Classification of Motor Skills

1. How many different skill categories are presented within Gentiles original taxonomy
A) 2
B)16
C)4
D)8
2. Defending a penalty shot in Soccer is a:
A) Movement
B) Action
C) Perceptual skill
D) Both B and C
3. Briefly explain the four components within Gentiles two-dimensional taxonomy
4. Name the four main one-dimensional classification systems and identify the extreme ends of the
continuum for each system.
Answers:
1. Answer is D - Both an Action and a Perceptual skill. This is because the Goalkeeper has a goal (to
catch the ball/not let it into the goals) which requires movements to achieve and they must watch
(perceive) what the kicker will do to determine where they need to move to save the goal.
2. Answer is B It is neither A or C as they do not get classified under environmental context.
Intertrial variability refers to possibly changing regulatory conditions during performance attempts, and
when initially teaching children changing conditions would want to be avoided.
3. Gentiles two-dimensional taxonomy include 4 components under 2 categories.
Environmental Context: 1. Regulatory conditions - when environmental conditions control movement
characteristics of an action (for example if there is a strong wind travelling the opposite way to your
shot or throw you will need to put more force in). 2. Intertrial variability when regulatory conditions
affect performance from one attempt to another (for example, no wind for your first attempt but then
wind picks up and strong wind for second attempt).
Function of the action: 1. Body orientation either changing or maintaining body position (catching a
ball while running or standing still). 2. Object manipulation when the object changes position
(catching a thrown ball as opposed to picking up a stationary ball).
4. Size of Primary Musculature It would be both large musculature (gross motor skills) and small
musculature (fine motor skills), however large musculature is used more than the small. Gross motor
skills would be used for strength and power during stance and swing phases, whereas fine motor skills
would be used for accuracy and control of the racquet and ball.
Specificity of where actions begin and end the forehand shot has a defined beginning and end
therefore would be a discrete skill. It starts with the racquet behind the body going into the swing
phase, then there is ball contact and the movement ends after the follow through.
Stability of environmental context During a game of tennis the court can be classed as an
unpredictable environment, as the ball is constantly in motion and returning the ball is dependent on
the opponents shot. This would be classed as an open motor skill. Motor vs Cognitive When a
forehand is played both these elements are used.
Cognitive decision making is maximised in the seconds leading up to the skill, such as where you are
going to play the ball to on the court. Motor skill is maximised when the skill is being performed as the
body prepares itself for maximal exertion and power.

Motor Abilities
1) Which of the following is the correct definition of ability, and how it differs from the term skill?
a) The general capacity of an individual, which determines their potential for achievement. It
differs from skill, as it can not be modified with practice.
b) A general trait that determines the achievement level of an individual.
c) The general capacity of an individual, which determines their potential for achievement. It
differs from skill, as it is not developed with practice.
d) A characteristic that does not determine the potential of a persons achievement. It differs from
skill as it cant be developed through practice like skill can.
2) Which of the following is not one of Fleishman's Physical Proficiency Abilities?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Trunk Strength
Dynamic Flexibility
Stamina
Multilimb Coordination
Gross Body Equilibrium

3) Explain how individual differences may affect talent identification.

4) Create a task analysis for kicking a soccer ball by identifying the components of the skill and
distinguishing the motor abilities that underpin these components of the skill
Answers:
1: C. Ability is a general trait or capacity, which does determine their potential for success. It is different
from skill, as skill can be developed through practice, where as ability can not. Hence the answer is C.
2. D.
3. Ability is an inherited trait which underlies the performance of many skills. Individuals have varying
abilities, these differences will affect talent identification, depending on the skills required for the
specific sport.
The general motor ability hypothesis is based around the idea that if an individual is highly skilled in
one ability, they will be skilled in the majority of abilities. In this scenario talent identification success
would be at its highest, however the theory has little supporting evidence.
The specificity of motor abilities, which has greater supporting evidence, is based around the idea that
many motor abilities are independent from each other, and that being highly skilled in one does not
have any correlation with being skilled in another. Based on this, individuals will have varying strengths
and weaknesses which limits the success of devised talent identification criteria.
Generally a variety of motor abilities are required to effectively perform a task, some athletes reach
greater success through individual flare not acknowledged in the talent identification criteria. Therefore
talent identification should only be used as a base and not dismiss potential individual differences.
Fundamental Moving Skills
1) Fundamental Movement Skills are classified into which 3 categories?

