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15.5

The Convolution Integral

g() = 

u(t ) = 1

u()
1

g() = 

(a)

703

u(t ) = 1

(b)

(c)

Figure 15.18
Convolution of g(t) and u(t) in Fig. 15.16 with u(t) folded.

For t 7 1, the two functions overlap between 0 and 1, as shown in


Fig. 15.18(c). Hence,
y (t) 

1 2 1 1
l `  ,
2
2
0

(1)l dl 

t1

(15.13.4)

And, from Eqs. (15.13.3) and (15.13.4),


1 2
t ,
2
y (t)  d
1
,
2

0 t 1
y(t)

t1

1
2

Although the two methods give the same result, as expected, notice
that it is more convenient to fold the unit step function u(t) than fold
g(t) in this example. Figure 15.19 shows y(t).

Figure 15.19

Given g(t) and f(t) in Fig. 15.20, graphically find y(t)  g(t) * f (t).

Practice Problem 15.13

Result of Example 15.13.

f (t)
3
g(t)
3e t

Figure 15.20
For Practice Prob. 15.13.

3(1  et ), 0 t 1
Answer: y (t)  c 3(e  1)et, t  1
0,
elsewhere.

For the RL circuit in Fig. 15.21(a), use the convolution integral to find
the response io(t) due to the excitation shown in Fig. 15.21(b).
Solution:
1. Define. The problem is clearly stated and the method of solution
is also specified.

Example 15.14

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Chapter 15

704

io
1

i s(t)

1H

(a)
i s (t) A
1
0

t(s)

(b)

Figure 15.21
For Example 15.14.

Introduction to the Laplace Transform

2. Present. We are to use the convolution integral to solve for the


response io(t) due to is(t) shown in Fig. 15.21(b).
3. Alternative. We have learned to do convolution by using the
convolution integral and how to do it graphically. In addition,
we could always work in the s-domain to solve for the current.
We will solve for the current using the convolution integral and
then check it using the graphical approach.
4. Attempt. As we stated, this problem can be solved in two
ways: directly using the convolution integral or using the
graphical technique. To use either approach, we first need
the unit impulse response h(t) of the circuit. In the s-domain,
applying the current division principle to the circuit in
Fig. 15.22(a) gives
Io 

Io
1

Is

Hence,

H(s) 

Io
1

Is
s1

(15.14.1)

and the inverse Laplace transform of this gives

(a)

h(t)  et u (t)

h(t)
1

1
Is
s1

e t
t

Figure 15.22(b) shows the impulse response h(t) of the circuit.


To use the convolution integral directly, recall that the
response is given in the s-domain as

(b)

Io(s)  H(s) Is(s)

Figure 15.22
For the circuit in Fig. 15.21(a): (a) its
s-domain equivalent, (b) its impulse
response.

(15.14.2)

With the given is(t) in Fig. 15.21(b),


is(t)  u (t)  u (t  2)
so that
t

io(t)  h (t) * is (t) 

 i (l)h (t  l) dl
s

(15.14.3)

[u (l)  u (l  2)]e(tl) dl

Since u (l  2)  0 for 0 6 l 6 2, the integrand involving


u (l) is nonzero for all l 7 0, whereas the integrand involving
u (l  2) is nonzero only for l 7 2. The best way to handle
the integral is to do the two parts separately. For 0 6 t 6 2,
io (t) 

(1)e(tl) dl  et

0
t

 (1)e

dl

t

 e (e  1)  1  e ,
t

(15.14.4)

0 6 t 6 2

For t 7 2,
io(t) 

(1)e(tl) dl  et

2
t

e

2
2 t

 e (e  e )  1  e e ,
t

dl
t 7 2

(15.14.5)

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15.6

Application to Integrodifferential Equations

705

Substituting Eqs. (15.14.4) and (15.14.5) into Eq. (15.14.3) gives


io (t)  io (t)  io(t)
 (1  et )[u(t  2)  u(t)]  (1  e2et ) u (t  2)
1  et A,
0 6 t 6 2
b 2
t
(e  1)e A, t 7 2

is(t )
1

(15.14.6)
0

t2

is(t )
1

0 t 2 (15.14.7)

For t 7 2, the two functions overlap between (t  2) and t, as


in Fig. 15.23(b). Hence,
io(t) 

t2

(1)el dl  el `

 et  e(t2)

t2
t

 (e  1) e
2

(b)

For Example 15.14.

(15.14.8)

t0

A,

Excitation is

1  et A,
0 t 2
io(t)  b 2
t
(e  1) e A, t  2

(15.14.9)

which is the same as in Eq. (15.14.6). Thus, the response io(t)


along the excitation is(t) is as shown in Fig. 15.24.
6. Satisfactory? We have satisfactorily solved the problem and can
present the results as a solution to the problem.
Use convolution to find vo(t) in the circuit of Fig. 15.25(a) when the
excitation is the signal shown in Fig. 15.25(b). To show how powerful
working in the s-domain is, verify your answer by performing the
equivalent operation in the s-domain.
vs (V)

vs

0.5 F

10

10e t

+
vo

(a)

t
(b)

Figure 15.25
For Practice Prob. 15.14.

Answer: 20(et  e2t ) V.

