THE USE OF ZERO, PLACE VALUE SYSTEM, LARGE NUMBERS AND SMALL NUMBERS IN

ANCIENT INDIA
Ancient Indians were the first who invented zero and decimal place value system during Rigvedic
period. The scientific naming system of numerals in Vedic Sanskrit indicates that decimal place
value system was well established. The compounded words for numerals like Ekadasa
(Eka+dasa) = one and ten, Ekavimshati (Eka+vimshati) = one and twenty, Ekatrimshat (Eka +
trimshat) = one and thirty etc. indicate that Eka will be always the first word and Dasa will be
always second word which implies the position of a number is most important since the symbol of
unit & the symbol of ten cannot interchange their positions without affecting the value of the
numbers. Thus units must be counted first later tens and so on. The use of large numbers up to
10^12 considering the powers of 10 in Yajurveda was also not possible without having the
knowledge of place value system and zero.
Ramayana gives the counting of large numbers from 10 to the power of 7 to 10 to the power of
62.
Koti = 100000 x 100 = 10^7
Shanku = Koti x 1000 x 100 = 10^12
Mahashanku = Shanku x 1000 x 100 = 10^17
Vrinda = Mahashanku x 1000 x 100 = 10^22
Mahavrinda = Vrinda x 1000 x 100 = 10^27
Padma = Mahavrinda x 1000 x 100 = 10^32
Mahapadma = Padma x 1000 x100 = 10^37
Kharva = Mahapadma x 1000 x 100 = 10^42
Mahakharva = Kharva x 1000 x 100 = 10^47
Samudra = Mahakharva x 1000 x 100 = 10^52
Mogha = Samudra x 1000 x 100 = 10^57
Mahaugha = Mogha x 1000 x100 = 10^62
Mahabharata also used large numbers up to 10^52.
Lalitavistara is a biography of Buddha and belong to Mahayana school of Buddhism written
around 100 AD. Lalitavistara gives the evidence of use of infinitely large and small numbers.
According to the story of Lalitavistara, A svayamvara (competition for marriage) was organized
for Princess Gopa in which Prince Siddhrtha participated. Apart from other competitions like
horse riding, archery etc., Siddhartha had to undergo the test of mathematics.
Arjuna a great mathematician asked Siddhartha "Do you know the procedure of Kotishatottara
(counting after hundred crores)". Explaining the procedure of Kotishatottara,Siddhartha counted
large numbers starting from Koti (10^7), calculating in multiples of 100 up to Tallakshana (10^53)
referring as first numeration.
Koti x 100 = Ayuta (10^9)
Ayuta x 100 = Niyuta (10^11)
Niyuta x 100 = Kankara (10^13)
Kankara x 100 = Vivara (10^15)
Vivara x 100 = Akshobhya (10^17)
Akshobhya x 100 = Vivaha (10^19)
Vivaha x 100 = Utsanga (10^21)

Utsanga x 100 = Bahula (10^23)