a) Motor skills, body management skills, object control skills

b) Cognitive skills, motor skills, body management skills
c) Perceptual skills, object control skills, body management skills
d) Body management skills, object control skills, locomotor skills

2) Which of the following statements about Fundamental Movement Skills is true?

a) Academic performance is directly enhanced with movement proficiency
b) Fundamental Movement Skills are precursor movement patterns to more specialized and
complex skills that allow greater sports participation
c) Locomotor skills involve balancing the body both while standing still and in motion
d) Proficient movers have lower self-esteem and self-confidence
3) Briefly describe the difference between proficient movement skill performance and problematic
movement skill performance and give a single movement example, comparable at both levels.
4. Briefly describe the importance of Fundamental Movement Skills and list 4 factors that can impact
the advancement of Fundamental Movement Skills in children.
Answers:
1.

Answer is d).
Fundamental Movement Skills are classified into 3 categories. These categories are: body
management skills, object control skills and locomotor skills.

2.

Answer is b).
a) There may be a possible link between proficient movers and high academic standard, however
this is due to the resulting high self-esteem and confidence brought about by movement
proficiency and not directly caused by this proficiency.
b) General fundamental movement skills enable individuals to progress onto more complex and
sports specific skills as a basic understanding is achieved that can be developed.
c) Body management skills involve balancing the body while both standing still and in motion,
locomotor skills is the transport of the body in any direction.
d) Proficient movers often have greater self-esteem and self-confidence, as they are able to
participate and show skill in a range of tasks.

3.

Movements such as running, jumping, throwing or catching would potentially show gaps
between the level of proficient and problematic movers. A child displaying problematic movement
skill performance may appear disadvantaged, slow, or uncoordinated when compared to those
displaying more natural, proficient movement. This can also translate into their social capacity and
self-esteem making them confident individuals, more pre-disposed to join in with activities and
games. One such example could be two children running in a park, one with normal, confident
style and pace; the other with slightly awkward or disjointed movement.

4.

Fundamental movement skills and their development influence a childs whole life. A
deficiency in these skills can cause a child to not participate in daily activities in and out of school
and can be linked to the child becoming antisocial and has also been linked with academic
performance. Without a reasonable development of these skills children can dislike physical
activity and become overweight, which poses major health risks. Factors that can impact the
development of fundamental movement skills include but are not limited to; physique, health,

physical activities, age and interests.

-Physique: this may be a limiting factor in some circumstances and will impact the advancement of
FMS.
-Health: poor health may impact the advancement of FMS.
-Physical activities: not enough physical activity will stunt the advancement of FMS.
-Age: there are skills that need to be learnt when you are a child in order to progress, FMS are
crucial.
-Interests: level of interest will impact the advancement of FMS.
-Motivation to practice: no motivation will heavily impact FMS.
Neuromotor Basis for Motor Control
1. Neurons in the nervous system that are responsible for transmitting neural information along
neural pathways to the Central Nervous System (CNS) are called
a) Motor neurons
b) Interneurons
c) Sensory neurons
d) Cerebral neurons

2. Which of these is the function of the parietal lobe?

a) Visual perception
b) Control of voluntary movement
c) Abstract thought and judgement
d) Perception of sensory information
SHORT ANSWER 1: Where is the Cerebellum found and briefly describe its main functions.
SHORT ANSWER 2: List the components that make up a motor unit and describe how motor unit
recruitment takes place during movement
Answers:
MCQ 1: Nerve cells that send neural impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscle fibres are
called:
d) motor neurons: motor neurons send neural impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscle fibres
MCQ 2: Which of these is the function of the parietal lobe?
d) Perception of sensory information is the function of the parietal lobe
SHORT ANSWER Q1: Where is the Cerebellum found, and briefly describe its main functions:
The Cerebellum is situated in the hindbrain at the base of the skull, directly above the brainstem and
beneath the occipital lobes.
It plays a key role in the maintenance of balance and posture, responsible for making postural
adjustments in order to maintain a sense of equilibrium.
It is important in the area of fine movement co-ordination where the contraction/relaxation of the
muscle is smooth, therefore enhancing the accuracy of the movement.
It is important for motor learning as it facilitates the analyzation of the visual signs associated with a
movement, which enables adjustment of coordination where needed when learning a new skill.
It also coordinates the voluntary movement of speech.
SHORT ANSWER Q2: List the components that make up a motor unit and describe how
motor unit recruitment takes place during movement:

A motor unit is made up of:

1) a motor neuron
2) all the muscle fibres connected to that particular motor neuron
The smallest/weakest motor units are recruited first and progress to the larger/stronger units if more
force is required.
The number of motor units recruited to cause a movement depends on the force required.
The only way to exert more force is to recruit more motor units to innervate more muscle fibres.
A movement such as lifting a heavy box requires high levels of force from the quadriceps muscle (for
example) and in turn requires a large number of motor units to do so.
Compare this with the movement of the eye which only requires a small number of motor units to
generate a small amount of force.

Motor Control Theories: P1

1. In the rapid elbow extension task, the tri-phasic EMG persists in the absence of a sensory
feedback loop. What is this kind of control system known as?
a) Closed-loop
b) Incomplete-loop
c) Open-loop
d) Complete-loop
2. The correct sequence of motor information transmission in a closed loop system is?
a) Movement effectors, feedback, movement control centre, movement instructions
b) Movement control centre, movement instructions, feedback, movement effectors
c) Movement control centre, movement instructions, movement effectors, feedback
d) Movement instructions, feedback, movement effectors, movement control centre
3) Describe the two key components of Schmidt's Schema theory and how they account for the highly
adaptive and flexible qualities of human motor abilities. You must use the example of 'running' in your
answer.
4) Motor control theories help describe and explain how the nervous system produces coordinated
movements of motor skill in a wide range of environmental contexts. The theories help address two
important issues namely, Coordination and Degree of Freedom (DOFs). Define these two terms and
highlight problems associated with them, if any.
Answers:
1) In the rapid elbow extension task, the tri-phasic EMG persists in the absence of a sensory feedback
loop. What is this kind of control system known a?
The correct answer is, c) open-loop
2) The correct sequence of motor information transmission in a closed loop control system is?
The correct answer is, b) movement control centre, movement instructions, movement
effectors, feedback.
3) Describe the two key components of Schmidt's Schema theory and how they account for the highly
adaptive and flexible qualities of human motor abilities. You must use the example of 'running' in your
answer.
They are the General Motor Program (GMP) and the Motor response schema or Parameters.Firstly, the
GMP serves as a control mechanism for a particular class of actions. In running, all variants of running
(i.e. jogging, striding, sprinting etc.) would share certain invariant features pertaining to the order of

events, such as relative timing of each event, relative amount of ground reaction force produced with
each event. Secondly, to determine exactly which movement in this 'running GMP' should be performed
in a specific environment or context, parameters such as, overall duration of running and overall force
generated, are assigned to the same 'running GMP'. The GMP has to be retrieved from memory in the
first place. Then the person applies the specific parameters to the all-encompassing motor program,
retaining the invariant features of the GMP, to execute a specific motor skill in novel situations or
environmental contexts.
4) Motor control theories help describe and explain how the nervous system produces coordinated
movements of motor skill in a wide range of environmental contexts. The theories help address two
important issues namely, Coordination and Degree of Freedom (DOFs). Define these two terms and
highlight problems associated with them, if any.
Firstly, coordination of movement. Coordination between body and limb motions relative to each
other as well as relative to the specific environment in which the movement is produced are both
crucial to produce a specific result of the movement task. For example, catching a ball thrown at you
would require both arm and leg coordination as well as moving within the space in order to catch the
ball in your hands.Secondly, degrees of freedom in the body. Degrees of freedom (DOF) is essentially
the number of independent elements in a central system and the ways each component can act.In the
complex neuromuscular system, this becomes a control problem because there potentially exists plenty
of complications. For example, the seven degrees of freedom specified in moving the arm is not as
simple anymore when one considers the muscles that could span more than one joint; activity of
different muscles in a specific movement; motor unit recruitment order etc. The abundance of DOFs
makes it difficult to specify which ones are selected by the nervous system to produce a specific
movement to achieve a task goal.

