Iit Maths - Vectors, Exponentials and Logarithms and Wave Functions

Higher
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UNIT 3
Mathematics 3
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Higher Mathematics Unit 3 – Mathematics 3
Contents
Vectors 128
1 Vectors and Scalars 128
2 Components 128
3 Magnitude 130
4 Equal Vectors 131
5 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors 132
6 Multiplication by a Scalar 134
7 Position Vectors 135
8 Basis Vectors 136
9 Collinearity 137
10 Dividing Lines in a Ratio 138
11 The Scalar Product 141
12 The Angle Between Vectors 144
13 Perpendicular Vectors 147
14 Properties of the Scalar Product 148
Further Calculus 149
1 Differentiating sinx and cosx 149
2 Integrating sinx and cosx 150
3 The Chain Rule 151
4 Special Cases of the Chain Rule 151
5 A Special Integral 154
6 Integrating sin(ax + b) and cos(ax + b) 157
Exponentials and Logarithms 160
1 Exponentials 160
2 Logarithms 162
3 Laws of Logarithms 162
4 Exponentials and Logarithms to the Base e 165
5 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 166
6 Graphing with Logarithmic Axes 169
7 Graph Transformations 173
Wave Functions 175
1 Expressing pcosx + qsinx in the form kcos(x – a) 175
2 Expressing pcosx + qsinx in other forms 176
3 Multiple Angles 177
4 Maximum and Minimum Values 178
5 Solving Equations 179
6 Sketching Graphs of y = pcosx + qsinx 181
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Higher Mathematics Unit 3 – Vectors
OUTCOME 1
Vectors
1 Vectors and Scalars
A scalar is a quantity with magnitude (size) only – for example, an amount
of money or a length of time.
Sometimes size alone is not enough to describe a quantity – for example,
directions to the nearest shop. For this we need to know a magnitude (i.e.
how far), and a direction.
Quantities with both magnitude and direction are called vectors.
A vector is named either by using the points at the end of a directed line

segment (e.g. AB represents the vector starting at point A and ending at
point B) or by using a bold letter (e.g. u). You will see bold letters used in
printed text, but in handwriting you should just underline the letter (e.g. ).
B
u
A
Throughout these notes, we will show vectors bold and underlined (e.g. u ).
2 Components
A vector may be represented by its components, which we write in a
column. For example,
2
 3  is a vector in two dimensions.
 
In this case the first component is 2 and this tells us to move 2 units in the
x-direction. The second component tells us to move 3 units in the y-
direction. So if the vector starts at the origin, it will look like:
y
3
O
2
x
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Note that we write the components in a column to avoid confusing them

2
with coordinates. The following diagram also shows the vector  3  , but in
 
this case it does not start at the origin.
y
(1,2 )
O x
( −1,−1)
Vectors in Three Dimensions

In a vector with three components, the first two tell us how many units to
move in the x- and y-directions, as before. The third component specifies
how far to move in the z-direction.
z
When looking at a pair of ( x , y ) -axes, the
z-axis points out of the page from the origin.
z
A set of 3D axes can be drawn on a page as
y
shown to the right.
O
x
For example,
z
 4 y
 −3 
1  O
 
1 3 x
is a vector in three dimensions. This vector is 4
shown in the diagram, starting from the origin.
Zero Vectors
Any vector with all its components zero is called a zero vector and can be
0
written as 0 , e.g.  0  = 0 .
0
 

3 Magnitude
The magnitude (or length) of a vector u is written as u . It can be
calculated as follows.
 a 
If PQ =  b  then PQ = a 2 + b 2 .
 
 a 
If PQ =  b  then PQ = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 .
c 
 
EXAMPLES
1. Given u =  −12  , find u .

5
 
u = 52 + ( −12 )2
= 169
= 13 units.
− 5
2. Find the length of a =  6  .
 3 
 
2
a = (− 5) + 6 2 + 32
= 50
= 5 2 units.
Unit Vectors
Any vector with a magnitude of one is called a unit vector. For example:
 1 
 2  2
if u = 

0  then u = 12
3
( )
2 2
+0 + 2 ( ) 3
 2 
= 44
= 1 unit.
So u is a unit vector.

Distance in Three Dimensions

The distance between the points A and B is d AB = AB units.
 −1 
So given AB =  2  , we find d AB = ( −1)2 + 2 2 + 52 = 30 .
5
 
In fact, there is a three dimensional version of the distance formula.
The distance d between the points ( x1, y1, z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) is
d= ( x 2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + ( z2 − z1 )2 units.
EXAMPLE
Find the distance between the points ( −1,4,1) and ( 0,5, −7 ) .
2 2 2
The distance is ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 ) + ( z2 − z1 )
= ( 0 − ( −1) )2 + (5 − 4 )2 + ( −7 − 1)2
= 12 + 12 + ( −8 )2
= 1 + 1 + 64
= 66 units.
4 Equal Vectors
Vectors with the same magnitude and direction are said to be equal.
For example, all the vectors shown to
the right are equal. q
s
If vectors are equal to each other, then p
t
all of their components are equal, i.e. r
a  d 
if  b  =  e  then a = d , b = e and c = f .
 c   f 
   
Conversely, two vectors are only equal if all of their components are equal.

5 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

Consider the following vectors:
a b c
Addition
We can construct a + b as follows:
b
a a + b means a followed by b.
a +b
Similarly, we can construct a + b + c as follows:

b
a c a + b + c means a followed by b
followed by c .
a +b +c
To add vectors, we position them nose-to-tail. Then the sum of the vectors
is the vector between the first tail and the last nose.
Subtraction
Now consider a − b . This can be written as a + ( −b ) , so if we first find −b
we can use vector addition to obtain a − b .
b
−b is just b but in the opposite direction.
−b −b and b have the same magnitude, i.e. b = −b .
Therefore we can construct a − b as follows:

−b
a a − b means a followed by −b.

a −b

Using Components
If we have the components of vectors, then things become much simpler.
The following rules can be used for addition and subtraction.
a  d  a + d  a  d  a −d 
b  +  e =b +e  b  −  e = b −e 
     c + f   c   f   
c   f         c − f 
add the components subtract the components
EXAMPLES
1  −1 
1. Given u = 5 and v =  2  , calculate u + v and u − v .
 
2 0
   
 1   −1   1   −1 
u + v = 5 +  2  u − v = 5 −  2 
2  0  2  0 
       
0 2
= 7 =  3 .
2 2
   
4  −1 
 
2. Given p =  2  and q =  3  , calculate p − q and q + p .
3
 
3 −6 
 5
 4   −1   −1   4 
   
p − q =  32  −  3  q + p =  3  +  32 
   
 3   − 5 
6  − 6   3 
 5
 5  3
 3 9
= − 2  =  2 .
 21  9
 5  5

6 Multiplication by a Scalar
A vector u which is multiplied by a scalar k > 0 will give the result ku .
This vector will be k times as long, i.e. its magnitude will be k u .
Note that if k < 0 this means that the vector ku will be in the opposite
direction to u .
For example:
u 3u −2u 1u
2
a  ka 
If u = b  then k u =  kb  .
c   kc 
   
Each component is multiplied by the scalar.
EXAMPLES
1 
1. Given v =  5  , find 3v .
 −3 
 
1 3
3v = 3  5  =  15  .
 −3   −9 
   
 −6 
2. Given r =  3  , find −4 r .
1
 
 −6   24 
−4r = −4  3  =  −12  .
 1   −4 
   

Negative Vectors
The negative of a vector is the vector multiplied by −1.

If we write a vector as a directed line segment AB , then − AB = BA :
B B

AB
− AB = BA
A A
7 Position Vectors

OA is called the position vector of point A relative to the origin O, and is
written as a .

OB is called the position vector of point B, written b .
z
Given P ( x , y , z ) , the position vector OP or p y
P
x
has components  y  . O
z
  x
y To move from point A to point B we can move

A back along the vector a to the origin, and
along vector b to point B, i.e.
a
B AB = AO + OB

b = −OA + OB
O x = −a + b
= b − a.

For the vector joining any two points P and Q, PQ = q − p .

EXAMPLE

R is the point ( 2, − 2, 3 ) and S is the point ( 4, 6, − 1) . Find RS .
2 4 Note
From the coordinates, r = −2 and s =  6  .
  You don’t need to write
3  −1  this line down in the
    exam.