Bahula x 100 = Nagabala (10^25)
Nagabala x 100 = Titila (10^27)
Titila x 100 = Vyavasthanaprajnapti (10^29)
Vyavasthanaprajnapti x 100 = Hetuhila (10^31)
Hetuhila x 100 = Karahu (10^33)
Karahu x 100 = Hetvindriya (10^35)
Hetvindriya x 100 = Samaptalambha (10^37)
Samaptalambha x 100 = Gaganagati (10^39)
Gaganagati x 100 = Niravaravadya (10^41)
Niravaravadya x 100 = Mudrabala (10^43)
Mudrabala x 100 = Sarvabala (10^45)
Sarvabala x 100 = Visangyagati (10^47)
Visangyagati x 100 = Sarvasangya (10^49)
Sarvasangya x 100 = Vibhutangama (10^51)
Vibhutangama x 100 = Tallakshana (10^53)
Building on this first numeration, next eight numerations also have 23 multiplicative steps of 100
and the last number expressed by Siddhartha was 10^421(Uttaraparamanurajahpravesha).
Again replying to Arjuna, Siddhartha talked about "Paranamu"(subtle atoms) with bottom up
approach and particles composed of atoms.
Paramanu (subtle atom) x 7 = Renu (fine particle)
Renu x 7 = Truti (small particle)
Truti x 7 = Vatayanarajah
Vatayanarajah x 7 = shasharajah
shasharajah x 7 = Edhakarajah
Edhakarajah x 7 = Gorajah
Gorajah X 7 = Liksharajah
Liksharajah x 7 = sarshapa
sarshapa x 7 = Yava (breadth of barley)
Yava x 7 = Anguli
Anguli x 12 = Vitasti
Vitasti x 2 = Hasta (cubit)
Hasta x 4 = Dhanu
Dhanu x 1000 = Krosha
Krosha x 4 = Yojana
Assuming an Anguli = finger is 4 centimetres long, the "Paramanu"(subtle atom) is therefore, 4
centimetres divided by 7 ten times, which is 0.04 meter x 7 to the minus 10 or
0.00000000001416 meter (70 trillionths of a meter), which comes amazingly close to the actual
size of carbon atom.
After discussing infinitely large and small numbers, Siddhartha accepted the challenge to
calculate the mass of one Yojana. Siddhartha calculated the mass of one Yojana as
10003000000000000060320512000 atoms. According to Buddhist cosmology, there are three

thousand crore worlds in the universe each measuring 34000 yojanas. The question arises how
many atoms are there in the universe. Siddhartha replied that there are Asamkhyata
(innumerable) atoms in the universe. When 7 paramanus combine each other then only
paramanus occupy space but there are innumerable paramanus in the world do not combine
each other, thus, do not occupy space. Therefore, in view of Siddhartha, paramanus in the
universe are innumerable. In the modern theory of quantum-mechanics, quarks enter into
existence and disappear all the time in the vacuum. Therefore the quantum information is not
fixed or innumerable.
What a glorious heritage!!!! Lalitavistara was translated into Chinese during 2nd century.
Therefore, Lalitavistara cannot be dated later than 1st century. Possibly, it might have written few
hundreds years before 2nd century.
Unfortunately, Modern textbooks teach us that Aryabhata invented zero in 5th century and
Indians had no knowledge of zero and place value system before 5th century. Interestingly, one
grant of Katachchuri king Taralswami is dated in the year 346 and the year is recorded in decimal
place value notation. Historians declared this grant as forgery because Indians had no
knowledge of plave value system before 5th century. Shame on these historians.
Evidently, Indians had the knowledge of zero and place value system since Vedic period. Racist
western and Eurocentric scholars do not accept this fact. Therefore, we teach our children that
Indians had no knowledge of Zero and place value system before 5th century.
WE LOOK FOR A CERTIFICATE FROM WEST. (Mera Muajjim hi mera katil hai ab anjame insaaf
kya hoga!!!!)
SHAME ON US !!!! WE ARE "NALAYAK" DESCENDANTS OF A GLORIOUS HERITAGE.

Pranshu saxena

Date of Mahabharata war:

Some Extreme Daters claim that
Aryabhatta claims that Mahabharata was 3100 BC
....
Now, Aryabhatta states 3 yugapadas and 6 Manus and 27 yugas elapsed at the point of
Mahabharata.
The stanza of the sloka starts with Shastyabdanam Shadbhiryada vyateetastra yascha yuga
padah.
..
..
Shastyabdanam Shadbhi means 60 x 6 = 360. While printing the manuscript, the word
Shadbhi was altered to Shasti, which implies 60 x 60 = 3600 years after Kali Era.
..
...

