ADJUSTMENT COMPUTATIONS

INTRODUCTION

A distance PQ is measured using a steel tape of nominal length

20m and found to be 65.32m long. After calibrated against a
standard, the tape was found to be 0.050m too long.

Compute the correct length PQ.

Correct length PQ = measured length PQ + correction

Correction = (actual tape length nominal tape length) x

number or nominal tape length in line PQ
= (20.05 20.0) x 65.32/20.0
= +0.16

Hence correct length PQ = 65.32 + 0.16

= 65.48m

Question: Name what other corrections commonly

applied in a steel tape distance measurement.

The internal angles of a triangle ABC were measured as follows;

A = 590
B = 610
C = 630
Assuming that the measurements are free from gross and
systematic errors, compute the correct angles A, B and C.

Sum of angles = 1830

Condition for sum of angles = (n-2)x1800 = 1800 as n=3
Difference or misclosure = + 30
(indicates the presence of random errors and observations need
adjustment)
Adjustment of the observed angles are carried out by distributing
the errors equally to the observed values by a certain amount of
correction.

Correction = - (30 /3 angles) = - 10 per angle

DEFINITION OF TERMS
IN SURVEY MEASUREMENTS AND
ADJUSTMENT COMPUTATIONS

Adjustment is a process of making measured

values of a quantity more accurate before they
are used in the computations for the
determination of points position that are
associated with the measurements.

measure
to find the size, length, or amount of
something (unknown quantity), using standard units
such as inches, metres etc:

observe
to see and notice something:
observation
the process of watching something or someone
carefully for a period of time

compute
to calculate a result, answer, sum etc:

computation
the process of calculating or the result of calculating:

adjust
to change or move something slightly to improve it or
make it more suitable for a particular purpose:

adjust
to change (something) to make it more correct; so that it
fits, corresponds or conforms to desired conditions
adjustment
a small change made to a machine, system, or
calculation

adjustment
is a process of distributing errors (random) in
measurements or observations so that they conform to
certain geometrical conditions (such as misclosure) .

PURPOSE OF SURVEYING
To determine the relative positions of points above, on, or
below the earth surface by the measurements of distances and
directions.

Making

measurements or observations and then

computations and analyses using the measurements are the
main tasks of surveyors.

No measurement is exact and can be free of error. Thus the

true value of the quantity being measured is never known.
It is important for surveyors to recognize errors, eliminate as
many errors as possible, and apply adjustments for errors that
cannot be eliminated.

RELATIVE POSITIONING

LINEAR SURVEYING

COMPASS SURVEYING

TOTAL STATION TRAVERSING

LEVELLING

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELLING

TRIANGULATION

Positioning of points in a network of triangles whose

internal horizontal angles were measured at the points as
well the length of one side of the triangle

TRILATERATION

Positioning of points in a network of triangles whose

lengths of all sides of the triangle were measured

INTERSECTIONS
Positioning of an unknown point
P from two or more known points
A and B using horizontal angles
(1,2) measured at the known
points.

RESECTIONS
Positioning of an unknown point P from three or more
known points A, B and C using horizontal angles (,)
measured at the unknown point.

Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) Surveying

Baseline vectors = Coordinate differences (dX, dY, dZ)

between points

SURVEY MEASUREMENTS OR
OBSERVATIONS

WHAT ARE THEY DOING??

Observed what?
What errors exist?
What geometrical
conditions/ misclosure?

UNDERSTANDING ERRORS IN
SURVEY MEASUREMENTS OR
OBSERVATIONS

Understand ......... ERRORS

Error (E) = The difference between a computed or measured value (O)
and a true or theoretically correct value (T).

E=0-T
Errors occur in survey observations/ measurements/ data;

Steel tape - length

Prismatic compass - bearing
Total Station Horizontal and vertical angles/ EDM distance
Levels Difference in elevations
GPS Baseline vectors

In order to determine the most probable value (MPV) for the measured
quantity and its accuracy/precision, adjustment of the observation errors
is required

Sources of errors
Natural errors caused by winds, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure.
Instrumental errors caused by maladjustments of instruments

Personal errors caused by limitation of human sense of sight and touch

Types of errors
Gross error/mistakes caused by observer carelessness or poor judgments.
These errors can be eliminated.
Systematic errors/ biases caused by the condition of measuring system that
obey physical law can be modeled mathematically. These errors can be
computed and corrected.
Random errors- caused by factors beyond the control of observer and these
errors obey the law of probability. These errors cannot be eliminated and remain
in observations after gross and systematic errors have been eliminated. They
can be adjusted. Adjustment of observations deals with random errors

only.

RANDOM ERRORS

MISCLOSURES IN SURVEY
OBSERVATIONS

WHY MISCLOSURES EXIST IN SURVEY

OBSERVATIONS?
Observations contain errors?
Good observations are dependent on the
human skill, instruments and
environmental factors.

