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Metal Casting

Sand casting
Sand casting uses ordinary sand as the primary
mould material.
The sand grains are mixed with small amounts of
other materials, such as clay and water, to improve
mouldability and cohesive strength, and are then
packed around a pattern that has the shape of the
desired casting.
The pattern must be removed before pouring, the
mold is usually made in two or more pieces.
An opening called a sprue hole is cut from the top of
the mold through the sand and connected to a
system of channels called runners.
Contd.

The molten metal is poured into the sprue hole, f lows

through the runners, and enters the mold cavity
through an opening called a gate.
Gravity f low is the most common means of
introducing the metal into the mold.
After solidification, the mold is broken and the
finished casting is removed.
The casting is then fettled by cutting off the ingate
and the feeder head.
Because the mold is destroyed, a new mold must be
made for each casting.
Contd

Sequential steps in making a sand casting

A pattern board is placed between the bottom (drag)
and top (cope) halves of a f lask, with the bottom side up.
Sand is then packed into the drag half of the mold.
A bottom board is positioned on top of the packed sand,
and the mold is turned over, showing the top (cope) half
of pattern with sprue and riser pins in place.
The cope half of the mold is then packed with sand.

The mold is opened, the pattern board is drawn

(removed), and the runner and gate are cut into the
surface of the sand.
The mold is reassembled with the pattern board
removed, and molten metal is poured through the
sprue.
The contents are shaken from the f lask and the metal
segment is separated from the sand, ready for further
processing.

Contd

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Casting Terms

Pattern: Pattern is a replica of the final object to be

Flask: A moulding f lask is one which holds the sand

mould intact. It is made up of wood for temporary

applications or metal for long-term use.

made with some modifications.

Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two

moulding f lasks that makes up the sand mould.

Drag: Lower moulding f lask.

Bottom board: This is a board normally made of wood,

Cope: Upper moulding f lask.

which is used at the start of the mould making.

Cheek: Intermediate moulding f lask used in three-

piece moulding.
Contd

Contd

Moulding sand: The freshly prepared refractory

material used for making the mould cavity. It is a

mixture of silica, clay and moisture in appropriate
proportions.
Backing sand: This is made up of used and burnt

sand.
Core: Used for making hollow cavities in castings.

Pouring basin: A small funnel-shaped cavity at the top

of the mould into which the molten metal is poured.

Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal

from the pouring basin reaches the mould cavity.

Runner: The passage ways in the parting plane through

which molten metal f low is regulated before they reach

the mould cavity.
Gate: The actual entry point through which molten

metal enters the mould cavity in a controlled rate. Contd

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Padding
Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support cores inside the

mould cavity.
Chill: Chills are metallic objects, which are placed in

the mould to increase the cooling rate of castings.

Tapering of thinner section towards thicker section

is known as 'padding'.
This will require extra material.
If padding is not provided, centre line shrinkage or
porosity will result in the thinner section.

Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the

casting so that hot metal can f low back into the mould
cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal due
to solidification
Contd

IES-2001
The main purpose of chaplets is
(a) To ensure directional solidification
(b) To provide efficient venting

IES-1996
Which of the following methods are used for
obtaining directional solidification for riser design
1.

Suitable placement of chills

2.

Suitable placement of chaplets

(c) For aligning the mold boxes

3.

Employing padding

(d) To support the cores

Select the correct answer.

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

IES 2007
Which one of the following is the correct
statement?
Gate is provided in moulds to
(a) Feed the casting at a constant rate
(b) Give passage to gases
(c) Compensate for shrinkage
(d) Avoid cavities

Pattern
A pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the
casting process, with some modifications.
The main modifications are
The addition of pattern allowances,
The provision of core prints, and
Elimination of fine details, which cannot be obtained
by casting and hence are to be obtained by further
processing

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Pattern Allowances
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance
2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Rapping allowance

Shrinkage allowance
All metals shrink when cooling except perhaps

bismuth.
This is because of the inter-atomic vibrations which

are amplified by an increase in temperature.