and that was used to denote that Mahabharat was 3100 BC. Clearly Aryabhatta is describing
something else which occured 360 years ago.
Actually, another interpretation is that he is describing the Yugic cycle as a day or week and then
what part has elapsed.
Anyway, the change of Shadbhi to shasti is arbitrary. It makes the calculation 3600 instead of
360.
Aryabhattas birth time was fixed as 476 A.D so 360 years back was 116 AD which was also a
Date for a great upheaval in Mathura from Numismatic and other evidence. the overthrow of
Kanishka most likely and establishment of Vaishanava kushana kings.
(The story of Vrishni overthrow of Kamsa may have been repeated by overthrow of similar
sounding Kanishka by Soorsainis, Yaudheyas, Malavas and Arjunayanas. Last three claiming
descent from three Kaunteyas.)
Since in every genuine manuscript (from a point of view, well the critical edition), we find the word
Shadbhi and not the altered Shasti.
Aryabhatta is describing an event 360 years earlier to him.
.
..
Actually the extreme daters use circular logic.
They state that as Kaliuga started 3102 BC then Aryabhataa was ancient mathematician in 2742
BC!!
.
..
On one end they state that Mahabharata was 3100 BC on evidence of Aryabhata and when that
evidence is overturned, they make this claim.
...
...
They are tied to this 3102 BC date without any evidence and thus, try to make all the evidence
conform to it and when that is overturned, they overturn the history.
.
..
The Puranas and Kharavela inscriptions all give 1050 (or 1015 years Sanskrit is read left to right
or right to left) as gap between Mahapadma Nanda and Parikshita.
.
..
This textual evidence backed by 9th cen BC Vrishni Sangh coins depicting Vasudeva ties us to
lower dates. I am not saying that is hard and fast. The evidence for 1400 BC date is more and is
in logical sequence.
.
..
The Extreme daters make 3102 BC as Kaliyuga and then place Mauryas in 2000 BC.
.
..
.
The connection of Mauryas and especially Asoka to the Greek states in Central Asia is attested

with Epigraph evidence. Disconnecting them subverts the entire world history on its head.
..
..
Even if extreme daters are right, they do not create a conclusive argument around the rest of
history like Bhartiya Vidya Bhawan and others like Chatursena and Sanskritayana using the 1450
BC date.
.
..
The extreme daters even try to move Buddha by 1200 years. Which is again possible.
.
..
The Sramana sects that were later co-opted by followers of Buddha (and Mahavira) may be
extant centuries before under different names.
.
There is no maybe!
Mahabharata describes them in Vana parva in Yudhishthara's retinue.
Like Jains have 24 Teerthankars, some Buddha sects especially sarvasti-vada has multiple
Buddhas also and that is the basis of Jatakas.
.
..
But tying one of Bodhisatvas born 1200 years prior to Buddha to Asoka (epigraphic evidence
again would make Alexander older than Moses for extreme daters!).
.
..
Extreme daters fail the test of world history. Unless Mahabharat occured on another planet which
is possible!! Never close any avenue or option till conclusively closed.
.
..
Another popular involuntary co-conspirator of Extreme daters is Varaha Mihira.
Again i do need to emphasize two things. Mihira was from west and probably even of persian/
central asian origin
(having said that Indian culture flourished there in those regions even till 800 AD and even later
so Mihira could still be as Indian as Chandragupta II, the ancestors of Hemu of Panipata fame
lived in Ghor province of Afghanistan till 1200 AD! and Bhargavas were family priest for Suri
royals of Ghor hundreds of year before Panipata!).
Mihira was a member of Gupta inner circle.
.
..
He was even awarded the highest honor equivalent of Bharat Ratna of the day, Varaha
.
hence Varaha Mihira.
.
..
Varaha Mihira stated that 2526 years before start of Saka count (either Shalivahana saka starting

in 79 AD or Vikrama Saka starting in 57 BC) [Brihat Samhita].

