowest
n constant, the only material providing a similar value being extended bentonite.
11
Section
5a
K the consistency index is the shear stress or viscosity of the fluid at a shear rate of one sec1 . It
relates directly to the system viscosity at low shear rates. An increase in K raises the effective
annular viscosity and therefore the hole cleaning capacity. It can also increase, however, the bit
viscosity and circulating pressure loss. The K constant is controlled by both the type of viscosifier
and the total solids content of the fluid. It will increase with decrease in the n constant or by
increase in solids concentration. K can be reported as dynes/cm2 secn or lbs/100ft2 secn. An
increase in K value should if possible be obtained via a decrease in n value to avoid increasing the
circulating system viscosity.
The n and K values can be calculated from any two viscometer dial readings. For Hydraulic
calculations determining n and K in the range of interest (i.e. 5 -150 sec1 for annular calculations)
will provide more accurate results.
" n"
" K"
where:
log R2 w R 1
5.11R2
(1.7 rpm 2 )
12
In general laminar flow is the desired regime, but exceptions occur where turbulent flow is
desired for specialized applications e.g. turbulent sweeps to remove cutting beds and clean out
enlarged hole sections. Turbulent flow is often chosen by preference to drill horizontal intervals.
Turbulent flow however, does give larger annular pressure losses, increased wellbore erosion and cause
drill cutting attrition through the tumbling effect in the annulus.
In a turbulent regime the fluid viscosity has no contribution to hole cleaning, but the viscosity of a
fluid determines whether a flow regime is turbulent or laminar for a given velocity and hole diameter.
13
Section
5a
The limitation of the Bingham plastic model is that most drilling fluids, being pseudoplastic,
exhibit an actual yield stress which is considerably less than calculated Bingham yield point. This
error exists because the Bingham plastic parameters are calculated using a VG meter at 600 rpm
(1022 sec-1) and 300 rpm (511 sec-1); whereas, typical annular shear rates are much less (Table 1).
gel strength
Gel strengths, 10-second and 10-minute, measured on the VG meter, indicate strength of attractive
forces (gelation) in a drilling fluid under static conditions. Excessive gelation is caused by high solids
concentration leading to flocculation.
14
Types of Gel Strengths Diagram (to convert to Pa multiply gel strength by 0.48)
Signs of rheological trouble in a mud system often are reflected by a muds gel strength
development with time. When there is a wide range between the initial and 10-minute gel readings
they are called progressive gels. This is not a desirable situation. If initial and 10-minute gels are
both high, with no appreciable difference in the two, these are high-flat gels, also undesirable.
The magnitude of gelation with time is a key factorin the performance of the drilling fluid.
Gelation should not be allowed to become much higher than is necessary to perform the function
of suspension of cuttings and weight material. For suspension low-flat gels are desired.
Excessive gel strengths can cause:
Gel strengths and yield point are both a measure of the attractive forces in a mud system. A
decrease in one usually results in a decrease in the other; therefore, similar chemical treatments
are used to modify them both. The 10-second gel reading more closely approximates the
true yield stress in most drilling fluid systems. Water dilution can be effective in lowering
gel strengths, especially when solids are high in the mud.
funnel viscosity
The funnel viscosity is measured with the Marsh funnel and is a timed rate of flow in seconds per
quart. It is basically a quick reference check that is made routinely on a mud system; however,
there is no shear rate/shear stress relationship in the funnel viscosity test. Thus, it cannot be related to
any other viscosity nor can it give a clue as to why the viscosity may be high or low.
15
Section
5a
0 - 45
45 - 90
In water based fluids, increases in low shear viscosities are best achieved with biopolymers e.g.
XCD, Rhodopol.
In invert emulsions the required 6 rpm readings can usually be attained with the normal organophilic
clay viscosifiers. Several rheology modifiers are currently available which claim to boost low
end viscosity without greatly altering overall viscosity. The success of these products appears
to vary greatly with base oil type hence laboratory pilot testing is necessary before inclusion in invert
formulations.
Mud Pits
Annulus
Solids Removal Equipment
Bit
Shear Rate
1 - 5 sec -1
5 - 170 sec -1
170 -10,000 sec -1
10,000 - 100,000 sec -1
= Vt / Va
= (Va - Vs) / Va
= 1 - Vs/Va
This ratio is a measure of the effectiveness of hole cleaning. Any positive value indicates that
some cuttings will be removed. A value of 100% indicates the removal of all cuttings from the hole.
Any value in excess of 75% is generally considered to indicate efficient hole cleaning.
16
Slip Velocity
Where
Dp
Pp
Pf
u
The above equation approximates to slip velocity, in fact the equation varies with Reynolds number.