The shrinkage allowance is always to be added to the

linear dimensions. Even in case of internal dimensions.

Contd

Liquid shrinkage and solid shrinkage

Liquid shrinkage refers to the reduction in
volume when the metal changes from liquid to
solid state at the solidus temperature. To account
for this, risers are provided in the moulds.
Solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume
caused, when a metal loses temperature in the
solid state. The shrinkage allowance is provided to
take care of this reduction.

Pattern Allowances
Cast Iron

10 mm/m
Brass, Copper, Aluminium 15 mm/m
Steel
20 mm/m
Zinc, Lead
25 mm/m

In grey cast iron and spheroidal graphite iron, the

amount of graphitization controls the actual
shrinkage. When graphitization is more, the
shrinkage would be less and vice versa.

IES-1995

IES-1999

Which one of the following materials will require

In solidification of metal during casting,

the largest size of riser for the same size of casting?

compensation for solid contraction is

(a) Aluminium

(a) Provided by the oversize pattern

(b) Cast iron

(b) Achieved by properly placed risers

(c) Steel

(c) Obtained

(d) Copper.

by

promoting

directional

solidification
(d) Made by providing chills

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Draft
To reduce the chances of the damage of the mould

cavity at the time of pattern removal, the vertical faces

of the pattern are always tapered from the parting line.
This provision is called draft allowance.
Inner surfaces of the pattern require higher draft than

outer surfaces.
Draft is always provided as an extra metal.
DRAFT ALLOWANCE

Shake Allowance
At the time of pattern removal, the pattern is rapped

Distortion Allowance
A metal when it has just solidified is very weak and
therefore is likely to be distortion prone.

all around the vertical faces to enlarge the mould

cavity slightly to facilitates its removal.
It is a negative allowance and is to be applied only to

those dimensions, which are parallel to the parting

plane.

This is particularly so for weaker sections such as long

f lat portions, V, U sections or in a complicated casting
which may have thin and long sections which are
connected to thick sections.
The foundry practice should be to make extra
material provision for reducing the distortion.

Pattern Materials
Wood patterns are relatively easy to make. Wood is not

very dimensionally stable. Commonly used teak, white

pine and mahogany wood.
Metal patterns are more expensive but are more
dimensionally stable and more durable. Commonly used
CI, Brass, aluminium and white metal.
Hard plastics, such as urethanes, and are often preferred
with processes that use strong, organically bonded sands
that tend to stick to other pattern materials.
In the full-mold process, expanded polystyrene (EPS) is
used.
Investment casting uses wax patterns.

The pattern material should be

Easily worked, shaped and joined
Light in weight
Strong, hard and durable
Resistant to wear and abrasion
Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in

temperature and humidity.

Available at low cost.

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Types of Pattern

IES-1994
Which of the following materials can be used for
making patterns?
1. Aluminium

2. Wax

3. Mercury 4. Lead

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

Codes:
(a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 2,3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3

Types of Pattern
Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern
This is the most widely used type of pattern for intricate
castings. When the contour of the casting makes its
withdrawal from the mould difficult, or when the depth
of the casting is too high, then the pattern is split into two
parts so that one part is in the drag and the other in the
cope.

Single Piece Pattern

These are inexpensive and the simplest type of
patterns. As the name indicates, they are made of a
single piece.
Gated Pattern

Gating and runner system are integral with the

pattern. This would eliminate the hand cutting of
the runners and gates and help in improving the
productivity of a moulding.

Types of Pattern
Cope and Drag Pattern
These are similar to split patterns. In addition to
splitting the pattern, the cope and drag halves of
the pattern along with the gating and riser systems
are attached separately to the metal or wooden
plates along with the alignment pins. They are
called the cope and drag patterns.

Types of Pattern

Types of Pattern

Match Plate Pattern

The cope and drag patterns along with the
gating and the risering are mounted on a single
matching metal or wooden plate on either side.