RS = s − r
4  2
=  6  −  −2 
 −1   3 
   
 2
=  8 .
 −4 
 
8 Basis Vectors
A vector may also be defined in terms of the basis vectors i , j and k .
These are three mutually perpendicular unit vectors (i.e. they are k
perpendicular to each other). j
i
These basis vectors can be written in component form as
1 0 0
i = 0 , j = 1 and k =  0  .
   
0 0 1
     
Any vector can be written in basis form using i , j and k . For example:
2 1 0 0

 
v = −3 = 2 0 − 3 1 + 6  0  = 2i − 3 j + 6 k .
   
6 0 0  
      1
There is no need for the working above if the following is used:
a
ai + b j + c k =  b  .
c 
 

9 Collinearity
In Straight Lines (Unit 1 Outcome 1), we learned that points are collinear if
they lie on the same straight line.

The points A, B and C in 3D space are collinear if AB is parallel to BC ,
with B a common point.
Note that we cannot find gradients in three dimensions – instead we use the
following.
Non-zero vectors are parallel if they are scalar multiples of the same vector.
For example:
2 6 2
u =  1 , v = 3 = 3 1  = 3u.
  
4 12  4
     
So u and v are parallel.
 15   5  20   5 
 
p = 9 = 3 3 , q =  12  = 4  3  .
 −6   −2     
     −8   −2 
So p and q are parallel.
EXAMPLE
A is the point (1, − 2, 5 ) , B ( 8, − 5, 9 ) and C ( 22, − 11,17 ) .
Show that A, B and C are collinear.

AB = b − a BC = c − b
8 1   22   8 
=  − 5  −  −2  =  −11  −  −5 
9  5   17   9 
       
7   14  7

= −3  = −6 = 2  −3  .
 
 4  8  4
     

BC = 2AB , so AB and BC are parallel, and since B is a common point,
A, B and C are collinear.

10 Dividing Lines in a Ratio

There is a simple process for finding the coordinates of a point which
divides a line segment in a given ratio.
EXAMPLE
1. P is the point ( −2, 4, − 1) and R is the point ( 8, − 1, 19 ) .
The point T divides PR in the ratio 2 : 3 . Find the coordinates of T.
Step 1
Make a sketch of the line, showing the P
T
ratio in which the point divides the line 2
segment. 3
R
Step 2
Using the sketch, equate the ratio of the PT 2
=
two line segments with the given ratio. TR 3
Step 3

Cross multiply, then change directed 3PT = 2TR
line segments to position vectors.
( )
3 t − p = 2 (r − t )
Step 4
Rearrange to give the position vector of 3t − 3 p = 2r − 2t
the unknown point. 3t + 2t = 2r + 3 p
 8   −2 
5t = 2  −1  + 3  4 
 19   −1 
   
 16   −6 
5t =  −2  +  12 
 38   −3 
   
 10 
5t =  10 
 35 
 
2
t = 2
7
 
Step 5
From the position vector, state the So T is the point ( 2, 2, 7 ) .
coordinates of the unknown point.

Using the Section Formula

The previous method can be condensed into a formula as shown below.
If the point P divides the line AB in the ratio m : n , then
na + mb
p= ,
n+m
where a , b and p are the position vectors of A, B and P respectively.
This is referred to as the section formula.
It is not necessary to know this, since the approach explained above will
always work.
EXAMPLE
2. P is the point ( −2, 4, − 1) and R is the point ( 8, − 1, 19 ) .
The point T divides PR in the ratio 2 : 3 . Find the coordinates of T.
The ratio is 2 : 3 , so m = 2 and n = 3 . Hence:
n p + mr
t=
n +m
3 p + 2r
=
5
 1 ( 3 ( −2 ) + 2 ( 8 ) )  Note
 15  If you are confident with
=  5 ( 3 ( 4 ) + 2 ( −1) )  arithmetic, this step can
 1 ( 3 ( −1) + 2 (19 ) )  be done mentally.
5 
2
=  2 .
7
 
So T is the point ( 2, 2, 7 ) .

Further Examples
EXAMPLES
3. The cuboid OABCDEFG is shown in the diagram below.
E
F
H
D
A
G
B
O
C
The point A has coordinates ( 0,0,5 ) , C ( 8,0,0 ) and G ( 8,12,0 ) . The
point H divides BF in the ratio 4 :1. Find the coordinates of H.
From the diagram:
Note
OH = OA + AB + 54 BF
BH 4
= , so BH = 45 BF.
= OA + OC + 45 CG BF 5
(
h = a + c + 54 g − c )
= a + c + 54 g − 54 c
= a + 15 c + 54 g
0 8 8
=  0  + 5  0  + 5 12 
1 4
5 0 0
     
8
=  48 .
 5
5
So H has coordinates 8, 48
5 ,5 .( )
4. The points P ( 6,1, −3 ) , Q ( 8, −3,1) and R ( 9, −5,3 ) are collinear. Find
the ratio in which Q divides PR.

Since the points are collinear PQ = k QR for some k. Working with the
first components:
8 − 6 = k (9 − 8) Note
The ratio is 2 : 1 since
k = 2. PQ 2
= .
Therefore PQ = 2QR so Q divides PR in the ratio 2 :1. QR 1

5. The points A ( 7, −4, −4 ) , B (13,5, −7 ) and C are collinear. Given that B

divides AC in the ratio 3 : 2 , find the coordinates of C.
3
AB = 5 AC
Note
b − a = 35 ( c − a ) A sketch may help you
to see this:
b − a = 35 c − 35 a 2
C
3
3c =b − 2a B
5 5 A
c = 53 b − 23 a
 13  7
= 53  5  − 23  −4 
 −7   −4 
   
 17 
=  11  .
 −9 
 
So C has coordinates (17,11, −9 ) .
11 The Scalar Product

So far we have added and subtracted vectors and multiplied a vector by a
scalar. Now we will consider the scalar product, which is a form of vector
multiplication.
The scalar product is denoted by a.b (sometimes it is called the dot
product) and can be calculated using the formula:
a .b = a b cos θ ,
where θ is the angle between the two vectors a and b .
This is given in the exam.

The definition above assumes that the vectors a and b are positioned so
that they both point away from the angle, or both point into the angle.
a θ b a θ b
However, if one vector is pointing away from the angle, while the other
points into the angle,
a θ b a θ b
we find that a .b = − a b cos θ .
EXAMPLES
1. Two vectors, a and b have magnitudes 7 and 3 units respectively and
are at an angle of 60° to each other as shown below.
b
60°
a
What is the value of a.b ?
a.b = a b cos θ
= 7 × 3 × cos 60°
= 21 × 12
= 21
2.
2. The vector u has magnitude k and v is twice as long as u . The angle
between u and v is 30° , as shown below.
v
30°
u
Find an expression for u.v in terms of k.
u.v = − u v cos θ Remember
When one vector points
= −k × 2k × cos30°
in and one points out,
u.v =−| u || v |cos θ .
= −2k 2 × 23
= − 3k 2 .

The Component Form of the Scalar Product

The scalar product can also be calculated as follows:
 a1   b1 
a.b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 where a = a2 and b =  b2  .
 
a  b 
 3  3
This is given in the exam.
EXAMPLES
1 2
3. Find p.q , given that p =  2  and q =  2  .
 −3  3
   
p.q = p1q1 + p2q2 + p3q3
= (1 × 2 ) + ( 2 × 2 ) + ( ( −3 ) × 3 )
= 2+ 4−9
= −3.
4. If A is the point ( 2, 3, 9 ) , B (1, 4, − 2 ) and C ( −1, 3, − 6 ) , calculate

AB.AC .
C ( −1, 3, − 6 ) We need to use the position vectors of the
points:
B (1, 4, − 2 )
AB = b − a AC = c − a
 1  2  −1   2 
=  4  − 3 = 3  − 3

A ( 2, 3, 9 )  −2   9     
     −6   9 
 −1   −3 
= 1  =  0 .
 −11   −15 
   

AB.AC = ( ( −1) × ( −3 ) ) + (1 × 0 ) + ( ( −11) × ( −15 ) )
= 3 + 0 + 165
= 168.