15.6

t 

Figure 15.23

From Eqs. (15.14.7) and (15.14.8), the response is

h()
0 t2

(1)el dl  el `  (1  et ) A,


0

t
(a)

5. Evaluate. To use the graphical technique, we may fold is(t) in


Fig. 15.21(b) and shift by t, as shown in Fig. 15.23(a). For
0 6 t 6 2, the overlap between is(t  l) and h(l) is from 0 to
t, so that
io(t) 

h()

Application to Integrodifferential
Equations

The Laplace transform is useful in solving linear integrodifferential


equations. Using the differentiation and integration properties of Laplace
transforms, each term in the integrodifferential equation is transformed.

Response io

4 t

Figure 15.24
For Example 15.14; excitation and
response.

Practice Problem 15.14

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Example 16.2

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Chapter 16

Applications of the Laplace Transform

Find vo(t) in the circuit of Fig. 16.7. Assume vo(0)  5 V.


10

10e

t u(t)

V +

+
v o (t)

10

0.1 F

2(t) A

Figure 16.7
For Example 16.2.

Solution:
We transform the circuit to the s-domain as shown in Fig. 16.8. The initial
condition is included in the form of the current source Cvo(0)  0.1(5) 
0.5 A. [See Fig. 16.2(c).] We apply nodal analysis. At the top node,
10(s  1)  Vo
Vo
Vo
 2  0.5 

10
10
10s
or
2Vo
sVo
1
1
 2.5 


Vo(s  2)
s1
10
10
10
10

10
+
s+1

V o (s)

10
s

10

0.5 A

2A

Figure 16.8
Nodal analysis of the equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 16.7.

Multiplying through by 10,


10
 25  Vo(s  2)
s1
or
Vo 

25s  35
A
B


(s  1) (s  2)
s1
s2

where
25s  35
10
`

 10
(s  2) s1
1
25s  35
15

`

 15
(s  1) s2
1

A  (s  1)Vo(s) 0 s1 
B  (s  2)Vo(s) 0 s2
Thus,
Vo(s) 

10
15

s1
s2

Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we obtain


vo(t)  (10et  15e2t ) u (t) V

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16.2

Circuit Element Models

Find vo(t) in the circuit shown in Fig. 16.9. Note that, since the voltage input is multiplied by u(t), the voltage source is a short for all
t 6 0 and iL(0)  0.
Answer: (24e2t  4et3) u (t) V.

721

Practice Problem 16.2


1
30e2t u(t) V +

+
v o (t)

2H

Figure 16.9
For Practice Prob. 16.2.

Example 16.3

In the circuit of Fig. 16.10(a), the switch moves from position a to position b at t  0. Find i(t) for t 7 0.
Solution:
The initial current through the inductor is i(0)  Io. For t 7 0,
Fig. 16.10(b) shows the circuit transformed to the s-domain. The initial
condition is incorporated in the form of a voltage source as
Li(0)  LIo. Using mesh analysis,
I(s)(R  sL)  LIo 

t=0

R
i(t)

b
Io

+ V
o

(a)

Vo
0
s

(16.3.1)
R

or
I(s) 

Vo
Io
VoL
LIo



R  sL
s(R  sL)
s  RL
s(s  RL)

sL

(16.3.2)

Vo +
s

I(s)

Applying partial fraction expansion on the second term on the righthand side of Eq. (16.3.2) yields
VoR
Io
VoR

I(s) 

s
s  RL
(s  RL)

(16.3.3)

The inverse Laplace transform of this gives


i(t)  aIo 

Vo tt Vo
be
 ,
R
R

t0

(16.3.4)

where t  RL. The term in parentheses is the transient response, while


the second term is the steady-state response. In other words, the final
value is i()  VoR, which we could have predicted by applying the
final-value theorem on Eq. (16.3.2) or (16.3.3); that is,
lim sI(s)  lim a

sS0

sS0

sIo
VoL
Vo

b
s  RL
s  RL
R

(16.3.5)

Equation (16.3.4) may also be written as


i(t)  Io ett 

Vo
(1  ett ),
R

t0

(16.3.6)

The first term is the natural response, while the second term is the
forced response. If the initial condition Io  0, Eq. (16.3.6) becomes
i(t) 

Vo
(1  ett ),
R

t0

(16.3.7)

which is the step response, since it is due to the step input Vo with no
initial energy.

(b)

Figure 16.10
For Example 16.3.

LIo

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Chapter 16

728

Example 16.8
Io

Determine the transfer function H(s)  Vo(s)Io(s) of the circuit in


Fig. 16.18.

I2

Applications of the Laplace Transform

1
2s

Solution:

I1
s
V(s) +

2
4

+
Vo

Figure 16.18

METHOD 1 By current division,


I2 

(s  4)Io
s  4  2  12s

But

For Example 16.8.

Vo  2I2 

2(s  4)Io
s  6  12s

Hence,
H(s) 

Vo(s)
4s(s  4)
 2
Io(s)
2s  12s  1

METHOD 2 We can apply the ladder method. We let Vo  1 V.

By Ohms law, I2  Vo2  12 A. The voltage across the (2  12s)


impedance is
V1  I2 a2 

1
1
4s  1
b1

2s
4s
4s

This is the same as the voltage across the (s  4) impedance. Hence,


I1 

V1
4s  1

s4
4s(s  4)

Applying KCL at the top node yields


Io  I1  I2 

4s  1
1
2s 2  12s  1
 
4s(s  4)
2
4s(s  4)

Hence,
H(s) 

Vo
4s(s  4)
1
  2
Io
Io
2s  12s  1

as before.

Practice Problem 16.8

Find the transfer function H(s)  I1(s)Io(s) in the circuit of Fig. 16.18.
Answer:

4s  1
.
2s  12s  1
2

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