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Higher
Mathematics
HSN24400
Course Revision Notes
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Higher Mathematics Course Revision Notes
Contents
Unit 1 – Mathematics 1
Straight Lines 1
Functions and Graphs 2
Differentiation 5
Sequences 6
Unit 2 – Mathematics 2
Polynomials and Quadratics 7
Integration 8
Trigonometry 9
Circles 12
Unit 3 – Mathematics 3
Vectors 12
Further Calculus 15
Exponentials and Logarithms 16
The Wave Function 18
hsn.uk.net - ii - HSN24400
Higher Mathematics Course Revision Notes
Straight Lines
Distance Formula
Distance = ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 ) between points ( x1, y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 )
2 2
Gradients
y2 − y1
m= between the points ( x1, y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) where x1 ≠ x2
x 2 − x1
Positive gradients, negative gradients, zero gradients, undefined gradients
eg x = 2
eg y = 4
Lines with the sam e gradient are parallel
eg The line parallel to 2 y + 3 x = 5
has gradient m = − 32 since 2 y + 3 x = 5
2 y = −3 x + 5
y = − 32 x + 25 (m ust be in the form y = mx + c )
Perpendicular lines have gradients such that m × mperp. = −1
eg if m = 23 then mperp. = − 23
m = tan
y
is the angle that the line m akes with
positive direction the positive direction of the x-axis
x
Medians
B x1 + x 2 y1 + y2
M is the m idpoint of AC, ie M = ,
2 2
BM is not usually perpendicular to AC, so m1 × m2 = −1
A C cannot be used
M
To work out the gradient of BM, use the gradient form ula
Altitudes
B
D is not usually the m idpoint of AC
BD is perpendicular to AC, so m1 × m2 = −1 can be used to
A C work out the gradient of BD
D
Perpendicular Bisectors
D
CD passes through m idpoint of AC
A B
C CD is perpendicular to AB, so m1 × m2 = −1 can be used to
C B find the gradient of CD
Perpendicular bisectors do not necessarily have to appear
D within a triangle – they can occur with straight lines
A
= ( 1x ) − 2
2 1
=
x −2
2
1
= −2 Dom ain: { x : x ∈ , x ≠ ± 2 }
x2
Dom ain: { x : x ∈ , x ≠ 0}
You will probably only be asked for a dom ain if the function involved a fraction or an
even root. Rem em ber that in a fraction the denom inator cannot be zero and any
num ber being square rooted cannot be negative
eg f ( x ) = x + 1 could have dom ain: { x : x ∈ , x ≥ −1}
Graphs of Inverses
To draw the graph of an inverse function, reflect the graph of the function in the
line y = x
y y=x
y = g( x )
y = g−1 ( x )
O x
( a ,1)
O x
1 (1, a ) 1 (1, a ) 1
O x O x
Trigonometric Functions
y = sin x y = cos x y = tan x
y y y
1 1
O x O x O x
–1 –1
180° 360° 180° 360°
180° 360°
Period = 360° Period = 360° Period = 180°
Am plitude = 1 Am plitude = 1 Am plitude is undefined
Graph Transformations
The next page shows the effect of transform ations on the two graphs shown below.
( 2, 2 ) y = g ( x )
y y
1
O x
–1 0 3 x –1
180° 360°
Differentiation
Differentiating
If f ( x ) = ax n then f ′ ( x ) = anx n −1
Before you differentiate, all brackets should be m ultiplied out, and there should be no
fractions with an x term in the denom inator (bottom line), for exam ple:
3 −2 1 − 12
1
= x
1 −2 = 3x = x
3x 2 3 x2 x
Equations of Tangents
Tangents are straight lines, therefore to find the equation of a tangent, you need a point
on the line and its gradient to substitute into y − b = m ( x − a )
You will always be given one coordinate of the point which the tangent touches
Find the other coordinate by solving the equation of the curve
Find the gradient by differentiating then substituting in the x-coordinate of the point
Example
Find the equation of the tangent to the graph of y = x 3 at the point where x = 9 .