12 The Angle Between Vectors

The formulae for the scalar product can be rearranged to give the following
equations, both of which can be used to calculate θ , the angle between two
vectors.
a .b a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

cos θ = or cos θ = .
a b a b
Look back to the formulae for finding the scalar product, given on the
previous pages. Notice that the first equation is simply a rearranged form of
the one which can be used to find the scalar product. Also notice that the
second simply substitutes a.b for the component form of the scalar product.
These formulae are not given in the exam but can both be easily derived
from the formulae on the previous pages (which are given in the exam).
EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the angle θ between vectors p = 3i + 4 j − 2 k and
q = 4i + j + 3k .
 3 4
p = 4 and q =  1 
 
 −2  3
   
p1q1 + p2q2 + p3q3
cos θ =
p q
( 3 × 4 ) + ( 4 × 1) + ( ( −2 ) × 3 )
=
32 + 42 + ( −2 )2 42 + 12 + 32
10
=
29 26
 10 
θ = cos −1  
 29 26 
= 68.6° (to 1 d.p.) (or 1.198 radians (to 3 d.p.))

ɵ .
2. K is the point (1, − 7, 2 ) , L ( −3, 3, 4 ) and M ( 2, 5,1) . Find KLM
Start with a sketch:
L ( −3, 3, 4 )
θ
M ( 2, 5,1)
K (1, − 7, 2 )
Now find the vectors pointing away from the angle:
 1   −3   4 
LK = k − l =  −7  −  3  =  −10  ,
 2   4   −2 
     
 2   −3   5 
LM = m − l =  5  −  3  =  2  .
 1   4   −3 
     
Use the scalar product to find the angle:

LK.LM
ɵ =
cos KLM
LK LM
( 4 × 5) + ( −10 × 2 ) + ( −2 × ( −3 ) )
=
4 2 + ( −10 )2 + ( −2 )2 52 + 22 + ( −3 )2
6
=
120 38
ɵ = cos −1 
KLM
6 
 120 38 
 

3. The diagram below shows the cube OPQRSTUV.

T
z U y
S V
P
O Q
R x
The point R has coordinates ( 4,0,0 ) .
(a) Write down the coordinates of T and U.

(b) Find the components of RT and RU .
(c) Calculate the size of angle TRU.
(a) From the diagram, T ( 0,4,4 ) and U ( 4,4,4 ) .
 0   4   −4 
(b) RT = t − r =  4  −  0  =  4  ,
4 0  4 
     
4 4 0

RU = u − r =  4  −  0  =  4  .
4 0 4
     

RT.RU
=
(c) cos TRU
RT RU
( −4 × 0 ) + ( 4 × 4 ) + ( 4 × 4 )
=
( −4 )2 + 42 + 42 02 + 42 + 42
32
=
3 × 16 2 × 16
2
=
6
= cos −1  2 
TRU
 6

13 Perpendicular Vectors
If a and b are perpendicular then a.b = 0 .
This is because a.b = a b cos θ
= a b cos90° (θ = 90° since perpendicular)
=0 (since cos90° = 0).
Conversely, if a.b = 0 then a and b are perpendicular.
EXAMPLES
1. Two vectors are defined as a = 4i + 2 j − 5k and b = 2i + j + 2 k .
Show that a and b are perpendicular.
a .b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
= ( 4 × 2 ) + ( 2 × 1) + ( ( −5 ) × 2 )
= 8 + 2 − 10
= 0.
Since a.b = 0, a and b are perpendicular.
 4   2 
2. PQ =  a  and RS =  −3  where a is a constant.
7  a 
   

Given that PQ and RS are perpendicular, find the value of a.

Since PQ and RS are perpendicular,

PQ .RS = 0
4 × 2 + ( −3 a ) + 7 a = 0
8 − 3a + 7 a = 0
8 + 4a = 0
a = −2.

14 Properties of the Scalar Product

Some useful properties of the scalar product are as follows:
a.b = b.a
a. ( b + c ) = a.b + a.c (Expanding brackets)
2
a.a = a .
Note that these are not given in the exam, so you need to remember them.
EXAMPLES
1. In the diagram, p = 3 , r = 4 and q = 2 .
p
(
Calculate p. q + r . ) 45°
r
15° q
p. ( q + r ) = p.q + p.r
= p q cos θ1 + p r cos θ2
= 3 × 2 × cos 60° + 3 × 4 × cos 45°
= 6 × 12 + 12 × 1
2
= 3 + 6 2.
2. In the diagram below, a = c = 2 and b = 2 3 .
a c
30° b 30°
Calculate a. ( a + b + c ) .
a. ( a + b + c )
= a.a + a.b + a.c
2 Remember
= a + a b cos θ1 − a c cos θ2 a. c =− a c cos θ2
= 22 + 2 × 2 3 × cos30° − 2 × 2 × cos120° since a points into θ2
and c points away.
= 4 + 4 3 × 23 + 4 × 12
=4+6+2
= 12.

Higher Mathematics Unit 3 – Further Calculus
OUTCOME 2
Further Calculus
1 Differentiating sinx and cosx
In order to differentiate expressions involving trigonometric functions, we
use the following rules:
d ( sin x ) = cos x , d ( cos x ) = − sin x .
dx dx
These rules only work when x is an angle measured in radians. A form of
these rules is given in the exam.
EXAMPLES
1. Differentiate y = 3sin x with respect to x.
dy
= 3cos x .
dx
2. A function f is defined by f ( x ) = sin x − 2 cos x for x ∈ ℝ .
( )
Find f ′ π3 .
f ′ ( x ) = cos x − ( −2sin x ) Remember

= cos x + 2 sin x The exact value triangle:
( )
f ′ π3 = cos π3 + 2 sin π3
2
π
6
3
= 12 + 2 × 23 π
3
= 21 + 3. 1
3. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = sin x when x = π6 .
( )
When x = π6 , y = sin π6 = 12 . So the point is π6 , 12 . ( )
We also need the gradient at the point where x = π6 :
dy
= cos x .
dx
( )
When x = π6 , mtangent = cos π6 = 23 .

( )
Now we have the point π6 , 12 and the gradient mtangent = 23 , so:
y − b = m( x − a)
(
y − 12 = 23 x − π6 )
2 y − 1 = 3 x − 36π
3 x − 2 y − 36π + 1 = 0.
2 Integrating sinx and cosx

We know the derivatives of sin x and cos x , so it follows that the integrals are:
∫ cos x dx = sin x + c , ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c .

Again, these results only hold if x is measured in radians.
EXAMPLES
1. Find ∫ ( 5sin x + 2cos x ) dx .
∫ (5sin x + 2cos x ) dx = −5cos x + 2sin x + c .

π
2. Find ∫ ( 4cos x + 2sin x ) dx .
0
4
π π
∫ ( 4 cos x + 2 sin x ) dx = [ 4 sin x − 2 cos x ]04

0
4
( ( ) ( ) ) − ( 4sin0 − 2 cos0)
= 4 sin π4 − 2 cos π4
= ( ( 4 × 1 ) − ( 2 × 1 ) ) − ( −2 )
2 2
= 4 − 2 +2
2 2
Note
(2
= 2 × 2 +2
2) It is good practice to
rationalise the
= 2 + 2. denominator.
4
3. Find the value of ∫0 12 sin x dx .
4
1 sin x dx =  − 1 cos x  4
∫0 2  2 0 Remember
= − 12 cos ( 4 ) + 12 cos ( 0 ) We must use radians
when integrating or
= 12 ( 0.654 + 1) differentiating trig.
functions.
= 0.827 (to 3 d.p.).

3 The Chain Rule

We will now look at how to differentiate composite functions, such as
f ( g ( x ) ) . If the functions f and g are defined on suitable domains, then
d  f g ( x ) ) = f ′ ( g ( x ) ) × g ′ ( x ) .
dx  ( 
Stated simply: differentiate the outer function, the bracket stays the same,
then multiply by the derivative of the bracket.
This is called the chain rule. You will need to remember it for the exam.
EXAMPLE
dy
(
If y = cos 5 x + π6 , find ) dx
.
(
y = cos 5 x + π6 ) Note
dy The “× 5 ” comes from
dx
(
= − sin 5 x + π6 × 5 ) d
( π
)
dx 5 x + 6 .
(
= −5sin 5 x + π6 . )
4 Special Cases of the Chain Rule

We will now look at how the chain rule can be applied to particular types of
expression.
Powers of a Function
n
For expressions of the form [ f ( x )] , where n is a constant, we can use a
simpler version of the chain rule:
d  f ( x ) ) n  = n [ f ( x )]n −1 × f ′ ( x ) .
dx ( 
Stated simply: the power (n ) multiplies to the front, the bracket stays the
same, the power lowers by one (giving n − 1) and everything is multiplied by
the derivative of the bracket ( f ′ ( x )) .

EXAMPLES
1. A function f is defined on a suitable domain by f ( x ) = 2 x 2 + 3 x .