Loose Piece Pattern

This type of pattern is also used when the
contour of the part is such that withdrawing the
pattern from the mould is not possible.

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Types of Pattern
Follow Board Pattern
This type of pattern is adopted for those
castings where there are some portions, which
are structurally weak and if not supported
properly are likely to break under the force of
ramming.

Types of Pattern
Sweep Pattern

It is used to sweep the complete casting by means

of a plane sweep. These are used for generating
large shapes, which are axi-symmetrical or
prismatic in nature such as bell-shaped or
cylindrical.

Cooling Curve

IES-2008
The pattern adopted for those castings where there
are some portions which are structurally weak and
are likely to break by the force of ramming are
called:
(a) Loose piece pattern
(b) Follow board pattern
(c) Skelton pattern
(d) Single piece pattern

Types of Pattern
Skeleton Pattern
A skeleton of the pattern made of strips of wood
is used for building the final pattern by packing
sand around the skeleton. After packing the
sand, the desired form is obtained with the help
of a strickle. This type of pattern is useful
generally for very large castings, required in
small quantities where large expense on
complete wooden pattern is not justified.

Fluidity
The ability of a metal to f low and fill a mold is known
as f luidity.
Pouring Temperature
The most important controlling factor of fluidity is the
pouring temperature or the amount of superheat.
Higher the pouring temperature, the higher the fluidity.
Excessive temperatures should be avoided, however. At
high pouring temperatures, metal-mold reactions are
accelerated and the fluidity may be so great as to permit
penetration.
Penetration is a defect where the metal not only fills the
mold cavity but also fills the small voids between the sand
particles in a sand mold.

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Core
Used for making cavities and hollow projections.
All sides of core are surrounded by the molten metal
and are therefore subjected to much more severe
thermal and mechanical conditions and as a result the
core sand should be of higher strength than the
moulding sand.

Desired characteristics of a core

Green Strength: A core made of green sand should
be strong enough to retain the shape till it goes for
baking.
Dry Strength: It should have adequate dry strength
so that when the core is placed in the mould, it
should be able to resist the metal pressure acting on
it.
Refractoriness: Since in most cases, the core is
surrounded all around it is desirable that the core
material should have higher refractoriness.
Contd

Permeability: Gases evolving from the molten metal

and generated from the mould may have to go
through the core to escape out of the mould. Hence
cores are required to have higher permeability.
Permeability Number: The rate of flow of air passing
through a standard specimen under a standard pressure is
termed as permeability number.
The standard permeability test is to measure time
taken by a 2000 cu cm of air at a pressure typically of
980 Pa (10 g/cm2), to pass through a standard sand
specimen confined in a specimen tube. The standard
specimen size is 50.8 mm in diameter and a length of
50.8 mm.

Then, the permeability number, R is obtained by

VH
R
pAT

Where V= volume of air = 2000 cm3

H = height of the sand specimen = 5.08 cm
p = air pressure, g/cm2
A = cross sectional area of sand specimen = 20.268 cm2
T = time in minutes for the complete air to pass through
Inserting the above standard values into the
expression, we get
501.28
R
p.T

Calculate the permeability number of sand if it takes 1 min

25 s to pass 2000 cm 3 of air at a pressure of5 g/cm2 through

the standard sample.

p 5.0 g / cm

T 1 min 25 s 1.417 min

R

Collapsibility: At the time of cooling, casting shrinks, and

unless the core has good collapsibility (ability to decrease
in size) it is likely to provide resistance against shrinkage
and thus can cause hot tears.

501.28
70.75
5 1.417

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Core Sands

Friability: The ability to crumble should be a very

Used clay free silica sand.

important consideration at the time of removal.

Smoothness: Surface of the core should be smooth

Binders used are linseed oil, core oil, resins, dextrin,

molasses, etc.

for good finish to the casting.