Motor Control Theories: Pt. 2

1. Which of the following is the most correct example of a control based parameter, which will
manipulate the stability of the order parameter for a drum roll?
a)
b)
c)
d)

Length of the drum sticks

Force applied to the drum
An increase in tempo
Co-efficient of restitution of the stick off the drum

2. Select the most appropriate answer describing difference between the Two theories of Motor control.
a) Dynamic pattern theory trys to explain movement based on information from limbs and the
environment, where as the Motor program based theory is based on having the motor pattern
stored in the individuals memory
b) Dynamic pattern theory is memory based as is the motor program based theory, they differ in
that Dynamic pattern theory applies to interlimb coordination and motor program based theory
is only one limb coordination.
c) Motor program theory relies on the environment and sensory information from the body and
limbs to coordinate a movement, where as the dynamic pattern theory relies on just the
environment.
d) The motor program based theory is requires the storage of the motor pattern in order to repeat
it, however the Dynamic pattern theory is requires both information from memory, the
environment and the body/limbs.
Short Answer:
1. Motor-program based theory, involves the initiation of an action, from stored past information. The
criticism of this motor-based-theory is formed through dynamic pattern theory, specifically co-

ordination patterns. Using anti-phase transition discuss how coordination patterns may be seen as a
criticism of motor-program based theory?
2. In the sport of gymnastics a change in coordinated states occurs during the transition from running
to jumping as the gymnast performs a front somersault. Using your knowledge of the dynamic pattern
theory, In detail, explain the order parameter and suggest a control parameter that could affect the
sequence.
Answer:
MCQ:
1. Which of the following is the most correct example of a control based parameter, which will
manipulate the stability of the order parameter of a musical drum roll?
Answer: C
2. Select the most appropriate answer that describes the difference between the two theories of motor
control.
Answer: a. Is correct.
b. Is incorrect, only motor program based theory is based on memory.
c. Is incorrect, the definitions provided in this answer are both the definitions for the dynamic pattern
theory, as such the answer for motor program-based theory is incorrect and that for motor pattern
theory is only part correct.
d. Is incorrect, the definition for motor program-based theory is correct however the theory for dynamic
pattern theory is incorrect as it does not rely on memory to complete new movements.
Short Answer
1. Motor-program based theory, involves the initiation of an action, from stored past information. The
criticism of this motor-based-theory is formed through dynamic pattern theory, specifically coordination patterns. Using anti-phase transition discuss how coordination patterns may be seen as a
criticism of motor-program based theory?
Within motor control theories, the Dynamic pattern theory, offers a potential solution to the degrees of
freedom problem associated with motor-program based theory. Dynamic pattern theory describes the
control of coordinated movement that emphasises the role of information in the environment and the
dynamic properties of the body and its limbs. As per the definition, we can view this theory in a nonlinear sense, specifically anti-phase transition. The argument presented for motor-program based
theory, is how can motor programs explain coordinated patterns, when another can emerge during that
performance? Attractor and stability states play a fundamental role in explaining this phenomenon.
Attractor states are the preferred behavioural state of the body. When engaging in an anti-phase based
movement, regardless of trying to maintain that movement, a change to the control parameter
(increase in speed), will revert the movement, almost always to an in-phase coordination pattern. It is
this transition between mediums where a fundamental flaw in the motor-program argument is seen, as
there is a non-linear change in coordination, during the performance of another. It is through this where
we come to see the bodys interaction within the environment its presented, and revert from a motorprogram based theory, regardless, of what our stored past memory, instructs us to perform.
2. In the sport of gymnastics a change in coordinated states is made during the transition from running
to jumping when the gymnast performs a front somersault. Using your knowledge on the dynamic
pattern theory, explain the order parameter of this transition and provide a control parameter that
would affect the sequence.
The front somersaults preparation can be broken down into two segments the momentum building
run and the 2 feet punch jump of the takeoff. The transition between these two segments is described
as non-linear. As there is a non-linear change in movement, the relative phase of the tumble line
changes. The gymnasts preparation run is in anti-phase as each stride is 1800. As the gymnast
transitions into the takeoff jump their limbs become in-phase. A control parameter that would affect the