Find f ′ ( x ) .
1
f ( x ) = 2 x 2 + 3x = ( 2 x 2 + 3x ) 2
− 12
f ′ ( x ) = 12 ( 2 x 2 + 3 x ) × ( 4 x + 3)
− 12
= 12 ( 4 x + 3 ) ( 2 x 2 + 3 x )
4x + 3
= .
2 2 x 2 + 3x
2. Differentiate y = 2 sin 4 x with respect to x.
y = 2 sin 4 x = 2 ( sin x )4
dy
= 2 × 4 ( sin x )3 × cos x
dx
= 8sin 3 x cos x .
Powers of a Linear Function

n
The rule for differentiating an expression of the form ( ax + b ) , where a, b
and n are constants, is as follows:
d ( ax + b )n  = an ( ax + b ) n −1 .
dx  
EXAMPLES
3. Differentiate y = ( 5x + 2 )3 with respect to x.
y = ( 5 x + 2 )3
dy
= 3 ( 5 x + 2 )2 × 5
dx
= 15 ( 5x + 2 )2 .

1 dy
4. If y = 3 , find .
(2x + 6) dx
1 −3
y= 3 = (2x + 6)
(2x + 6)
dy −4
= −3 ( 2 x + 6 ) × 2
dx
−4
= −6 ( 2 x + 6 )
6
=− .
( 2 x + 6 )4
5. A function f is defined by f ( x ) = 3 ( 3 x − 2 )4 for x ∈ ℝ . Find f ′ ( x ) .
4
f ( x ) = 3 ( 3 x − 2 )4 = ( 3 x − 2 ) 3
1
f ′ ( x ) = 34 ( 3 x − 2 ) 3 × 4
= 16
3 (3x − 2 ).
3
Trigonometric Functions
The following rules can be used to differentiate trigonometric functions.
d sin ax + b ) = a cos ( ax + b ) d cos ax + b ) = − a sin ( ax + b )
dx  (  dx  ( 
These are given in the exam.
EXAMPLE
6. Differentiate y = sin ( 9 x + π ) with respect to x.
dy
= 9cos ( 9 x + π ) .
dx

5 A Special Integral
n
The method for integrating an expression of the form ( ax + b ) is:
n ( ax + b )n+1
∫ ( ax + b ) dx =
a ( n + 1)
+c where a ≠ 0 and n ≠ −1.
Stated simply: raise the power (n ) by one, divide by the new power and
also divide by the derivative of the bracket ( a ( n + 1)) , add c.
EXAMPLES
∫ ( x + 4)
7
1. Find dx .
( x + 4 )8
∫ ( x + 4)
7
dx = +c
8 ×1
8
( x + 4)
= + c.
8
2. Find ∫ ( 2 x + 3 )2 dx .
( 2 x + 3 )3
∫ ( 2 x + 3 ) dx = 3 × 2 + c
2
( 2 x + 3 )3
= + c.
6
⌠ 1
3. Find  dx where x ≠ − 95 .
⌡ 5x + 9
3
⌠ 1 ⌠ 1
 dx =  1 dx
⌡ 3
5x + 9 ⌡ (5x + 9 ) 3
1
= ∫ ( 5 x + 9 )− 3 dx
2
(5x + 9 ) 3
= 2 ×5
+c
3
2
3
5x + 9
= 10
+c
3
3 3 5x + 9 + c . 2
= 10

3
4. Evaluate ∫0 3 x + 4 dx where x ≥ − 34 .
3 3 1
∫0 3 x + 4 dx = ∫0 ( 3 x + 4 ) 2 dx
3
 (3x + 4 )2 
3
= 3 
 2 × 3  0 Note
Changing powers back
3
=  29 ( 3 x + 4 )3  into roots here makes it
 0 easier to evaluate the
two brackets.
3 3
= 29 ( 3 × 3 + 4 ) − 29 ( 3 × 0 + 4 )
Remember
2 3 2 3
= 9 13 − 9 4 To evaluate 43 , it is
= 29 ( 13 − 8
3
) (or 8.638 to 3 d.p.). easier to work out 4
first.
Warning
Make sure you don’t confuse differentiation and integration – this could
lose you a lot of marks in the exam.
Remember the following rules for differentiating and integrating expressions
n
of the form ( ax + b ) :
d  ax + b )n  = an ( ax + b )n −1 ,
dx ( 
n ( ax + b )n+1
∫ ( ax + b ) dx =
a ( n + 1)
+ c.
These rules will not be given in the exam.

Using Differentiation to Integrate

Recall that integration is just the process of undoing differentiation. So if we
differentiate f ( x ) to get g ( x ) then we know that ∫ g ( x ) dx = f ( x ) + c .
EXAMPLES
5
5. (a) Differentiate y = with respect to x.
( 3 x − 1)4
⌠ 1
(b) Hence, or otherwise, find  5
dx .
⌡ ( 3 x − 1)
5
(a) y= 4
= 5 ( 3 x − 1)−4
( 3 x − 1)
dy
= 5 × 3 × ( −4 ) ( 3 x − 1)−5
dx
60
=− .
( 3 x − 1)5
⌠ 60 5
(b) From part (a) we know  − 5
dx = + c . So:
⌡ ( 3 x − 1) ( 3 x − 1)4
⌠ 1 5
−60 5
dx = +c
⌡ ( 3 x − 1) ( 3 x − 1)4 Note
1  
⌠ 1 5 We could also have used
 5
dx = − 60  4
+c the special integral to
⌡ ( 3 x − 1)  ( 3 x − 1)  obtain this answer.
1
=− + c1 where c1 is some constant.
12 ( 3 x − 1)4
1
6. (a) Differentiate y = 5 with respect to x.
(x 3
− 1)
⌠ x2
(b) Hence, find 
 x3 −1 6 dx .
⌡ ( )
1 −5
(a) y= 5 = ( x 3 − 1)
(x 3
− 1)
dy −6
= −5 ( x 3 − 1) × 3 x 2
dx
15 x 2
=− 3 6 .
( x − 1)

⌠ 15 x 2 1
(b) From part (a) we know 

− 6 dx = 5 + c . So:
⌡ (x 3
− 1) (x 3
− 1)
⌠ x2 1
−15
 x3 −1 6 dx = 5 +c
⌡ ( ) (x 3
− 1) Note
In this case, the special
⌠ x2  1  integral cannot be used.
1
 3
 x −1
dx = − 15 5 +c
⌡( )
6
 ( x 3
− 1 ) 
 
1
=− 5 + c1 where c1 is some constant.
15 ( x 3 − 1)
6 Integrating sin(ax + b) and cos(ax + b)

Since we know the derivatives of sin ( ax + b ) and cos ( ax + b ) , it follows
that their integrals are:
∫ cos ( ax + b ) dx = 1a sin ( ax + b ) + c ,
∫ sin ( ax + b ) dx = − 1a cos ( ax + b ) + c .
These are given in the exam.
EXAMPLES
1. Find ∫ sin ( 4 x + 1) dx .
∫ sin ( 4 x + 1) dx = − 14 cos ( 4 x + 1) + c .
(
2. Find ∫ cos 32 x + π5 dx . )
∫ cos ( 2 x + π5 ) dx = 23 sin ( 2 x + π5 ) + c .
3 3
1
3. Find the value of ∫0 cos ( 2 x − 5 ) dx .
1 1
∫0 cos ( 2 x − 5 ) dx =  12 sin ( 2 x − 5 ) 
0 Remember
= 12 sin ( −3 ) − 12 sin ( −5 ) We must use radians
when integrating or
= 12 ( −0.141 − 0.959 ) differentiating trig.
functions.
= −0.55 (to 2 d.p.).

(
4. Find the area enclosed by the graph of y = sin 3 x + π6 , the x-axis and )
the lines x = 0 and x = π6 .
y
(
y = sin 3 x + π6 )
O π
x
6
π π
⌠ 6 sin 3 x + π dx =  − 1 cos 3 x + π  6
( ) ( )
⌡0 6  3 6 0
( ( ( ) )) − ( − 31 cos ( 3 (0) + π6 ) )
= − 13 cos 3 π6 + π6
= ( ( − 13 ) × ( − 12 ) ) + ( 13 × 2 )3
= 16 + 63
1+ 3 1+ 3
= . So the area is square units.
6 6
5. Find ∫ 2cos ( 12 x − 3 ) dx .
∫ 2cos ( 12 x − 3 ) dx = 212 sin ( 12 x − 3 ) + c

= 4sin ( 12 x − 3 ) + c .
6. Find ∫ (5cos ( 2 x ) + sin ( x − )

3 ) dx .
∫ (5cos ( 2 x ) + sin ( x − )
3 ) dx = 52 sin ( 2 x ) − cos ( x − 3 ) + c .