Core oils are mixtures of linseed, soy, fish and

Low Gas Emission

petroleum oils and coal tar.

The general composition of a core sand mixture could

be core oil (1%) and water (2.5 to 6%).

Carbon Dioxide Moulding

Sodium silicate (water glass, SiO2:Na2O) is used as a binder.

This is essentially a quick process of core or mould

preparation.
The mould is prepared with a mixture of sodium silicate and
sand and then treated with carbon dioxide for two to three
minutes such that a dry compressive strength of over 1.4
MPa is arrived.
The carbon dioxide is expected to form a weak acid, which
hydrolyses the sodium silicate resulting in amorphous silica,
which forms the bond.
The introduction of CO2 gas starts the reaction by forming
hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3 + H2O).

The compressive strength of the bond increases with

standing time due to dehydration.

Because of the high strength of the bond, the core need not

be provided with any other reinforcements.

It does not involve any distortions due to baking and also

better dimensional accuracies are achieved.

The sand mixture does not have good shelf life and

therefore should be used immediately after preparation.

Contd

IES-2002
Assertion (A): In CO2 casting process, the mould or
core attains maximum strength.
Reason (R): The optimum gassing time of CO2
through the mould or core forms Silica Gel which
imparts sufficient strength to the mould or core.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

Moulding Sand Composition

Sand: Ordinary silica Sand (SiO2), zircon, or olivine

sands.
Clay: Acts as binding agents mixed to the moulding

sands
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O), and
Bentonite (Al2O3 4SiO2 H2O nH2O).
Water: Clay is activated by water.

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Other Additives
Cereal binder up to 2% increases the strength.
Pitch if used up to 3% would improve the hot

strength.
Saw dust up to 2% may improve the collapsibility by

slowly burning, and increase the permeability.

Other materials: sea coal, asphalt, fuel oil, graphite,

molasses, iron oxide, etc.

Moulding Sand Properties

Porosity or Permeability: Permeability or porosity of
the moulding sand is the measure of its ability to
permit air to f low through it.
Strength: It is defined as the property of holding
together of sand grains. A moulding sand should have
ample strength so that the mould does not collapse or
get partially destroyed during conveying, turning over
or closing.
Refractoriness: It is the ability of the moulding sand
mixture to withstand the heat of melt without showing
any signs of softening or fusion.
Contd

Plasticity: It is the measure of the moulding sand to flow

around and over a pattern during ramming and to uniformly

fill the flask.
Collapsibility: This is the ability of the moulding sand to
decrease in volume to some extent under the compressive
forces developed by the shrinkage of metal during freezing
and subsequent cooling.
Adhesiveness: This is the property of sand mixture to
adhere to another body (here, the moulding flasks). The
moulding sand should cling to the sides of the moulding
boxes so that it does not fall out when the flasks are lifted
and turned over. This property depends on the type and
amount of binder used in the sand mix.

IES-2008
Small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled
on the inner surface of mould cavity is called
(a) Backing sand
(b) Facing sand
(c) Green sand

Other Sands
Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous
material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mold
cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
Backing sand: It is what constitutes most of the
refractory material found in the mould. This is made
up of used and burnt sand.
Green Sand: The molding sand that contains
moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand
should have enough strength so that the constructed
mould retains its shape.
Dry sand: When the moisture in the moulding sand is
completely expelled, it is called dry sand.

Grain size number

ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
grain size number, defined as
n -1
N 2
Where N is the number of grains per square inch
visible in a prepared specimen at 100X and n is the
ASTM grain-size number.
Low ASTM numbers mean a few massive grains; high
numbers refer to many small grains.