order parameter would be the speed of the run. By increasing the speed of the take off the relative
phase of the limbs will change from 1800 to 1200, 600, eventually until the movement transitions back
into an in-phase pattern of movement. As result we can now conclude that a change to the control
parameter, will have direct impact on the order parameter (relative-phase), of this movement.
Motor Control: Proprioception
1. The patellar tendon tap is a stretch reflex causing:
a) Contraction of rectus femoris
b) Contraction of rectus femoris and reciprocal inhibition of hamstring muscles
c) Reciprocal inhibition of hamstrings
d) Contraction of both rectus femoris and hamstring muscles
2. Which proprioceptor has poor feedback during mid range of motion but provides good feedback
at full flexion?
a) Joint Receptors
b) Golgi Tendon Organ
c) Muscle spindles
d) Sensory Polyneuropthy
SA1.
The importance of feedforward motor control is most recognised through Efference Copy and
Anticipatory Postural Adjustments. Give an explanation of both and provide an action-specific example.
SA2.
The impairment of posture proprioception can be the result of four variations in deafferentation. If
Surgical deafferentation and temporary deafferentation are two possibilities, name and describe the
other two possibilities in relevance to the human body.
Answers
MCQ1:
Answer is: B - Contraction of rectus femoris and reciprocal inhibition of hamstring muscles
MCQ2:
Answer is: A - Joint Receptors

SA1:
Efference copy is a copy of the efferent output, which has the function of sending information from the
muscles to the sensory areas in the brain. The sensory system is then able to interpret the afferent
output. An action specific example of this is if the eye moved in a stable world or if the world moved
with the eye stationary. In a stable world, if a person was to move their eye left and right repeatedly,
this would be stored as an efferent copy. The person would then receive visual feedback (afferent
output) and be able to interpret this as their eyes moving with the world staying still. If the person did
not move their eye left and right repeatedly beforehand and suddenly through their eyes they see the
world moving left and right, a different interpretation would take place as the person might think an
earthquake is taking place.
Anticipatory Postural Adjustments is using information in advance to plan what youre doing. Muscles
are anticipating the movement about to be performed that is going to effect the bodys posture and to
avoid any potentially damaging consequences, thus the body makes postural changes. For example,
swinging the arms fast out in front of our body can cause disruption to the bodys balanced state. The
body anticipates this action so prior to actually performing the movement, the back muscles are
activated to pull back a little, to ensure we remain stable and upright.

SA2:
The impairment of posture proprioception can be due to surgical or temporal deafferentation as well as
sensory polyneuropathy or tendon vibration.
Sensory Polyneuropathy comes about when large afferent myelinated fibres begin to degenerate within
the body. This results in a loss of sensory information in all sensors apart from pain and temperature.
However, the strength of the fibre maintains at normal levels due to the efferent motor pathways
usually staying intact. For patients suffering from sensory neuropathy, unless they are able to see their
joints and limbs, they are unable to determine motion and position of the affected area. It also leads to
a degeneration in tactile sensation and as a consequence their manual dexterity is impaired, for
example writing or buttoning up clothing.
The second variation for deafferentation effecting posture proprioception is Tendon Vibration. This
process occurs when a vibrating muscles induces an unusually high level of activity amongst muscle
spindles.This results in a confused central nervous system which may in turn interpret this as muscle
lengthening. An example seen in the human body is through the Achilles tendon. When vibrated it leads
to an overestimation of the length of the triceps surae muscle creating a forward sway in the body.
Motor Control: Vision
1. In regards to visual processing systems of the brain, what is the name of the pathway that
projects from the primary visual cortex to the posterior parietal cortex?
a) Ventral stream
b) Optic tract
c) Optic nerve
d) Dorsal stream
2. Which type of vision has a range of 200 degrees horizontally and 160 degrees vertically to
detect information?
a) Foveal vision
b) Peripheral Vision
c) Central Vision
d) A,B and C combined
SA1:
A cricket player is having trouble making contact with fast bowls from the opposition; however there
are multiple methods to examine and improve vision on motor control. How may a cricket coach
improve a players interceptive skills when batting in cricket?
SA2:
Briefly discuss what binocular vision is and list two advantages of having binocular vision.
Answers:
MCQ1: Answer: D Dorsal
The dorsal stream pathway stretches from the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe to the
posterior parietal cortex at the parietal lobe. The position of the pathway provides spatial awareness
and guidance of actions. It cannot be a), the ventral system as this stream projects from the primary
visual cortex to inferotemporal cortex. It begins at the primary visual cortex as does the dorsal stream,
however it runs parallel to the dorsal system towards the temporal lobe. b) and c) are not correct as
neither of them are a type of visual processing stream. The optic nerve is responsible for transmitting
visual information from the retina to the brain. The optic tract continues on from the optic nerve and
relays information towards the optic chiasm.
MCQ2: Answer B- Peripheral Vision
Within the unit we investigated central and peripheral vision. Foveal and Central Vision are the same
type of vision. These two answers A and C are incorrect as they have only a small range in which they
can gather visual information from 2-5 degrees. This is as central vision focuses on what is directly in