No observation is free from errors. Three

types of errors: Gross, Systematic and
Random

DETERMINATION OF SURVEY
MISCLOSURES
Detection the presence of random errors

- comparison between observations and certain conditions that fit

to the geometry of the measurements
- Examples:
> total elevation difference in a closed loop is zero
> total internal angles of a triangle is 1800

> total angles around the horizon at a point is 3600

> total latitude and departure of a closed traverse is zero
> total interior angles of a closed polygon/traverse = (n 2)1800

ADJUSTMENT OF SURVEY
OBSERVATIONS

COMPASS SURVEY ADJUSTMENT

Observed traverse (ABCA)

Adjusted traverse (ABCA)

b/d
A

b/d

Linear misclosure (AA)

b/d
B

Error A

Error C
Error B
B

TRAVERSE SURVEY ADJUSTMENT

Observed traverse (ABCA)

Adjusted traverse (ABCA)

b/d
A

b/d

Linear misclosure (AA)

b/d
B

Adjustment steps:
1. Compute angular misclosure and check angular
tolerance/precision
2. Adjust angles by C and M corrections
3. Compute linear misclosure and check linear
tolerance/precision
4. Adjust latitude and departure using Bowditch rule
5. Compute coordinates of traverse points

Example: Adjustment of angles in a triangle

Internal angles observations of a triangle assuming free from gross and systematic
errors.
What is the true values for angle A, B and C (i.e. perform an adjustment of the angles)
Observed Corrections Adjusted
Angles values (deg)
(deg)
values
A
59
-1
58
B
61
-1
60
C
63
-1
62
Total
183
-3
180
Sum of angles = 183
Condition for sum of angles = 180
Difference or misclosure = + 3 (indicates the presence of random errors and observations need
adjustment)
Adjustment of the observed angles are carried out by distributing the errors equally to the
observed values by a certain amount of correction.
Correction = - (3 deg/3 angles) = - 1 deg per angle
Keypoints:
Determination/ estimation of errors in the observed values
Geometrical condition and misclosure of figure
Distribution of errors for the observed values
Determination of true values/ most probable values/ adjusted values for the observations

Example: Adjustment of survey traverse observations

(equal precision observations)

Line

Distance

Bearing

AB

1435.67

000 00' 00

BC

856.94

2670 36' 14

CD

1125.66

2130 23' 41

DE

1054.54

1330 20' 43

EA

756.35

690 35' 09

Given the measured distances and bearings of a traverse ABCDEA as above;

Compute the actual linear misclosure of the traverse.
Adjust the traverse using Bowditch method.

Example: Adjustment of survey traverse observations

(Unequal precision observations)

Line

Distance

Bearing

AB

1435.67 0.02

000 00' 00" 00"

BC

856.94 0.02

2670 36' 14" 3.1"

CD

1125.66 0.02

2130 23' 41" 4.8"

DE

1054.54 0.02

1330 20' 43" 5.7"

EA

756.35 0.02

690 35' 09" 6.9"

Given the measured distances and bearings of a traverse ABCDEA as above;

a) Compute the actual linear misclosure of the traverse.
b) Determine the expected linear misclosure at the 95% confidence level and
comment whether or not the traverse contains blunders .

UNDERSTANDING THE QUALITY

OF SURVEY MEASUREMENTS OR
OBSERVATIONS

Precision
Degree of closeness of observation values. The closer the values the higher the
precision of the observation

Accuracy
Degree of closeness between the mean of observations and the true values

ERRORS IN SURVEY MEASUREMENTS

OR OBSERVATIONS

HORIZONTAL ANGLE MEASUREMENTS

Reading errors
Pointing errors
Target-centering errors
Instrument centering errors

ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS

Instrumental errors
Target-centering errors
Instrument centering errors

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING MEASUREMENTS

Rod reading errors
Instrument leveling errors
Instrument collimation errors

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING MEASUREMENTS

VERTICAL/ ZENITH ANGLE
Reading errors
Pointing errors
Vertical circle compensator
ELECTRONIC SLOPE DISTANCE
Instrumental errors
Target-centering errors
Instrument centering errors

GPS MEASUREMENTS
Orbital errors in the satellite
Signal transmission timing errors due to
atmospheric conditions
Receiver errors
Multipath errors
Miscentering errors of the receiver antennas
over the ground station and heighting measuring
errors above the station
Process Carrier phase observations to obtain Baseline vectors
Process network of stations based on baseline vectors

NOTES

Aim of Surveying (geomatics)?

To determine the relative positions of points above, on or beneath the earths surface

How to determine the values for points position

By performing measurements (observations) of desired quantities such as coordinates
(X,Y,Z), lengths/distances, angles, bearings, azimuths, elevation differences , using
surveying instruments and technologies, and computational techniques
What are the surveying instruments/ technologies?
Electronic Total Station
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Prismatic compass
Steel tapes
Levels
Observations contain errors?
Good observations are dependent on the human skill, instruments and environmental
factors. No observation is free from errors. Three types of errors: Gross, Systematic and
Random
Values of quantity: True or Most Probable?
The value of a quantity can be known based on measurements or observations. As the
observations contain errors, hence the observed value that contains the least errors is
considered as closest to the true value

Finding the most probable values (mpv) of observations

Using a steel tape and measure one time the length of line AB. The value of length AB ?
Using a steel tape and measure 10 times the length of line AB. The value of length AB ?
Using a steel tape and measure the length AB in two sections A-H (10 times) and H-B
(20 times), each section was measured different number of times. The value of length
AB?
Using a total station and measure one time each angle in a triangle PQR. The values of
each of the three angles?
Using a total station and measure 10 times (angle P), 20 times (angle Q) and 30 times
(angle R) in a triangle PQR. The values for each of the three angles?
Finding the errors of observations
Gross
Systematic
Random
What is adjustment of observations?
The method of estimating and distributing random errors in the observed values in order
to make it conform to certain geometrical conditions, hence the resulted/adjusted values
are known as the most probable values for the quantity involves.