(d) Dry sand

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Casting Yield

IES-2002
In the grain -size determination using standard
charts, the relation between the given size
number n and the average number of grains 'N'

The casting yield is the proportion of the actual

casting mass, w, to the mass of metal poured into the
mould, W, expressed as a percentage.

per square inch at a magnification of 100 X is

Casting yield

(a) N = 2n

w
100
W

(b) N = 2n-l
(c) N = 2n + 1
(d) N = 2n + 1

Gating System

Gating System

Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the

top of the mould into which the molten metal is
poured.
Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal,
from the pouring basin, reaches the mould cavity. In
many cases it controls the f low of metal into the
mould.
Runner: The channel through which the molten
metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
Contd

Ingate: A channel through which the molten metal

enters the mould cavity.
Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape
of air and gases.

Contd

Types of Gate or In-gate

Top gate: Causes turbulence in the mould cavity, it is prone
to form dross, favourable temperature gradient towards the
gate, only for ferrous alloys.
Bottom gate: No mould erosion, used for very deep moulds,
higher pouring time, Causes unfavourable temperature
gradients.
Parting Gate: most widely used gate, easiest and most
economical in preparation.
Step Gate: Used for heavy and large castings, size of ingates
are normally increased from top to bottom.

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IES 2011
In light metal casting, runner should be so designed
that:
1. It avoids aspiration
2. It avoids turbulence
3. The path of runner is reduced in area so that
unequal volume of f low through each gate
takes place
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

IES-1998
A sand casting mould
assembly is shown in
the above figure. The
elements marked A
and B are respectively
(a) Sprue and riser
(b) Ingate and riser
(c) Drag and runner
(d) Riser and runner

IES-1998
Which of the following are the requirements of an ideal
gating system?
1. The molten metal should enter the mould cavity with as
high a velocity as possible.
2. It should facilitate complete filling of the mould cavity.
3. It should be able to prevent the absorption of air or gases
from the surroundings on the molten metal while
flowing through it.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3

IES 2011
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using
the code given below the lists :
List I

List II

A. Top gate

1. Heavy and large castings

B. Bottom gate

2. Most widely used and economical

C. Parting gate

3. Turbulence

D. Step gate

4. Unfavourable temperature gradient

Codes
A
(a) 3
(c) 3

B
4
2

C
2
4

D
1
1

(b)
(d)

A
1
1

B
4
2

C
2
4

D
3
3

The goals for the gating system

To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into
the mold
To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the
metal starts to solidify
To avoid shrinkage
Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the
solidifying casting so that the shrinkage if occurs must
be in the gating system not in the required cast part.
Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic
inclusions.

Types of Gating Systems

The gating systems are of two types:
Pressurized gating system
Un-pressurized gating system

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Pressurized Gating System

Un-Pressurized Gating System

The total cross sectional area decreases towards the

mold cavity
Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the
metal f low

The total cross sectional area increases towards the

Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates

Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the
sprue always runs full
Because of the restrictions the metal f lows at high
velocity leading to more turbulence and chances of
mold erosion.

mold cavity
Restriction only at the bottom of sprue
Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates
Aspiration in the gating system as the system never

runs full
Less turbulence.

Sprue Design
Sprue: Sprue is the channel through which the molten

metal is brought into the parting plane where it enters the

runners and gates to ultimately reach the mould cavity.
The molten metal when moving from the top of the cope to
the parting plane gains in velocity and some low-pressure
area would be created around the metal in the sprue.
Since the sand mould is permeable, atmospheric air would
be breathed into this low-pressure area which would then
be carried to the mould cavity.
To eliminate this problem of air aspiration, the sprue is
tapered to gradually reduce the cross section as it moves
away from the top of the cope as shown in Figure below (b).
Contd

The exact tapering can be obtained by the equation of

continuity. Denoting the top and choke sections of The sprue by
the subscriptst and 'c' respectively, we get

A t Vt A c Vc

A t Ac

Vc
Vt
Contd

Since the velocities are proportional to the square of

the potential heads, as can be derived from
Bernoulli's equation,
At Ac

hc
ht

Where H = actual
sprue height
and ht = h + H

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Gating ratio
Gating ratio is defined as: Sprue area: Runner area:

Ingate area.
For high quality steel castings, a gating ratio of 1: 2: 2 or

1: 2: 1.5 will produce castings nearly free from erosion,

will minimize oxidation, and will produce uniform
f low.
A gating ratio of 1: 4: 4 might favour the formation of

oxidation defects.