front of a person in a high visual resolution and does not need a large range. D is also incorrect due to
central and foveal vision having a much smaller range than that asked for in the question. The correct
answer is B, peripheral vision. Peripheral vision is the part of vision that detects information from
outside the central vision and has a greater range as it detects a wider range of information in a lower
visual resolution.
SA1)
Successful advanced preparation is important in becoming a skilled performer. The first critical aspect
of developing skilled anticipation is for the coach to direct the performers attention to the critical early
information sources/cues needed to predict an opponents movement intention. For the skill of cricket
batting, a batter must understand what aspects of the bowlers mechanics provide the clues to where
the ball is about to be bowled. - Eye movement recording- by recording the displacement of foveal
vision, the coach is able to see whether the batsmen is watching the correct cues from the opposition.
His vision should follow the movement of the bowler rather than the bowlers hand or the ball itself Temporal occlusion- Means blocking the vision of the outcome of a movement sometime before the
appearance of ball flight. For example, video footage of a cricket bowler shot from the perspective of a
batter may be shown to a player, but the players vision is occluded (the video clip is blackened out or
paused) just at the front foot of the bowler is planted. This forces the returner watching the video to
make a decision about bowl location on the basis of pre contact cues, such as arm and torso
positioning. The reason of temporal occlusion training is that when players are forced to understand
which key kinematics of a bowlers action predict the consequential bowl location, they can then use
this perceptual skill in the live situation to buy themselves the necessary time to prepare and
accomplish their hit. - Event occlusion- this examines the ability of cricket batsmen to pick up useful
information from the pre release movement patterns of the opposing bowler. This occurs by body parts
of the bowler being removed so that the player may focus on the important body parts and their
significant cues. By the coach can blacking out specific limbs in a systematic manner, the player will
predict where the ball will land. By doing this, the coach is able to recognise what visual cues the player
needs to focus on in order to hit the ball correctly.
SA2) Binocular vision is vision where both eyes aim simultaneously at the same visual target; vision
where both eyes work together - simultaneously, equally and accurately -as a coordinated team.
Evidence suggests that motor control is more proficient with binocular vision (e.g. Goodale & Servos
1996) Many aspects of vision are improved because of the input provided by the second eye. The
improvement may be small, but it definitely improves certain aspects of vision. Advantages of having
binocular vision include; Binocular vision enhances the quality of vision beyond what monocular vision
provides. Added benefit to accuracy and also efficiency. Binocular vision is an accurate means of
locating objects and how far away they are. (Space perception) Binocular vision adds depth
perception. (3 Dimensional vision) Aids hand-eye coordination. Within the binocular visual field, we
can take advantage of two detectors, and the result is better sensitivity/detectability of visual stimuli.
Greater sensitivity makes things which are smaller, dimmer, quicker, etc. more detectable. Another
advantage although it may not be specific to the unit outcomes is if one eye is lost due to an injury or
disease you have another one to utilise.
Performance of Skills: Pt 1
a) What is Fitts' formula for movement time (MT)?
a) a + b log2 (D/2W)
b) a + b log2 (W/D)
c) a + b log2 (2D/W)
d) a + b log 2 (2D x W)
b) Which of the following is not a component of prehension?
a) Transport
b) Weight of object
c) Object manipulation
d) Grasp
SA1
On a night out at a pub, John and Jack decided to have a go at darts. After 10 minutes of play, it was
observed that while John had attempted more shots at the dartboard, Jack had landed more darts on
target i.e. the bullseye. Assuming that both John and Jack are on the same skill level, i) explain the

cause of this phenomenon in relation to a theory learned, and ii) state a variable that can be changed
in order for John to have a higher chance of hitting on target.
SA2
Describe, in terms of motor control, the cognitive and motor elements involved in the process of
handwriting.
Answers
1. C. [a + b log2 (2D/W)]
2. B. [Weight of object]