Many PC and hand held calculator programmes exist for slip velocity calculations and first
principle calculations for all cases will not be given here. It suffices to say that in all cases slip
velocity can be reduced by increasing viscosity and fluid density, or by reducing particle size (by
bit selection). The most practical approach is to increase fluid viscosity bearing in mind that this will
increase ECD, and oil retention figures and hinder efficient solids removal.
It can be seen from the second equation that the transport ratio can be increased by increasing
annular velocity or by decreasing slip velocity.
0
1.0
20
0.8
30
0.5
40
0.3
50
0.25
60
0.2
where
F
= cuttings concentration (0.04)
Tm = cuttings transport ratio
GTR = general transport ratio
17
section 5b
section 5b
Scomi Oiltools
bit hydraulics
Section
5b
Jet s 0.000767
n
2
i
i l
Nozzle velocity
POGPM s 0.32
V N ft / sec
AN
V N2 s R
1120
PD Bit s POGPM
1714
HHPBit
ABit
V N s POGPM s R mud
1932
The sum of the pressure drops for each annular section (regardless of hole angle) is:
PD a
i l
PDi
The equivalent circulating density (ECD) for any vertical wellbore is:
ECD
R mud
n
Li s 0.052
i l
PD a
In deviated wellbores, the TVD must be taken into account when calculating ECD values. The above
equation then becomes:
PD a
ECD n
R mud
i l LV i s 0.052
Where
IDDP
POGPM
Vp
POGPM s 0.408
2
ID DP
N Re p
Where
IDDP
Kp
Rmud
np
Vp
89,100 s R mud s V p
Kp
0.0416 ID DP
3 1 n p
np
Section
5b
log n 3.93
50
b=
1.75
log n
7
If the Reynolds number is less than 2100 the flow is laminar and the friction factor is:
f
16
N RE
Where
IDDP
fp
L
Rmud
Vp
f p s R mud s V p2
25.8 ID DP
sL
PD p
Where
IDDP
Kp
np
Rmud
Vp
n 3 1 n p
K p s V p p
0.0416
1 n p
np
sL
144,000 ID DP
Where
IDHOLE
ODDP
POGPM
Va
POGPM s 0.408
2
2
ID HOLE
OD DP
K
2 1 n
p
Where
IDHOLE
ODDP
Ka
Rmud
na
Va
na
log n 3.93
50
b = 1.75
log n
7
If the Reynolds number is less than 2100 the flow is laminar and the friction factor is:
16
f
N RE
Where
IDHOLE
ODDP
fa
L
Rmud
Va
f a s R mud s V a2
sL
21.1ID HOLE
OD DP
Where
IDHOLE
ODDP
Ka
na
Rmud
Va
2 1 na
K a s V ana
0.0208
np
1 na
144,000ID HOLE OD DP
sL
Section
5b
Where
IDDP
POGPM
Vp
POGPM s 0.408
2
ID DP
Where
Rmud
IDDP
Vp
YP
PV
2
37,000 s R mud s YP s ID DP
PV 2
Determine critical Reynolds number (NRec) from figure 1 (page 8) using the calculated Hedstrom number
Where
Rmud
IDDP
Vp
YP
PV
928 s R mud s V p s ID DP
PV
If NRep < NRec, the flow is laminar. If NRep > NRec, the flow is turbulent.
R
Vp
PV
IDDP
L
sL
PV s V p
YP
PD P
1500 s ID 2
225
s
ID DP
DP
s L
Where
IDHOLE
ODDP
POGPM
Va
POGPM s 0.408
2
2
OD DP
ID HOLE
N Hea
Where
IDHOLE
ODDP
YP
PV
Rmud
PV 2
Determine critical Reynolds number (NREC) from figure1 using the calculated Hedstrom number
N Re a
If NRea < NRec, the flow is laminar. If NRea > NRec, the flow is turbulent.
Section
5b
Where
Rmud
Va
PV
IDHOLE
ODDP
L
0.75
s V a1.75 s PV 0.25
R mud
sL
Where
PV
YP
Va
IDHOLE
ODDP
L
PV s V a
YP
sL
PD P
2
1000ID
200ID HOLE
OD DP
HOLE
OD DP
= plastic viscosity in cP
= yield point in lb/100 ft2
= average mud velocity inside annulus in ft/sec
= diameter of borehole or inside diameter of casing in in2
= outside diameter of drillpipe or drill collar in in2
= length of the drillpipe in feet
1.0E+05
1.0E+04
1.0E+03
1.0E+02
1.00E+03
1.00E+04
1.00E+05
1.00E+06
1.00E+07
Figure 1: Critical Reynolds numbers for Bingham-plastic fluids. This graph shows Hedstrom numbers vs
Reynolds numbers for Bingham-plastic fluids.