IES-2005
The gating ratio 2: 8: 1 for copper in gating system
design refers to the ratio of areas of:
(a) Sprue: Runner: Ingate
(b) Runner: Ingate: Sprue
(c) Runner: Sprue: Ingate
(d) Ingate: Runner: Sprue

IES-2003
A gating ratio of 1: 2: 4 is used to design the gating
system for magnesium alloy casting. This gating ratio
refers to the cross section areas of the various gating
elements as given below:
1. Down sprue 2.
Runner bar 3.
Ingates
The correct sequence of the above elements in the
ratio 1: 2: 4 is
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1,3 and 2
(c) 2, 3 and 1
(d) 3, 1 an 2

Risers and Riser Design

Risers are added reservoirs designed to feed liquid
metal to the solidifying casting as a means of
compensating for solidification shrinkage.
To perform this function, the risers must solidify after
the casting.
According to Chvorinov's rule, a good shape for a riser
would be one that has a long freezing time (i.e., a small
surface area per unit volume).
Live risers (also known as hot risers) receive the last
hot metal that enters the mold and generally do so at a
time when the metal in the mold cavity has already
begun to cool and solidify.

Chvorinovs rule

IES-1994
Assertion (A): In a mould, a riser is designed and placed
so that the riser will solidify after the casting has solidified.
Reason (R): A riser is a reservoir of molten metal which
will supply molten metal where a shrinkage cavity would
have occurred.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

Total solidification time (ts) = B (V/A) n

where n = 1.5 to 2.0

[Where, B = mould constant and is a function of (mould

material, casting material, and condition of casting]
n = 2 and triser = 1.25 tcasting
2

or
For cylinder
of diameter D
and height H

V
V
1.25
A
riser
A casting

V D2H / 4

2
A DH 2 D

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IES 2011

IES-1998

The relationship between total freezing time t,

volume of the casting V and its surface area A,
according to Chvorinovs rule is :
V
(a ) t k

A
A
(b ) t k

V
(d ) t k

was found to solidify in 10 seconds. A similar drop

of radius 4 mm would solidify in
(a) 14.14 seconds

A
(c ) t k

A spherical drop of molten metal of radius 2 mm

(b) 20 seconds
(c) 28.30 seconds

Where K is a constant

(d) 40 seconds

IES-2006
According

to

Chvorinov's

equation,

the

solidification time of a casting is proportional to:

(a) v2
(b) v
(c) 1/v
(d) 1/v2
Where, v = volume of casting

IES - 2012

Modulus Method

The ratio of surface area of volume for a unit volume of

It has been empirically established that if the modulus

riser is minimum in case of

of the riser exceeds the modulus of the casting by a

(a) Cylindrical riser

factor of 1.2, the feeding during solidification would be

(b) Spherical riser

(c) Hemispherical riser
(d) Cuboids riser

satisfactory.
MR = 1.2 Mc
Modulus = volume/Surface area
In steel castings, it is generally preferable to choose a

riser with a height-to-diameter ratio of 1.

Contd

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Caines Method
Freezing ratio = ratio of cooling characteristics of casting to
the riser.
A

D2
D2
4

V
AV

Casting

Riser

The riser should solidify last so x > 1

According to Caine
Y=

Vriser
Vcasting

X = Yb c

and a, b, c are constant.

Chills
External chills are masses of high-heat-capacity, high-thermalconductivity material that are placed in the mould (adjacent to
the casting) to accelerate the cooling of various regions.
Chills can effectively promote directional solidification or
increase the effective feeding distance of a riser. They can often
be used to reduce the number of risers required for a casting.
Internal chills are pieces of metal that are placed within the
mould cavity to absorb heat and promote more rapid
solidification. Since some of this metal will melt during the
operation, it will absorb not only the heat-capacity energy, but
also some heat of fusion. Since they ultimately become part of
the final casting, internal chills must be made from the same
alloy as that being cast.