.
When Saptarishis (ursa major) was near Magha Yudhistira was king 2526 years before Saka
time.
.
..
Now they use time of Yudhishthara as 2526 minus 78 AD as 2448 BC.
.
..
No, again there is sleight of hand. The sanskrit sloka of Varahamihira is translated by BORI as
Saka only aka time.
.
..
Yudhishthara was King 2526 years before current Time!
.
..
And it is from book Jagaccandrika which is commentary on the treatise written by
Varahamhiara. It was written by Utpala or Bhata Utpala, (Soota Utpala if you may in terms of
Mahabharata references).
...
...
The date is 832 AD for that commentary. It may even be upto 200 years later.
.
..
The dating of text is open to interpretation, it is the time of Varahamihira or the time of the copy of
the commentary on the text we are using.
Varahamihira evidence becomes 2526 minus Varahamihira (500 AD) as 2026 BC
or 2526 - 832 AD aka 1694 BC or upto 200 years later.
Third point:
Mahabharata Drona Parva also refers to Jayadhratha's killing during a eclipse episode on 14th
day of the war, which some consider as another short solar eclipse.
This document is basically concerned with analysis of all eclipses visible at Kurukshethra
(Location where Mahabharata war took place, north of New Delhi, Longitude 76 deg 49 min East,
Latitude 29 deg 59 Min North) from 3300 BC to about Buddha-Mahavira-Parshvanaatha time of
about 700BC.
During the period of our interest, 3500BC to 700 BC, nearly 4350 Lunar Eclipses and 6960 solar
eclipses have occurred on earth.
Of these nearly 673 solar and lunar eclipses occurred in pairs of time gap of about nominal 15
days corresponding to roughly half lunar month. We need to search amongst these 673 for
eclipse pairs visible in Kurukshethra, which occurred in 'Thirteen' days.
After serious analysis of all the eclipses, six eclipse pairs from 3129 BCJ, 2599BCJ, 2056 BCJ,
1853 BCJ, 1708 BCJ and 1397 BCJ clearly are the best candidates for Mahabharata war year
from 'thirteen day' eclipse pairs view point.

There are others that have low obscurity for solar eclipse, or have dominant penumbral lunar
eclipse content and hence do not constitute strong candidates for the Mahabharata war.
The dating is in Julian and uses 4704 BC as Julian Year.
(This was first done in 1990s and the results presented in Julian dates. )
The dates of this eclipse pair are Julian 3129 and Julian month of August.
In ancient Bharata, since the full moon occurred on Proshtapada, the month would be considered
as Bhadrapada. Normally, this is the monsoon rainy season in North India.
The epic states that drought like conditions existed.
So 3129 BC date loses out.
Imagine a bad monsoon. The Julian date of 3129 BCJ could be read as 4704 -3129 BC aka 1575
BC. This was one of initial arguments on the date also by Later Daters!
The 2559 BC period is problematic as in reality there was an extra eclipse in the period which
would have been caught by the Poet of Mahabharata. three eclipses rather than 2!
The third candidate is eclipse pair from 2056 BCJ. It occurs in Margashira/pushya months, the
eclipse occurring when moon is between Punarvasu/pushya nakshathra, and would be right in
the middle of war.
But because now we are in 2056 BC already, most "biased" Indian researchers do not even look
at this and this matches one of Varahamihira dates.
4th and 5th occur near or after Uttaarayan! And 1708 BC date is also one of matches for
VarahaMihira date.
The last candidate of eclipse pair occurs in 1397 in the month of Bhadrapada. It is a reasonably
good candidate for Mahabharata war.
The "biased" indian researchers than move away.
By the way the 1397 BC may be 1457 BC in the calculations. (the 60 year cycle float for
recording the Mesopotamia eclipses).
.
..
And the 1450 BC date is backed by other evidences as well. That is also what Chatursena and
Bhartiya Vidya Bhawan and RC Majumdar and Bhandarkar (well his successors) concluded.
.
..
Ethnically, i would like to go to 2056 BC date as well. That will place Mahabharata writing as
same period as Mesopotamian Temple texts and Egyptian papyrus scrolls. But, see other
evidences are all for later 1500 BC to 1177 BC dates.
The dates like 1708 BC and 2056 BC are not even researched by the Extreme daters. and Later
daters ignore them.
Now we do have Mesopotamian temple steles telling story of Pururava and Urvashi in 3000 BC
circa. (inscription, stories and steles published by Banarasidass Motilal in 1971)
So 3102 BC may be actual important date in our history maybe the date for Yayati or Pururava!