1
7. (a) Differentiate with respect to x.
cos x
tan x
(b) Hence find ⌠  dx .
⌡ cos x
1 d ( cos x )−1 = −1( cos x )−2 × − sin x
(a) = ( cos x )−1 , and dx
cos x
sin x
= .
cos 2 x
sin x
tan x cos sin x
x
(b) = = .
cos x cos x cos 2 x
sin x 1
From part (a) we know ⌠
 dx = +c .
⌡ cos x
2
cos x
tan x 1
Therefore ⌠
 dx = + c.
⌡ cos x cos x

Higher Mathematics Unit 3 – Exponentials and Logarithms
OUTCOME 3
Exponentials and Logarithms

1 Exponentials
We have already met exponential functions in Unit 1 Outcome 2.
A function of the form f ( x ) = a x where a, x ∈ ℝ and a > 0 is known as an

exponential function to the base a.
If a > 1 then the graph looks like this:
y
y = ax, a >1
This is sometimes called a growth function.

1 (1, a )
O x
If 0 < a < 1 then the graph looks like this:

y
y = ax, 0 < a <1
This is sometimes called a decay function.

1 (1, a )
O x
Remember that the graph of an exponential function f ( x ) = a x always
passes through ( 0,1) and (1, a ) since
f ( 0 ) = a 0 = 1, f (1) = a1 = a.

EXAMPLES
1. The otter population on an island increases by 16% per year. How many
full years will it take for the population to double?
Let u0 be the initial population.
u1 = 1·16u0 (116% as a decimal)
u2 = 1·16u1 = 1·16 (1·16u0 ) = 1·16 2 u0
u3 = 1·16u2 = 1·16 (1·16 2 u0 ) = 1·163 u0
⋮
un = 1·16n u0 .
For the population to double after n years, we require un ≥ 2u0 .
We want to know the smallest n which gives 1·16n a value of 2 or more,
since this will make un at least twice as big as u0 .
Try values of n until this is satisfied.
If n = 2, 1·16 2 = 1·35 < 2 On a calculator: 1 ⋅ 1 6 =
If n = 3, 1·163 = 1·56 < 2 1 ⋅ 1 6 ANS =
If n = 4, 1·16 4 = 1·81 < 2 =
If n = 5, 1·165 = 2·10 > 2 ⋮
Therefore after 5 years the population will double.
2. The efficiency of a machine decreases by 5% each year. When the

efficiency drops below 75%, the machine needs to be serviced.
After how many years will the machine need serviced?
Let u0 be the initial efficiency.
u1 = 0·95u0 (95% as a decimal)
u2 = 0·95u1 = 0·95 ( 0·95u0 ) = 0·952 u0
u3 = 0·95u2 = 0·95 ( 0·952 u0 ) = 0·953 u0
⋮
un = 0·95n u0
When the efficiency drops below 0·75u0 (75% of the initial value) the
machine must be serviced. So the machine needs serviced after n years if
0·95n ≤ 0·75 .

Try values of n until this is satisfied.

If n = 2, 0·952 = 0·903 > 0·75
If n = 3, 0·953 = 0·857 > 0·75
If n = 4, 0·954 = 0·815 > 0·75
If n = 5, 0·955 = 0·774 > 0·75
If n = 6, 0·956 = 0·735 < 0·75
Therefore after 6 years, the machine will have to be serviced.
2 Logarithms
Having previously defined what a logarithm is (see Unit 1 Outcome 2) we
want to look in more detail at the properties of these important functions.
The relationship between logarithms and exponentials is expressed as:
y = log a x ⇔ x = a y where a, x > 0 .
Here, y is the power of a which gives x.
EXAMPLES
1. Write 53 = 125 in logarithmic form.
53 = 125 ⇔ 3 = log 5 125.
2. Evaluate log 4 16 .
The power of 4 which gives 16 is 2, so log 4 16 = 2.
3 Laws of Logarithms
There are three laws of logarithms which you must know.
Rule 1
log a x + log a y = log a ( xy ) where a , x , y > 0.
If two logarithmic terms with the same base number (a above) are being
added together, then the terms can be combined by multiplying the
arguments (x and y above).
EXAMPLE
1. Simplify log 5 2 + log 5 4 .
log 5 2 + log 5 4
= log 5 ( 2 × 4 )
= log 5 8.

Rule 2
( )
log a x − log a y = log a xy where a , x , y > 0.
If a logarithmic term is being subtracted from another logarithmic term

with the same base number (a above), then the terms can be combined by
dividing the arguments (x and y in this case).
Note that the argument which is being taken away (y above) appears on the
bottom of the fraction when the two terms are combined.
EXAMPLE
2. Evaluate log 4 6 − log 4 3 .
log 4 6 − log 4 3
( )
= log 4 63
= log 4 2
1
= 12 (since 4 2 = 4 = 2).
Rule 3
log a x n = n log a x where a, x > 0 .
The power of the argument (n above) can come to the front of the term as a
multiplier, and vice-versa.
EXAMPLE
3. Express 2 log 7 3 in the form log 7 a .
2 log 7 3
= log 7 32
= log 7 9.
Squash, Split and Fly

You may find the following names are a simpler way to remember the laws
of logarithms.
• log a x + log a y = log a ( xy ) – the arguments are squashed together by
multiplying.
• ( )
log a x − log a y = log a xy – the arguments are split into a fraction.
• log a x n = n log a x – the power of an argument can fly to the front of the
log term and vice-versa.

Note
When working with logarithms, you should remember:
log a 1 = 0 since a 0 = 1, log a a = 1 since a1 = a .
EXAMPLE
4. Evaluate log 7 7 + log 3 3 .
log 7 7 + log 3 3
=1+1
= 2.
Combining several log terms

When adding and subtracting several log terms in the form log a b , there is a
simple way to combine all the terms in one step.
arguments of positive log terms
log a ( )
arguments of negative log terms
• Multiply the arguments of the positive log terms in the numerator.
• Multiply the arguments of the negative log terms in the denominator.
EXAMPLES
5. Evaluate log12 10 + log12 6 − log12 5
log12 10 + log12 6 − log12 5
+ log12 10 + log12 6
 10 × 6 
= log12 
 5 
 log12 ( )
− log 12 5
= log12 12
= 1.
6. Evaluate log 6 4 + 2 log 6 3 .
log 6 4 + 2 log 6 3 OR log 6 4 + 2 log 6 3
= log 6 4 + log 6 32 = log 6 2 2 + 2 log 6 3
= log 6 4 + log 6 9 = 2 log 6 2 + 2 log 6 3
= log 6 ( 4 × 9 ) = 2 ( log 6 2 + log 6 3 )
= log 6 36 = 2 ( log 6 ( 2 × 3 ) )
=2 (since 6 2 = 36). = 2 log 6 6
=2 (since log 6 6 = 1).

4 Exponentials and Logarithms to the Base e

The constant e is an important number in Mathematics, and occurs
frequently in models of real-life situations. Its value is roughly 2⋅718281828
(to 9 d.p.), and is defined as:
1 n
1+
n ( )
as n → ∞.
If you try large values of n on your calculator, you will get close to the value
of e. Like π , e is an irrational number.
Throughout this section, we will use e in expressions of the form:
x
• e , which is called an exponential to the base e,
• log e x , which is called a logarithm to the base e. This is also known as the
natural logarithm of x, and is often written as ln x (i.e. ln x ≡ log e x ).
EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the value of log e 8 .
log e 8 = 2.08 (to 2 d.p.). On a calculator: ln 8 =
2. Solve log e x = 9 .
log e x = 9
so x = e 9 On a calculator: ex 9 =
x = 8103·08 (to 2 d.p.).
3. Simplify 4 log e ( 2e ) − 3 log e ( 3e ) expressing your answer in the form
a + log e b − log e c where a, b and c are whole numbers.
4 log e ( 2e ) − 3 log e ( 3e ) OR 4 log e ( 2e ) − 3 log e ( 3e )
= 4 log e 2 + 4 log e e − 3log e 3 − 3log e e = log e ( 2e )4 − log e ( 3e )3

1 1
= 4 log e 2 + 4 − 3log e 3 − 3  ( 2e ) 4 
= log e  3 
= 1 + 4 log e 2 − 3log e 3  ( 3e ) 
4 3  16e 4  Remember
= 1 + log e 2 − log e 3 = log e  3  n
( ab) = anbn .
 27 e 
= 1 + log e 16 − log e 27.
 16e 
= log e  
 27 
= log e e + log e 16 − log e 27
= 1 + log e 16 − log e 27.

