Interference theory:

Light is an electromagnetic wave. The energy in such a wave is due to the

electric and magnetic field vectors associated with them. In all electromagnetic
waves, the electric and magnetic field vectors are mutually perpendicular to each
other and also perpendicular to the direction in which the wave propagates
(transverse wave).
Superposition principle
The task of determining the shape of the resultant demands that the principle
of superposition is applied. The principle of superposition is stated as follows:
When two waves interfere, the resulting displacement of the medium at any
location is the algebraic sum of the displacements of the individual waves at that
same location.

Light is a transverse wave. When two waves of same wavelength and

amplitude travel through same medium, their amplitudes combine. A wave of
greater or lesser amplitude than the original will be the result. The addition of
amplitudes due to superposition of two waves is called interference. If the crest of
one wave meets with the trough of the other, the resultant intensity will be zero and
the waves are said to interfere destructively. Alternatively, if the crest of one wave
meets with the crest of the other, the resultant will be maximum intensity and the
waves are said to interfere constructively.

Suppose two coherent (i.e. their initial phase relationship remains constant)
waves start from the same point and travel different paths before coming back
together and interfering with each other. Suppose also that the re-combined waves
illuminate a screen where the position on the screen depends on the difference in
the lengths of the paths traveled by the two waves. Then the resulting alternating
bright and dark bands on the screen are called interference fringes.

In constructive interference, a bright fringe (band) is obtained on the screen. For

constructive interference to occur, the path difference between two beams must be
an integral multiple m* of the wavelength , where m is the order, with m =0,
1,2...

If the path difference between two waves is,

The interference between them is destructive, and a dark fringe appears on the
screen.

Michelson Interferometer:

The Michelson interferometer was invented in1893 by Albert Michelson, to

measure a standard meter in units of the wavelength of the red line of the cadmium
spectrum. With an optical interferometer, one can measure distances directly in
terms of wavelength of light used, by counting the interference fringes that move
when one or the other of two mirrors are moved. In the Michelson interferometer,
coherent beams are obtained by splitting a beam of light that originates from a

single source with a partially reflecting mirror called a beam splitter. The resulting
reflected and transmitted waves are then re-directed by ordinary mirrors to a screen
where they superimpose to create fringes. This is known as interference by division
of amplitude. This interferometer, used in 1817 in the famous Michelson- Morley
experiment, demonstrated the non-existence of electromagnetic-wave-carrying
ether, thus paving the way for the Special theory of Relativity.

A simplified diagram of a Michelson interferometer is shown in the fig below

In Michelson interferometer the two coherent sources are derived from the
principle of division of amplitude. The parallel light rays from a monochromatic
source are incident on beams splitter (glass plate) G1 which is semi silvered on its
back surface and mounted at 45 to the axis. Light ray incident O' is refracted into
the glass plate and reaches point A , where where it is partially reflected (ray 1) and
partially transmitted ray 2. These rays then fall normally on mirrors M1 (movable)
and M2 (fixed) and are reflected back. These reflected rays reunite at point Aagain
and follow path AT. Since these two rays are derived from same source (at A) and
are therefore coherent, can interfere and form interference pattern.

In this geometry, the reflected ray 1, travels an extra optical path, a compensating
plate G2 of same thickness as plate G1) is inserted in the path of ray 2 such
that G2 is parallel to G1. This introduces the same optical path in glass medium for
ray 2 as ray 1 travels in plate G1 (therefore is called a compensating plate). Any
optical path difference between the ray 1 and ray 2 is now equal to actual path
difference between them.
To understand, how the fringes are formed, refer to fig below, An observer
at 'T' will see the images of mirror M2 and source S ( M'2 and S' respectively)
through beam splitter along with the mirror M1. S1 and S2 are the images of source
in mirrors M1 and M2 respectively. The position of these elements in figure depend
upon their relative distances from point A.

Formation of Fringes

Light from a point (say P ) from extended source appears to come from
corresponding coherent points P1 and P2on S1 and S2 .

If d ' is the separation between mirrors M1 and M2' then 2d' is the separation
between virtual sources S1 and S2 The path difference between the two parallel rays
coming from point P1 and P2 respectively and reaching the eyepiece is equal
to
.
(Bright)
(Dark)
These fringes are concentric rings or straight line depending upon the mutual
inclination of mirrors M1 and M2 (M2). If mirrors M1 and M2 are parallel to each
other the case similar to the air film between two parallel plate and fringes formed
are concentric rings.
Applications
1. Measurement of wavelength
2. Thickness of thin transparent sheet
3. Determination of the refractive index of gases
4. Standardization of the meter
5. Determination of difference in wavelength of two waves

Fabry-Perot Interferometer
In Fabry-Perot Interferometer interference phenomenon was observed between the
reflected wave from the first surface and transmitted wave after getting reflected
from the second surface. The path difference
between these waves had been
, where was angle of refraction in the case when two surfaces were
parallel to each other, d is separation between the two surfaces. For near normal
incidence, ( is small),

= 2d, phase difference =

If both the surface are partially silvered, transmitted wave from the first surface
undergoes multiple reflections at both the interfaces. Each time this wave reaches
an interface, it gets partially reflected and partially transmitted

Multiple reflection and transmission from partially silvered surface

The resultant waves in two mediums 1 & 3 are actually the sum of several waves
which have path difference (thus phase difference) among themselves. The
interference pattern is then observed in both the medium 1 (reflected wave) and
medium 3 (transmitted wave). Fabry-Perot interferometer and Fabry-Perot Etalon
are based on the principle of multiple beam interferometry. Before discussing the
Fabry perot Interferometer, we will first find out the resultant intensity of reflected
and transmitted wave and determine the interference conditions. We will also be
dealing with the complex representation of light wave (light wave is a transverse
electromagnetic wave). Let, for simplicity assume that medium 3 is same as
medium 1.
Fabry Perot Interferometer and Fabry Perot-Etalon

The Fabry- Perot interferometer is based on the fringes produced by the

phenomenon of multiple beam interference in transmitted light. Here two plates
(partialy silvered on inner surfaces) are separated by a distance d such that the
inner surfaces are parallel to each other. The separation d between the inner surface
is large (usually 0.1 10 cm) and the observations are made near the normal
direction. Light ray from a point P1 of the broad source S is incident on plate E1 at
an angle and a series of parallel rays are emergent after the plate E2. The rays are
brought to focus at a point P2 using a lens. The condition for maxima is given by

Where n is the refractive index of the medium between the two plates (which is
usually air.)
This condition of maxima is fulfilled by all the point on a circle through P2 with
their center at O'. (O is the point of intersection of axis of lens with the screen).
Different order maxima are obtained by varying .

We thus have a series of concentric rings similar to those obtained with Michelson
interferometer when mirrors M1and M2 are parallel to each other. The
interferometer can be used to determine the wavelength of monochromatic light
and the difference between the two closely spaced wavelengths by varying the
separation between plates as discussed in the case of Michelson interferometer. The
interferometer is frequently used to determine the detailed structural lines.

Fabry-Perot Etalon:
In a Fabry Perot interferometer, it is essential that the two inner surfaces remain
parallel to each other. In order to avoid any mismatch during the process of
changing separation between the two plates, the two plates with inner surfaces
exactly parallel to each other are fixed for a given d. The whole assembly is now
enclosed such that the two plates cannot be moved separately and only their
inclination with respect to incident light can be changed. The assembly is known as
Fabry Perot Etalon and is used to determine the refractive index of the medium
between the plates.
Applications
1. Determination of wavelength
2. Measurement of difference in wavelength