SA1: Fitts law serves to explain this phenomenon known as the speed-accuracy trade-off. Having this
trade-off means that increasing speed yields decreasing accuracy, and vice versa. In this scenario, the
accuracy of Jacks throws was compromised as the emphasis was on speed. By doing so, it allowed him
to have a higher number of attempts at the dartboard. Conversely, Jack was able to land more darts on
target as the emphasis was on accuracy. However, the trade-off here was that he had lesser attempts
at the dartboard.
In order for John to have a higher chance of hitting on target, he has to consider the two variables that
will affect the movement time required to hit the target. The first being the distance to move, and the
second being the target size. Therefore, assuming that there are no fixed regulations on the set-up of
the game, John can either shorten the distance by moving nearer to the dartboard, or increase the area
of the bullseye.
SA2: An important concept for this question is motor equivalence. Motor equivalence (Bernstein,
1967) is the capability of the motor control system to enable a person to achieve an action goal in a
variety of situations and conditions. In the process of handwriting, a person has to adapt to the specific
demands of writing and accommodate to them such as adjusting to muscle involvement, size, force,
and direction.
An individual uses lexical and semantic cognitive processes to write out a sentence. To execute such a
task, it requires the retrieval of words from memory. The meanings of the words written must match
with what the writer intends to convey. The written sentence also requires a structure to it. Therefore,
specific grammatical construction and a certain spelling are needed to accompany the words.
A persons cognitive also works hand in hand with a persons motor control in order to execute the
movement in producing written sentences. It involves moving the limbs in accordance to the
appropriate shape and size of specific letters that make up the writing. In addition, an appropriate
amount of force in holding the writing instrument needs to be considered. This allows the relevant
letters to be formed during the process of handwriting.
Performance of Skills: Pt 2
1. In the process of catching an object, within 25% of the objects flight , the upper limbs should
be
a. No arm movement
b. Beginning of elbow flexion and finger extension
c. Final finger positioning around ball
d. Hands begin to withdraw from ball and are spatially positioned

2. What is the main goal of the motor control system during gait?
a) Head stability
b) Rhythm between arms and legs
c) Achieving consistent stride lengths
d) Achieving a technically correct gait pattern

SA1: vision plays a influential role in achieving control under locomotive skills",name three types of
locomotive situations where these locomotive skills are evident.
SA2: Describe the four factors affecting the summation of a successful catch
BONUS QUESTION (OPTIONAL)
Within vision and baseball swing

track the ball only to a certain point (not to contact)

step forward synchronized with ball release
swing duration is very consistent
batters adjust the initiation of the swing according to speed of oncoming ball
initiation of swing occurred at a critical time to contact

Express the same visual cues and motor controls for (striking ) soccer kick ??
Answers:
1. In the process of catching an object, after 25% of the objects flight , the upper limbs should be?
Answer- B) Beginning of elbow flexion and finger extension
2. What is the main goal of the motor control system during gait?
Answer- A)- Head stability
SA1:
Vision plays a influential role in achieving control under locomotive skills",Name three types of
locomotive situations where these locomotive skills are evident.
Answer:

Maintaining dynamic postural situations

Avoiding contact with objects

Contacting objects
SA2: Describe the four factors affecting the summation of a successful catch.
Answer:

amount of time of visual contact with moving object

understanding if the use of visual variable tau enables people to catch the object