y = x3 y = x3 At x = 9, m = 32 × 9 2
1
y − b = m(x − a)
= 93 = x2
3
= 32 9 y − 27 = 92 ( x − 9 )
= 32 × 3 2 y − 54 = 9 x − 81
= 33 dy 3 12
= x 2 y = 9 x − 27
= 27 dx 2 = 92
( 9, 27 )
dy
Stationary points occur at points where =0
dx
You m ust justify the nature of turning points or points of inflection
y y y
+ +
+
x – – x
– + +
x
–
Linear Quadratic Cubic
Optimisation
These types of questions are usually practical problem s which involve m axim um or
m inim um areas or volum es
Rem em ber you m ust show that a m axim um or m inim um exists
Sequences
Linear Recurrence Relations
A linear recurrence relation is in the form un+1 = aun + b . Also be aware that this m ay be
written as un = aun−1 + b
b
If −1 < a < 1 then a lim it l = exists. You m ust state this whenever you use the lim it
1− a
form ula
Example
4 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 11
Find .
x +2
–2 4 –7 0 11 Rem em ber to put in 0
if there is no term
–8 30 –60
4 –15 30 –49
4 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 11
= 4 x 2 − 15 x + 30 rem ainder − 49
x +2
ie 4 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 11 = ( x + 2 ) ( 4 x 2 − 15 x + 30 ) − 49
Example
Write 3 x 2 − 12 x + 7 in the form a(x + p)2 + q .
3 x 2 − 12 x + 7
= 3( x 2 − 4x ) + 7
= 3 ( x 2 − 4 x + ( −2 )2 − ( −2 )2 ) + 7
= 3 ( ( x − 2 )2 − 4 ) + 7
= 3 ( x − 2 )2 − 12 + 7
= 3 ( x − 2 )2 − 5
Note that in this exam ple, the graph is ∪ -shaped since the x 2 coefficient is positive; and
the turning point is ( 2, − 5 ) .
The Discriminant
The discrim inant is part of the quadratic form ula and can be used to indicate how m any
roots a quadratic has. For the quadratic ax 2 + bx + c :
If b 2 − 4 ac = 0 , the roots are real and equal (ie repeated roots) 1 root
If b 2 − 4 ac < 0 , the roots are not real; they do not exist no roots
The discrim inant can also be used to calculate the num ber of intersections between a
line and a curve. To use it, you m ust first equate them and set equal to zero, before
using the discrim inant
Rem em ber if b 2 − 4 ac = 0 , the line is a tangent
Integration
Integrating
ax n +1
ax n dx = +c
n +1
As with differentiation, all brackets m ust be m ultiplied out, and there m ust be no
fractions with an x term in the denom inator
Examples
dx x 2 + 5x 7
1. Find . 2. dx
8
x5 x2
dx 1 x 2 + 5x 7
= dx 2
dx = x −2 ( x 2 + 5 x 7 ) dx
8
x5 8
x5 x
= x
− 58
dx = x 0 + 5 x 5 dx
x8
3
= 1 + 5 x 5 dx
= 3 +c
8 = x + 56 x 6 + c
3
= 83 x 8 + c
= 38 8 x 3 + c
a b x
Rem em ber that areas split by the x-axis m ust be calculated separately and any negative
signs ignored; these just show that the area is under the axis.
Trigonometry
Background Knowledge
You should know how to use all of the inform ation below:
SOH CAH TOA
sin x
tan x =
cos x
sin 2 x + cos2 x = 1
a b c
The sine rule: = =
sin A sin B sin C
b2 + c 2 − a2
The cosine rule: a = b + c − 2bc cos A or cos A =
2 2 2
2bc
2 30°
2 45° 3
1
45° 60°
1 1
Radians
You should know how to convert between radians and degrees:
Trigonometric Equations
Look at the restrictions on the dom ain, eg 0 ≤ x ° < 360, or 0 ≤ x <
Be aware of whether the answer is required in degrees or radians
Rem em ber a CAST diagram whenever you are asked to “solve”