5 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

Many mathematical models of real-life situations use exponentials and
logarithms. It is important to become familiar with using the laws of
logarithms to help solve equations.
EXAMPLES
1. Solve log a 13 + log a x = log a 273 for x > 0 .
log a 13 + log a x = log a 273
log a 13 x = log a 273
13 x = 273 (since log a x = log a y ⇔ x = y )
x = 21.
2. Solve log11 ( 4 x + 3 ) − log11 ( 2 x − 3 ) = 1 for x > 32 .
log11 ( 4 x + 3 ) − log11 ( 2 x − 3 ) = 1
log11 
4x + 3 
 =1
 2x − 3 
4x + 3
= 111 = 11 (since log a x = y ⇔ x = a y )
2x − 3
4 x + 3 = 11( 2 x − 3 )
4 x + 3 = 22 x − 33
18 x = 36
x = 2.
3. Solve log a ( 2 p + 1) + log a ( 3 p − 10 ) = log a (11 p ) for p > 4 .
log a ( 2 p + 1) + log a ( 3 p − 10 ) = log a (11 p )
log a ( ( 2 p + 1)( 3 p − 10 ) ) = log a (11 p )
( 2 p + 1)( 3 p − 10 ) = 11 p
6 p 2 − 20 p + 3 p − 10 − 11 p = 0
6 p 2 − 28 p − 10 = 0
( 3 p + 1)( p − 5 ) = 0
3 p +1 = 0 or p −5=0
p = − 13 p = 5.
Since we require p > 4 , p = 5 is the solution.

Dealing with Constants

Sometimes it may be necessary to write constants as logs, in order to solve
equations.
EXAMPLE
4. Solve log 2 7 = log 2 x + 3 for x > 0 .
Write 3 in logarithmic form: OR log 2 7 = log 2 x + 3
3 = 3 ×1 log 2 7 − log 2 x = 3
= 3log 2 2 (since log 2 2 = 1)
3
( )
log 2 7x = 3.
= log 2 2
Converting from log to
= log 2 8. exponential form:
Use this in the equation: 7 = 23
x
log 2 7 = log 2 x + log 2 8 x = 273 = 78 .
log 2 7 = log 2 8 x
7 = 8x
x = 78 .
Solving Equations with Unknown Exponents

If an unknown value (e.g. x) is the power of a term (e.g. e x or 10 x ), and its
value is to be calculated, then we must take logs on both sides of the
equation to allow it to be solved.
The same solution will be reached using any base, but calculators can be
used for evaluating logs either in base e or base 10.
EXAMPLES
5. Solve e x = 7 .
Taking log e of both sides OR Taking log10 of both sides
log e e x = loge 7 log10 e x = log10 7
x log e e = loge 7 ( log e e = 1) x log10 e = log10 7
x = loge 7 log10 7
x=
x = 1·946 (to 3 d.p.). log10 e
x = 1·946 (to 3 d.p.).

6. Solve 53 x +1 = 40 .
log e 53 x +1 = log e 40 Note
( 3 x + 1) log e 5 = log e 40 log 10 could have been
used instead of log e .
log e 40
3x + 1 =
log e 5
3 x + 1 = 2·2920
3 x = 1·2920
x = 0·431 (to 3 d.p.).
Exponential Growth and Decay

Recall from Section 1 that exponential functions are sometimes known as
growth or decay functions. These often occur in models of real-life
situations.
For instance, radioactive decay can be modelled using an exponential
function. An important measurement is the half-life of a radioactive
substance, which is the time taken for the mass of the radioactive substance
to halve.
7. The mass G grams of a radioactive sample after time t years is given by
the formula G = 100e −3t .
(a) What was the initial mass of radioactive substance in the sample?
(b) Find the half-life of the radioactive substance.
(a) The initial mass was present when t = 0 :
G = 100e −3×0
= 100e 0
= 100.
So the initial mass was 100 grams.
(b) The half-life is the time t at which G = 50 , so
50 = 100e −3t
50 = 1
e −3t = 100 2
−3t = loge ( 12 ) (converting to log form)
t = 0·231 (to 3 d.p.).
So the half-life is 0·231 years, roughly 0·231 × 356 = 84·315 days.

8. The world population, in billions, t years after 1950 is given by

.
P = 2.54e 0 0178t .
(a) What was the world population in 1950?
(b) Find, to the nearest year, the time taken for the world population to
double.
(a) For 1950, t = 0 :
.
P = 2.54e 0 0178×0
= 2.54e 0
= 2.54.
So the world population in 1950 was 2.54 billion.
(b) For the population to double:
.
2.54e 0 0178t = 2 × 2.54
.
e 0 0178t = 2
0.0178t = log e 2 (converting to log form)
t = 38.94 (to 2 d.p.).
So the population doubled after 39 years (to the nearest year).
6 Graphing with Logarithmic Axes

It is common in applications to find an exponential relationship between
variables; for instance, the relationship between the world population and
time in the previous example. Given some data (e.g. from an experiment)
we would like to find an explicit equation for the relationship.
Relationships of the form y = abx

Suppose we have an exponential graph y = ab x , where a ,b > 0 .
y
y = ab x
O x

Taking logarithms we find that
log e y = log e ( ab x )
= log e a + log e b x
= log e a + x log e b.
We can scale the y-axis so that Y = log e y ; the Y-axis is called a logarithmic
axis. Now our relationship is of the form Y = ( log e b ) x + log e a , which is a
straight line in the ( x ,Y ) -plane.
Y
Y = ( log e b ) x + log e a
log e a gradient is log e b
O x
Since this is just a straight line, we can use known points to find the
gradient log e b and the Y-axis intercept log e a . From these we can easily
find the values of a and b, and hence specify the equation y = ab x .
EXAMPLES
1. The relationship between two variables, x and y, is of the form y = ab x .
An experiment to test this relationship produced the data shown in the
graph, where log e y is plotted against x.
log e y
( 7,5 )
3
O x
Find the values of a and b.
We need to obtain a straight line equation:
y = ab x
log e y = log e ab x (taking logs of both sides)
log e y = log e a + log e b x
log e y = log e a + x log e b
i.e. Y = ( log e b ) x + log e a.
From the graph, the Y-axis intercept is log e a = 3 ; so a = e 3 .

Using the gradient formula:

5−3
log e b =
7−0
= 72
2
b = e7.
2. The results from an experiment were noted as follows:
x 1⋅30 2⋅00 2⋅30 2⋅80
log e y 2⋅04 2⋅56 2⋅78 3⋅14
The relationship between these data can be written in the form y = ab x .
Find the values of a and b, and state the formula for y in terms of x.
y = ab x
log e y = log e ab x (taking logs of both sides)
log e y = log e a + log e b x
log e y = log e a + x log e b
i.e. Y = ( log e b ) x + log e a.
We can find the gradient log e b (and hence b), using two points on the line:
3·14 − 2·04
using (1·30, 2·04 ) and ( 2·80, 3·14 ) , log e b =
2·80 − 1·30
= 0·73 (to 2 d.p.)
So b = e 0·73 = 2·08 (to 2 d.p.).
So log e y = 0·73 x + log e a .
Now we can work out log e a (and hence a) by substituting a point into
this equation:
using (1·30, 2·04 ) , log e y = 2·04 and x = 1·30
so 2·04 = 0·73 × 1·30 + log e a
log e a = 2·04 − 0·73 × 1·30
= 1·09 (to 2 d.p.)
so a = e 1·09 Note
= 2·97 (to 2 d.p.). Depending on the
points used, slightly
Therefore y = 2·97 × 2·08x . different values for a and
b may be obtained.