IES-1995
Directional solidification in castings can be
improved by using
(a) Chills and chaplets
(b) Chills and padding
(c) Chaplets and padding
(d) Chills, chaplets and padding.

Cupola
Cupola has been the most widely used furnace for
melting cast iron.
In hot blast cupola, the f lue gases are used to preheat the
air blast to the cupola so that the temperature in the
furnace is considerably higher than that in a
conventional cupola. Coke is fuel and Lime stone
(CaCO3) is mostly used f lux.
Cost of melting low.
Main disadvantages of cupola is that it is not possible to
produce iron below 2.8% carbon.
Steel can be also prepared in cupola by employing
duplexing and triplexing operations.

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IES-1997
Assertion (A): Steel can be melted in hot blast cupola.
Reason (R): In hot blast cupola, the flue gases are used to
preheat the air blast to the cupola so that the temperature in
the furnace is considerably higher than that in a
conventional cupola.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

IES - 2012
Statement (I): Cupola furnace is not employed for
melting steel in foundry
Statement (II): The temperatures generated within a
cupola are not adequate for melting Steel
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true and Statement (II) is the correct
explanation of Statement (I)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true but Statement (II) is not the correct
explanation of Statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true

Electric Arc Furnace

For heavy steel castings, the open-hearth type of

furnaces with electric arc or oil fired would be generally

suitable in view of the large heat required for melting.
Electric arc furnaces are more suitable for ferrous

materials and are larger in capacity.

Ladles
Two types of ladles used in the pouring of castings.

Crucible Furnace
Smaller foundries generally prefer the crucible furnace.
The crucible is generally heated by electric resistance
or gas f lame.
Induction Furnace
The induction furnaces are used for all types of
materials, the chief advantage being that the heat
source is isolated from the charge and the slag and f lux
get the necessary heat directly from the charge instead
of the heat source.

Casting Cleaning (fettling)

Impurities in the molten metal are prevented from
reaching the mould cavity by providing a
(i) Strainer
(ii) Bottom well
(iii) Skim bob

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Pouring time

Expression for choke area

Time taken to fill the mould with top gate

Where A = Area of mould
A.H
tA
H = Height of mould
A g 2gh m
Ag = Area of Gate
Hm = Gate height

CA

2A
A g 2g

hm h m H

mm2

Where m = mass of the casting, kg

= Density of metal, kg / m3
t = pouring time
c = Efficiency factor and is the function of gate
system used
H = Effective head of liquid metal
= h for top gate

Time taken to fill the mould with bottom gate

tB

m
ct 2gH

Contd

Casting Defects
h
H=h- m for bottom gate
2
hc 2
=hfor parting line gate
2hm

The following are the major defects, which are likely to

occur in sand castings:
Gas defects
Shrinkage cavities
Molding material defects

hC
hm

hm

hm

Top gale

top gate

Pouring metal defects

Parting line gate

parting line gate

bottom gate

Gas Defects
A condition existing in a casting caused by the
trapping of gas in the molten metal or by mold gases
evolved during the pouring of the casting.
The defects in this category can be classified into
blowholes and pinhole porosity.
Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities present
in the casting on the surface or inside the casting.
Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of
hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating of
molten metal.

Mold shift.

Shrinkage Cavities
These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the

solidification of the casting.

To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is

required. For this reason risers are placed at the

appropriate places in the mold.
Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached in the
proper location, causing shrinkage cavities.
It is recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage
cavities.

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Cut and washes

Molding Material Defects

These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and

are caused by erosion of molding sand by the flowing

metal.
This is caused by the molding sand not having enough
strength and the molten metal flowing at high velocity.
The former can be taken care of by the proper choice of
molding sand and the latter can be overcome by the
proper design of the gating system.