Examples
1. Solve 3sin 2 x° = 1 where 0 ≤ x ° < 360 .
3sin 2 x ° = 1
3 ( sin x ° ) = 1
2
( sin x ° )2 = 13
sin x ° = ± 13
S A
x ° = sin −1
( ± 13 ) T C
{5 , 13 , 17
Solutions set = 12 , 12 12 12 }
Compound Angle Formulae
cos ( A ± B ) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
sin ( A ± B ) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
These are given on the form ula sheet
Circles
Equations of Circles
A circle with centre ( a,b ) and radius r has the equation ( x − a )2 + ( y − b ) = r2
2
You will have to rem em ber the distance form ula, d = ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 ) , since this
2 2
Vectors
Basic Facts
A vector is a quantity with both m agnitude (size) and direction
A vector is nam ed either by using a directed line segm ent (eg AB ) or a bold letter
(eg u written u)
A vector m ay also be defined in term s of i, j and k, the unit vectors in three
perpendicular directions:
1 0 0
i= 0 j= 1 k= 0
0 0 1
a
The m agnitude of vector AB = b is defined as AB = a 2 + b 2
a1 b1 a1 ± b1 a1 ka1 0
a2 ± b2 = a2 ± b2 k a2 = ka2 where k is a scalar Z ero vector: 0
a3 b3 a3 ± b3 a3 ka3 0
OA is called the position vector of the point A relative to the origin, written a
AB = b − a where a and b are the position vectors of A and B
If AB = k BC where k is a scalar, then AB is parallel to BC . Since B is com m on to both
AB and k BC , then A, B and C are collinear
Example
P is the point ( −2, 4, − 1) and R is the point ( 8, − 1,19 ) . Point T divides PR in the ratio
2:3. Work out the coordinates of point T.
2:3
P R
T
U sing the section form ula From first principles
The ratio is 2:3, so let m = 2 and n = 3 PT 2
=
n m TR 3
t= p+ r
m+n m+n 3PT = 2TR
= 35 p + 25 r ( )
3 t − p = 2 (r − t )
(
= 15 3 p + 2r ) 3t − 3 p = 2r − 2t
3t + 2t = 2r + 3 p
−6 16
= 15 12 + −2 16 −6
−3 38 5t = −2 + 12
38 −3
10
= 15 10 10
35 5t = 10
35
2
= 2 2
7 t= 2
7
Therefore T is the point ( 2, 2, 7 ) . Therefore T is the point ( 2, 2, 7 ) .
a b
a1 b1
If a = a2 and b = b2 then a.b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
a3 b3
a.b ab +a b +a b
cos = or cos = 1 1 2 2 3 3
ab a b
If a and b are perpendicular then a.b = 0
If a.b = 0 then a and b are perpendicular
Example
8 4
If u = 0 and v = 0 , calculate the angle between the vectors u + v and u − v .
4 1
Let a = u + v Let b = u − v
8 4 8 4
a= 0 + 0 b= 0 − 0
4 1 4 1
12 4
a= 0 b= 0
5 3
a.b
cos =
ab
(12 × 4 ) + ( 0 × 0 ) + ( 5 × 3 )
=
122 + 02 + 52 4 2 + 02 + 32
63
=
169 25
63
= cos −1
169 25
= 14·3°
Further Calculus
Trigonometry
D ifferentiation
This is straightforward, since the form ulae are given on the form ula sheet:
f (x) f ′( x )
sin ax a cos ax
cos ax − a sin ax
Integration
Again, the form ulae are provided in the paper:
f (x) f ( x ) dx
sin ax − 1a cos ax + c
cos ax 1 sin ax + c
a
Examples
1. Differentiate x 3 + cos3 x with respect to x.
( )
d x 3 + cos3 x = 3 x 2 − 3sin3 x
dx
2. Find 4 x 3 + sin3 x dx .
4x 4 1
4 x + sin3 x dx =
3
− 3 cos3 x + c
4
= x 4 − 13 cos3 x + c
Examples
1
1. G iven f ( x ) = + x − sin3 x , find f ′ ( x ) .
x2
1
f ( x ) = x −2 + x 2 − sin3 x
−1
f ′ ( x ) = −2 x −3 + 12 x 2 − 3cos3 x
2 1
=− 3 + − 3cos3 x
x 2 x
2. G iven f ( x ) = ( 3 x 2 + 2 x + 1) , find f ′ ( x ) .
3
f ′ ( x ) = 3 ( 3 x 2 + 2 x + 1) × ( 6 x + 2 )
2
= 3 ( 6 x + 2 ) ( 3 x 2 + 2 x + 1)
2
Example
Find ( 3 x + 5 )4 dx .
( 3 x + 5 )5 ( 3 x + 5 )5
( 3 x + 5 ) dx =
4
+c = +c
5× 3 15
It is possible for any type of ‘further calculus’ to be exam ined in the style of a standard
calculus question (eg optim isation, area under a curve, etc)
Laws of Logarithms
loga x + loga y = loga xy (Squash)
loga x − loga y = loga xy (Split)
loga x n = n loga x (Fly)
Examples
1. Evaluate log2 4 + log2 6 − log2 3
log2 4 + log2 6 − log2 3
4×6
= log2
3
= log2 8
=3 (since 23 = 8)
2. Below is a diagram of part of the graph of y = ke 0.7 x
y
y = ke 0.7 x
3
0 x =1 x