Equations in the form y = axb

Another common relationship is y = ax b , where a, x > 0 . In this case, the
relationship can be represented by a straight line if we change both axes to
logarithmic ones.
EXAMPLE
3. The results from an experiment were noted as follows:
log10 x 1⋅70 2⋅29 2⋅70 2⋅85
log10 y 1⋅33 1⋅67 1⋅92 2⋅01
The relationship between these data can be written in the form y = ax b .
Find the values of a and b, and state the formula for y in terms of x.
y = ax b
log10 y = log10 ax b (taking logs of both sides)
log10 y = log10 a + log10 x b
log10 y = log10 a + b log10 x
i.e. Y = bX + log10 a.
We can find the gradient b using two points on the line:
2·01 − 1·33
using (1·70,1·33 ) and ( 2·85, 2·01) , b =
2·85 − 1·70
= 0·59 (to 2 d.p.).
So log10 y = 0·59 log10 x + log10 a .
Now we can work out a by substituting a point into this equation:
using (1·70,1·33 ) , 1·33 = 0·59 × 1·70 + log10 a
log10 a = 1·33 − 0·59 × 1·70
= 0·33
a = 100·33
= 2·14 (to 2 d.p.).
Therefore y = 2·14 x 0·59 .

7 Graph Transformations
Graph transformations were covered in Unit 1 Outcome 2 – Functions and
Graphs, but we will now look in more detail at applying transformations to
graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions.
EXAMPLES
1. Shown below is the graph of y = f ( x ) where f ( x ) = log 3 x .
y
y = f (x)
( 9, a )
O 1 x
(a) State the value of a.

(b) Sketch the graph of y = f ( x + 2 ) + 1 .
(a) a = log 3 9
=2 (since 32 = 9).
(b)The graph shifts two units to the left, and one unit upwards:
y y = f ( x + 2) + 1
y = −2
( 7,3 )
( −1,1)
O x
2. Shown below is part of the graph of y = log 5 x .

y
y = f (x)
( 5,1)
O 1 x
Sketch the graph of y = log 5 ( 1x ) .

y = log 5 ()
1
x
y
y = log 5 ( 1x )
= log 5 x −1 x
O 1
= − log 5 x .
( 5, −1)
So reflect in the x-axis.

3. The diagram shows the graph of y = 2 x .

y
y = 2x
(1,2 )
1
O x
On separate diagrams, sketch the graphs of:
(a) y = 2 − x ;
(b) y = 2 2− x .
(a) Reflect in the y-axis:
y
( −1,2 )
1 y = 2−x
O x
(b) y = 2 2− x
= 222 − x
= 4 × 2− x.
So scale the graph from (a) by 4 in the y-direction:
y
( −1,8)
4 y = 22−x
O x

Higher Mathematics Unit 3 – Wave Functions
OUTCOME 4
Wave Functions
1 Expressing pcosx + qsinx in the form kcos(x – a)
An expression of the form p cos x + q sin x can be written in the form
k cos ( x − a ) where
k sin a
k = p 2 + q 2 and tan a = .
k cos a
The following example shows how to achieve this.
EXAMPLES
1. Write 5cos x ° + 12sin x ° in the form k cos ( x ° − a ° ) where 0 ≤ a ≤ 360 .
Step 1
Expand k cos ( x − a ) using the 5cos x ° + 12 sin x °
compound angle formula. = k cos ( x ° − a ° )
= k cos x ° cos a ° + k sin x ° sin a °
Step 2
Rearrange to compare with = ( k cos a ° ) cos x ° + ( k sin a ° ) sin x °

p cos x + q sin x . 5 12
Step 3
Compare the coefficients of cos x k cos a ° = 5
and sin x with p cos x + q sin x . k sin a ° = 12
Step 4
Mark the quadrants on a CAST 180° − a ° a°
S A
diagram, according to the signs
180° + a °
T C
360° − a °
of k cos a and k sin a .
Step 5
k sin a °
Find k and a using the formulae k = 52 + 12 2 tan a ° =
above (a lies in the quadrant k cos a °
= 169 = 12
marked twice in Step 4). 5
= 13
a = tan −1 12
5( )
= 67.4 (to 1 d.p.)
Step 6
State p cos x + q sin x in the form 5cos x ° + 12sin x ° = 13cos ( x ° − 67.4° )
k cos ( x − a ) using these values.

2. Write 5cos x − 3sin x in the form k cos ( x − a ) where 0 ≤ a ≤ 2 π .

5cos x − 3sin x = k cos ( x − a )
= k cos x cos a + k sin x sin a
= ( k cos a ) cos x + ( k sin a ) sin x .
k sin a
k cos a = 5 k = 52 + ( −3 )2 tan a = = − 35
k cos a
k sin a = −3 = 34 First quadrant answer is:
π−a
S A
a
( )
tan −1 35 Note
T C
π+a

2π − a = 0.540 (to 3 d.p.). Make sure your
calculator is in radian
Hence a is in the So a = 2π − 0.540 mode.
fourth quadrant. = 5.743 (to 3 d.p.).
Hence 5cos x − 3sin x = 34 cos ( x − 5.743 ) .
2 Expressing pcosx + qsinx in other forms

An expression in the form p cos x + q sin x can also be written in any of the
following forms using a similar method:
k cos ( x + a ) , k sin ( x − a ) , k sin ( x + a ) .
EXAMPLES
1. Write 4cos x ° + 3sin x ° in the form k sin ( x ° + a ° ) where 0 ≤ a ≤ 360 .
4cos x ° + 3sin x ° = k sin ( x ° + a ° )
= k sin x ° cos a ° + k cos x ° sin a °
= ( k cos a ° ) sin x ° + ( k sin a ° ) cos x °
k sin a ° 4
k cos a ° = 3 k = 4 2 + 32 tan a ° = =
k cos a ° 3
k sin a ° = 4 = 25 So:
=5
180° − a °
S A
a°
a = tan −1 34( )
180° + a °
T C
360° − a °
= 53.1 (to 1 d.p.)
Hence a is in the
first quadrant.
Hence 4 cos x ° + 3sin x ° = 5sin ( x ° + 53.1° ) .

2. Write cos x − 3 sin x in the form k cos ( x + a ) where 0 ≤ a ≤ 2 π .

cos x − 3 sin x = k cos ( x + a )
= k cos x cos a − k sin x sin a
= ( k cos a ) cos x − ( k sin a ) sin x
2 k sin a
k cos a = 1 k = 12 + ( − 3 ) tan a = = 3
k cos a
k sin a = 3
= 1+ 3 So:
π−a a = 4 a = tan −1 ( 3 )
S A
T C =2 = π3
π+a 2π − a
Hence a is in the
first quadrant.
Hence cos x − 3 sin x = 2 cos x + π3 . ( )

3 Multiple Angles
We can use the same method with expressions involving the same multiple
angle, i.e. p cos (nx ) + q sin (nx ) , where n is a constant.
EXAMPLE
Write 5cos2 x ° + 12sin 2 x ° in the form k sin ( 2 x ° + a ° ) where 0 ≤ a ≤ 360 .
5cos 2 x ° + 12sin 2 x ° = k sin ( 2 x ° + a ° )
= k sin2 x ° cos a ° + k cos2 x ° sin a °
= ( k cos a ° ) sin 2 x ° + ( k sin a ° ) cos2 x °
k sin a ° 5
k cos a ° = 12 k = 122 + 52 tan a ° = =
k cos a ° 12
k sin a ° = 5 = 169 So:
= 13
180° − a °
S A
a° 5
a = tan −1 12( )
180° + a °
T C
360° − a ° = 22.6 (to 1 d.p.)
Hence a is in the
first quadrant.
Hence 5cos 2 x ° + 12 sin 2 x ° = 13 sin ( 2 x ° + 22.6° ) .

4 Maximum and Minimum Values

To work out the maximum or minimum values of p cos x + q sin x , we can
rewrite it as a single trigonometric function, e.g. k cos ( x − a ) .
Recall that the maximum value of the sine and cosine functions is 1, and
their minimum is –1.
y y = sin x y y = cos x
1 max. = 1 1 max. = 1
O 2π x O 2π x
–1 min. = –1 –1 min. = –1
EXAMPLE
Write 4sin x + cos x in the form k cos ( x − a ) where 0 ≤ a ≤ 2 π and state:
(i) the maximum value and the value of 0 ≤ x < 2π at which it occurs
(ii) the minimum value and the value of 0 ≤ x < 2π at which it occurs.
4sin x + cos x = k cos ( x − a )
= k cos x cos a + k sin x sin a
= ( k cos a ) cos x + ( k sin a ) sin x
k sin a
k cos a = 1 k = 12 + 42 tan a = =4
k cos a
k sin a = 4 = 17 So:
π−a a a = tan −1 ( 4 )
S A
T C = 1.326 (to 3 d.p.)
π+a 2π − a
Hence a is in the
first quadrant.
Hence 4sin x + cos x = 17 cos ( x − 1.326 ) .
The maximum value of 17 The minimum value of − 17

occurs when: occurs when:
cos ( x − 1.326 ) = 1 cos ( x − 1.326 ) = −1
x − 1.326 = cos −1 (1) x − 1.326 = cos −1 ( −1)
x − 1.326 = 0 x − 1.326 = π
x = 1.326 (to 3 d.p.). x = 4.468 (to 3 d.p.).