Cuts and washes,

Scab
Metal penetration,
Fusion, and
Swell

Scab
This defect occurs when a portion of the face of a mould

lifts or breaks down and the recess thus made is filled by

metal.
When the metal is poured into the cavity, gas may be
disengaged with such violence as to break up the sand,
which is then washed away and the resulting cavity filled
with metal.
The reasons can be: - too fine sand, low permeability of
sand, high moisture content of sand and uneven mould
ramming.

Fusion
This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with

the molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy appearance

on the casting surface.
The main reason for this is that the clay or the sand

particles are of lower refractoriness or that the

pouring temperature is too high.

Metal penetration
When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand

grains, the result is a rough casting surface.

This occurs because the sand is coarse or no mold wash was

applied on the surface of the mold. The coarser the sand

grains more the metal penetration.

Swell
Under the inf luence of metallostatic forces, the mold
wall may move back causing a swell in the dimension
of the casting. A proper ramming of the mold will
correct this defect.

Inclusions
Particles of slag, refractory materials sand or
deoxidation products are trapped in the casting during
pouring solidification. The provision of choke in the
gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the
mold can prevent this defect

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Pouring Metal Defects

The likely defects in this category are
Mis-runs and
Cold shuts
A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill
the mold cavity completely and thus leaves unfilled
cavities.

The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by

a lower f luidity of the mold or when the section
thickness of the casting is very small. Fluidity can be
improved by changing the composition of the metal
and by increasing the pouring temperature of the
metal.

A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting

in the mold cavity, do not fuse together properly thus
forming a discontinuity in the casting.
Contd

GATE-2009

Mold Shift

Two streams of liquid metal which are not hot

The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag

enough to fuse properly result into a casting defect

or molding boxes have not been properly aligned.

known as
(a) Cold shut
(b) Swell
(c) Sand wash
(d) Scab

IES-2001
Scab is a
(a) Sand casting defect
(b) Machining defect
(c) Welding defect
(d) Forging defect

IES-1998
Assertion (A): Stiffening members, such as webs
and ribs, used on a casting should be liberally
provided.
Reason (R): They will provide additional strength
to a cast member.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

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IES-2005

IES-1997

In gating system design, which one of the

following is the correct sequence in which choke
area, pouring time, pouring basin and sprue sizes
are calculated?
(a) Choke area - Pouring time - Pouring basin Sprue
(b) Pouring basin - Sprue - Choke area - Pouring time
(c) Choke area - Sprue - Pouring basin - Pouring time
(d) Pouring basin - Pouring time - Choke area - Sprue

Cast Aluminium Code

IES-2009
In which one of the following furnaces most of the
non-ferrous alloys are melted?
(a) Reverberatory furnace
(b) Induction furnace
(c) Crucible furnace
(d) Pot furnace

Cast Aluminium Code

If the melting ratio of a cupola is 10: 1, then the

coke requirement for one ton melt will be
(a) 0.1 ton
(b) 10 tons
(c) 1 ton
(d) 11 tons

Four digit identification system

First digit indicates alloy group

1 Aluminium, 99% or more

2 copper
3 Silicon, with copper and/or magnesium
4 silicon
5 magnesium
6 not used
7 zinc
8 tin
9 other elements

IES 2011

Contd..

Second two digits identify the aluminium alloy or

indicate the aluminium purity.
The last digit is separating from the other three by a
decimal point and indicates the product form; that is,
castings or ingots
A modification of the original alloy is indicated by a
serial letter before the numerical designation.
Alloy A514.0 indicates an aluminium alloy casting with
magnesium as the principal alloy. One modification to
the original alloy has made, as indicated by the letter A.

In the designation of Aluminium casting A514.0

indicates :
(a) Aluminium purity
(b) Aluminium content
(c) Percentage of alloy element
(d) Magnesium Content
Ans. (d)

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