The Indian civilization began with Vaivasta Manu and his son Ikshvaku and his son-in-law Budha
founding the Surya Vamsha and Chandra Vamsha and the 3102 BC can be the date for that
event. the foundation of kingly authority.
Textual evidence
The Puranas gave two dates for the event of Mahabharat - 950BC or 1452B according to KP
Jaiswal Institute.
Jains note 920 years elapsed between Krishna and Mahavira again pushing the date to 1448 BC
as lower value.
So the evidence is in favor of lower dates not lower than 1377 BC though Aurobindo even pushed
it lower to 1194 BC as well.
We have probable outliers of 1700 BC also from some other epigraph or textual evidences.
The mass of evidence however you may term it puts the date in float 1700 to 1194 BC and that
points to 1450 BC as a median date (may not be actual date there would be float. we are using
statistics and standard deviation here.)
As i said, the 2000 BC date is ignored by extreme daters who stick to 3102 bc!
Also we have another evidence from an inscription in Jaisalmer which states some 3000 years
elapsed since Yudhishthara.
That Lodorva inscription may be as old as 10th century to 1474 AD because that piece of Rock
on the mountain was used again and again to record events.
The place in question was contested by several Rajput groups over a period of 700 years!
The reading may be contaminated by fact that yamadwara or land of dharma was also name for
province now called Kandhara and southern Afghanistan (and Helmand was called Sarasvati at
one point) and several of these Rajput groups Langahs and Bhattis ruled there in previous time.
so the inscription may mean the time elapsed since leaving the old home.

SQUARE ROOT OF 10 : ACCURATELY CALCULATED BY ANCIENT JAIN MATHEMATICIANS

Jambudvipaprajnapti (500 - 300 BC), a Jain work on cosmology, calculated that the
circumference of a circle of diameter 1,00,000 yojanas is 316227 yojana + 3 gavyuti + 128 dhanu
+ 13 1/2 angula and a little over. Converting these to yojana (1 yojana = 14 km, 4 gavyuti = 1
yojana, 2000 dhanu = 1 gavyuti and 96 angula = 1 dhanu), the circumference is
316227.766017578125 (316227.766017578125 / 100000 = 3.162277660178125). It is thrilling to
see that ancient Jain mathematicians have correctly computed the square root of 10 up to 11
decimal places.
CRYPTOGRAPHY (Error Detection and Correction) IN VEDIC TIMES
Vedic Rishis had developed three natural methods (samhit, pada, karma) and eight special encoding
methods (Jat, Ml, Shikh, Rekh, Dhvaja, Danda, Ratha, Ghana) for recitation of verses which are
similar to modern error correction codes in computers and communication.
"Ml" method is very much similar to modern linear block code. These methods are based on advanced
mathematical concept & algebraic thinking. Each encoding method is capable of detecting one type of
error. Due to these methods, Vedic Mantras could have been preserved in original form even after
thousands of years.

WHY PELL'S EQUATION MUST BE RENAMED AS BRAHMAGUPTA'S EQUATION

Brahmagupta (63 BCE-19 CE) was the first who solved the second order indeterminate equation
using a general method. Brahmagupta invented a classical method to generate infinitely many
integer solutions of an equation "Nx^2 + 1 = y^2" where N is a positive and non-square integer. If
N is less than zero or N is a perfect square than infinitely many integral solutions can be easily
obtained. But Brahmagupta was only interested in solving harder equations where N is a positive
integer but not a perfect square. He solved the following equations.
11x^2 + 1 = y^2 : The solution is (x,y) = (3,10), (161/5, 534/5)...........
61x^2 + 1 = y^2 : The smallest solution is x = 226153980 and y = 1766319049
Interestingly, Brahmagupta challenged that any person who is able to solve the equations 83x^2
+ 1 = y^2 and 92x^2 + 1 = y^2 in a year will be a truly mathematician.
In 1657 AD, French mathematician, Fermat, who was studying these equations, challenged his
contemporaries to solve the equation but nobody succeeded in solving the equation in integers.
Only in 1732, Swiss mathematician, Leonard Euler solved the equation and incorrectly named
this equation as Pell's Equation since English mathematician John Pell (1610-1685 AD) had
mentioned this equation but there is no contribution to this subject by Pell. Hence, so-called Pell's
equation must be named as Brahmagupta's Equation.
Interestingly, Euler had corresponded with Danish protestant missionaries in South India around
1730 AD about the translations of mathematical and astronomical techniques of Indians.