5 Solving Equations
The method of writing two trigonometric terms as one can be used to help
solve equations involving both a sin ( nx ) and a cos ( nx ) term.
EXAMPLES
1. Solve 5cos x ° + sin x ° = 2 where 0 ≤ x ≤ 360 .
First, we write 5cos x ° + sin x ° in the form k cos ( x ° − a ° ) :
5cos x ° + sin x ° = k cos ( x ° − a ° )
= ( k cos a ° ) cos x ° + ( k sin a ° ) sin x °
k sin a ° 1
k cos a° = 5 k = 52 + 12 tan a ° = =
k cos a ° 5
k sin a ° = 1 = 26 So:
180° − a °
S A
a°
()
a = tan −1 15
180° + a °
T C
360° − a ° = 11.3 (to 1 d.p.)
Hence a is in the
first quadrant.
Hence 5cos x ° + sin x ° = 26 cos ( x ° − 11.3° ) .
Now we use this to help solve the equation:
5cos x ° + sin x ° = 2 180° − x ° x°
S A
26 cos ( x ° − 11.3° ) = 2
180° + x ° T C 360° − x °
cos ( x ° − 11.3° ) = 2
26 x − 11.3 = cos −1 ( 262 )
= 66.9 (to 2 d.p.)
x − 11.3 = 66.9 or 360 − 66.9
x − 11.3 = 66.9 or 293.1
x = 78.2 or 304.4.

2. Solve 2 cos 2 x + 3 sin 2 x = 1 where 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π .

First, we write 2 cos 2 x + 3 sin 2 x in the form k cos ( 2 x − a ) :
2cos 2 x + 3sin2 x = k cos ( 2 x − a )
= k cos 2 x cos a + k sin2 x sin a
= ( k cos a ) cos 2 x + ( k sin a ) sin 2 x
k sin a 3
k cos a = 2 k = 22 + ( −3 )2 tan a = =
k cos a 2
k sin a = 3 = 4+9 So:
π−a
S A
a = 13 ( )
a = tan −1 32
π+a
T C2π − a
= 0.983 (to 3 d.p.)
Hence a is in the
first quadrant.
Hence 2cos2 x + 3sin2 x = 13 cos ( 2 x − 0.983 ) .
Now we use this to help solve the equation:
2 cos 2 x + 3sin 2 x = 1 π − 2x 2x
S A 0 < x < 2π
13 cos ( 2 x − 0.983 ) = 1 0 < 2 x < 4π
π + 2 x T C 2π − 2 x
cos ( 2 x − 0.983 ) = 1
13
2 x − 0.983 = cos −1 1 ( 13 )
= 1.290 (to 3 d.p.)
2 x − 0.983 = 1.290 or 2π − 1.290
or 2π + 1.290 or 2π + 2π − 1.290
or 2π + 2π + 1.290
2 x − 0.983 = 1.290 or 4.993 or 7.573 or 11.276
2 x = 2.273 or 5.976 or 8.556 or 12.259
x = 1.137 or 2.988 or 4.278 or 6.130

6 Sketching Graphs of y = pcosx + qsinx

Expressing p cos x + q sin x in the form k cos ( x − a ) enables us to sketch the
graph of y = p cos x + q sin x .
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Write 7 cos x ° + 6sin x ° in the form k cos ( x ° − a ° ) , 0 ≤ a ≤ 360 .
(b) Hence sketch the graph of y = 7 cos x ° + 6sin x ° for 0 ≤ x ≤ 360 .
(a) First, we write 7 cos x ° + 6sin x ° in the form k cos ( x ° − a ° ) :
7 cos x ° + 6sin x ° = k cos ( x ° − a ° )
k sin a ° 6
k cos a ° = 7 k = 62 + 7 2 tan a ° = =
k cos a ° 7
k sin a° = 6 = 36 + 49 So:
180° − a °
S A
a° = 85 ( )
a = tan −1 76
180° + a °
T C
360° − a °
= 40.6 (to 1 d.p.)
Hence a is in the
first quadrant.
Hence 7 cos x ° + 6 sin x ° = 85 cos ( x ° − 40.6° ) .
(b) Now we can sketch the graph of y = 7 cos x ° + 6sin x ° :
y
y = 7 cos x ° + 6 sin x °
85
O x
− 85
40.60 360

2. Sketch the graph of y = sin x ° + 3 cos x ° for 0 ≤ x ≤ 360 .

First, we write sin x ° + 3 cos x ° in the form k cos ( x ° − a ° ) :
sin x ° + 3 cos x ° = k cos ( x ° − a ° )
2 k sin a ° 1
k cos a ° = 3 k = 12 + 3 tan a ° = =
k cos a ° 3
k sin a ° = 1 = 1+ 3 So:
=2
180° − a °
S A
a°
( )
a = tan −1 13
180° + a °
T C
360° − a ° = 30
Hence a is in the
first quadrant.
Hence sin x ° + 3 cos x ° = 2cos ( x ° − 30° ) .
Now we can sketch the graph of y = sin x ° + 3 cos x ° :

y
y = sin x ° + 3 cos x °
2
O x
−2
30 360

3. (a) Write 5sin x ° − 11 cos x ° in the form k sin ( x ° − a ° ) , 0 ≤ a ≤ 360 .

(b) Hence sketch the graph of y = 5sin x ° − 11cos x ° + 2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 360 .
(a) 5sin x ° − 11cos x ° = k sin ( x ° − a ° )

= k sin x ° cos a ° + k cos x ° sin a °
= ( k cos a ° ) sin x ° + ( k sin a ° ) cos x °
2 k sin a ° 11
k cos a ° = 5 k = 52 + 11 tan a ° = =
k cos a ° 5
k sin a ° = 11 = 25 + 11 So:
180° − a °
S A
a° = 36 ( )
a = tan −1 11
5
T C =6
180° + a ° 360° − a ° = 33.6 (to 1 d.p.)
Hence a is in the
first quadrant.
Hence 5sin x ° − 11cos x ° = 6sin ( x ° − 33.6° ) .
(b) Now sketch the graph of
y = 5sin x ° − 11cos x ° + 2 = 6sin ( x ° − 33.6° ) + 2 :
y
8
6 y = 5sin x ° − 11 cos x ° + 2
2
O x
−4
−6
33.6° 360°

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Higher

hsn.uk.net Page 128 HSN23000

Note that we write the components in a column to avoid confusing them

Vectors in Three Dimensions

hsn.uk.net Page 129 HSN23000

1. Given u =  −12  , find u .

hsn.uk.net Page 130 HSN23000

Distance in Three Dimensions

The distance d between the points ( x1, y1, z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) is

hsn.uk.net Page 131 HSN23000

5 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

Similarly, we can construct a + b + c as follows:

−b −b and b have the same magnitude, i.e. b = −b .

Therefore we can construct a − b as follows:

a a − b means a followed by −b.

hsn.uk.net Page 132 HSN23000

hsn.uk.net Page 133 HSN23000

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y To move from point A to point B we can move

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2 1 0 0

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10 Dividing Lines in a Ratio

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Using the Section Formula

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5. The points A ( 7, −4, −4 ) , B (13,5, −7 ) and C are collinear. Given that B

11 The Scalar Product

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we find that a .b = − a b cos θ .

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The Component Form of the Scalar Product

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12 The Angle Between Vectors

a .b a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

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3. The diagram below shows the cube OPQRSTUV.

(a) From the diagram, T ( 0,4,4 ) and U ( 4,4,4 ) .

4 4 0

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Conversely, if a.b = 0 then a and b are perpendicular.

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14 Properties of the Scalar Product

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f ′ ( x ) = cos x − ( −2sin x ) Remember

3. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = sin x when x = π6 .

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2 Integrating sinx and cosx

∫ cos x dx = sin x + c , ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c .

∫ (5sin x + 2cos x ) dx = −5cos x + 2sin x + c .

∫ ( 4 cos x + 2 sin x ) dx = [ 4 sin x − 2 cos x ]04

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3 The Chain Rule

4 Special Cases of the Chain Rule

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1. A function f is defined on a suitable domain by f ( x ) = 2 x 2 + 3 x .

Powers of a Linear Function

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