experience

seeing your hands throughout the flight of the object

Action Preparation

1. Which of the following is not task or situational characteristic that influences preparation?
a. Stimulus-Response compatibility
b. Hick's Law
c. Posture
d. Task Repetition
2. Which of the following defines Hick's Law?
a. The positive relationship between the time it takes a person to make a decision and
the amount of possible choices they have. For example; increasing the number of
stimulus-response choices will increase reaction time exponentially.
b. The negative relationship between the time it takes a person to make a decision and
the amount of possible choices they have. For example; increasing the number of
stimulus-response choices will decrease reaction time logarithmically.
c. The negative relationship between the time it takes a person to make a decision and
the amount of possible choices they have. For example; increasing the number of
stimulus-response choices will decrease reaction time exponentially.
d. The positive relationship between the time it takes a person to make a decision and
the amount of possible choices they have. For example; increasing the number of
stimulus-response choices will increase reaction time logarithmically.
Short Answer Questions
1) Name the three stages of the Information Processing Model. Explain what each of the three
stages entails.
2) Name the three types of Reaction Time situations and give an example of each?
Answers:
MCQ1:
The answer is C as posture does not influence preparation. Stimulus-response compatibility is the
physical relationship between the stimulus and the response. The greater the compatibility of these
two factors the faster the reaction time. The number of stimulus response choices has a positive
relationship with reaction time as defined by Hicks Law (see Question 2). Finally, task repetition has
a positive relationship with reaction time as the more you preform the particular reaction time task
the better you will become at it.
MCQ2:
The answer to this MCQ is D. The positive relationship between the time it takes a person to make
a decision and the amount of possible choices they have. For example; increasing the number of
stimulus-response choices will increase reaction time logarithmically. During the week the question
of what logarithmically means was raised. A logarithm of a number is an exponent to which a value
is raised by. This basically means that the time it takes someone to make changes by a certain ratio
dependent on the number of stimulus-response choices.
SA1:
Stage 1: Stimulus Identification The individual analyses the environment for content, makes
meaning of it and the detects the movement pattern
Stage 2: Response Selection Once performer has sufficient information from stage 1 the decision
of the response is made. Translation of the sensory input that has been identified and one of the
several forms of movement are outputted
Stage 3: Response Programming After the performer has decided what movement is to be made
the performer organizes the motor system for the production of the desired movement (preparing
lower-level mechanism in the brain stem and spinal cord, organizing a plan of action to control
movement and directing the muscles to contract.
SA2:
Simple RT: one signal and one response
Example reaction of a runner to react to the sound of the pistol at the start of a race
Choice RT: more than one signal, each signal has specific responses
Example reaction to a one of three lights with a particular finger relating to each light
Discrimination RT: more than one signal, only one response
Example reaction of a soccer player who has just received a pass to either shoot or completes
another pass.

Attention
1) What is attention and automaticity?
a. Switching between primary and secondary attention focuses while performing dual tasks.
b. Performing or engaging in a task with a primary focus of attention like hitting a ball.
c. Giving attention to parts of a task that are considered difficult.
d. Performing a skill or task of certain information processing activities without requiring
attention resources.
2) Which of the following is not a procedure in visual selective attention?
a. Spatial occlusion of video/film
b. Eye movement occlusion of video/film
c. Temporal occlusion of video/film
d. Eye movement recordings
SA 1 - Using the Kahnemans Central Resource Capacity Theory, explain why we are able to
efficiently carry out two different activities such as talking and peeling a banana, but are unable to
drive safely while texting on a mobile phone.
SA 2 - Explain the attention focus of a soccer player who manages to avoid his opponents, while
simultaneously passing the ball accurately to his team mates.
Answer
MCQ 1 - D
MCQ 2 - B
SA 1 Kahneman suggests that the capacity limits of the central pool are flexible. We have a flexible
attention capacity, and when we have a task to carry out, then some of this capacity is taken up by
the task. The amount of space it takes up is dependent on how much attention we need to pay to
this task. Two tasks can be carried out at the same time as long as the two tasks combined do not
exceed the flexible attention capacity.
We are able to efficiently peel a banana and talk to someone at the same time, as these two tasks
are less complex, and the two tasks combined do not exceed the flexible attention capacity. Driving
while texting on a mobile phone on the other hand, both require plenty of attention to carry out
safely and efficiently, as they are more complex tasks, which means the flexible attention capacity
may be exceeded, deeming it to be unsafe. Driving involves somatosensory, proprioceptive and
reaction time responses, and texting requires fine motor skills that requires more cognitive control
than say peeling a banana, therefore takes up more of the flexible attention capacity.
SA 2 The Dual-Task Procedure determines the attention demands and characteristics of the simultaneous
performance of two different tasks. In this case, passing the ball accurately to his team mates is the
primary task, and avoiding his opponents is the secondary task.
While the player is dribbling the ball, he has a broad and external attention focus that allows him to
locate his opponents and successfully avoid them. But when it comes to passing the ball, he
switches to a narrow and internal focus on his team mate whom he wishes to pass the ball too. This
narrow and internal focus allows him to concentrate solely on his kicking and accuracy skill in
passing the ball to his team mate.