Ashoka

WHO WAS THE EMPEROR ASHOKA? A MAURYA KING or A KASHMIR KING?

Shocked!!! me too. But there are many valid reasons to believe that the great emperor Ashoka might be a
Kashmir king. There were two Ashokas in Ancient Indian history. One was a Kashmir king and the other
was a Maurya king.
MAURYA KING?
1. The epigraphic evidence does not provide any clue about Ashokas Mauryan connection or at least,
Magadha connection.
2. According to my limited knowledge, Puranas mention nothing to establish that Mauryan king
Ashokavardhana promoted Buddhism.
3. Interestingly, historians conveniently concluded that both Ashokas were contemporaries without any
evidence so that they can defend the distorted date of Buddha nirvana and the false identity of
Sandrokottus.
KASHMIR KING?
1. According to Kalhanas Rajatarangini, Gonanda I was the contemporary of Jarasandha of Magadha and
Kansa of Mathura. Kalhana mentions that 52 Kashmir kings, from Gonanda I to Abhimanyu, reigned for
1266 years. After that, Gonanda III ascended the throne of Kashmir. Considering the reign of Gonanda I
around 3147 BCE, Gonanda III might have ascended the throne around 1881 BCE.
2. Kalhana stated that three Turushka kings namely Hushka, Jushka and Kanishka ruled Kashmir when 150
years elapsed from the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha.
3. The tradition of Sa-skya-pa scholars tells us that Buddha attained nirvana around 2134-2133 BCE. They
fix the date of the birth of Buddha around 2213 (Earth-Dragon year) and the date of nirvana on the
boundary of 2134 BCE (Fire-Pig year) & 2133 BCE (Earth-Mouse year). Buddhist scholar Atisa Dipankar
Srijnana mentioned that Buddha attained nirvana in 2136 BCE.

4. Kalhana confirms that Kashmir king Ashoka was the patron of Buddhism.
5. Ancient Buddhist sources tell us that Ashoka was coronated after 100 years from nirvana of Buddha.
6. As per my knowledge, Buddhist sources did not mention about Ashokas Mauryan connection or
Magadha connection.
7. Based on the above, the chronology can be derived as follows:
The birth of Buddha 2214-2213 BCE
The nirvana of Buddha 2134-2133 BCE
Ashoka 2034-2000 BCE
Jaloka-2000-1990 BCE
Damodara II 1990-1984 BCE
Hushka-1984-1960 BCE
Jushka -1960-1950 BCE
Kanishka 1950-1910 BCe
Abhimanyu- 1910-1881 BCE
The coronation of Gonanda III 1881 BCE
In view of the above, it appears that the great emperor Ashoka was the Kashmir king and not Maurya king.
Why not we attempt some scientific dating of rock edicts, pillars of Ashoka to settle an accurate date and
find the real Ashoka? Whether Cosmogenic Radionuclide Dating can be accurate?

Narayan Pandit

NARAYANA PANDIT'S FACTORIZATION METHOD

Narayana Pandit (1325-1400 AD) displayed the knowledge of simple recurring continued fraction method
in the solution of the equation of the type Nx^2 + 1 = y^2 where the square root of non-square positive
number to be computed. He gave a method to compute approximate value of a square root of non-square
number. He proved that if x and y are a pair of roots where x is not greater than y in the equation of the
type Nx^2 + 1 = y^2, than the square root of N is approximately equal to y divided by x .
This method of Nryana Pandit is amazingly accurate and equivalent to all other methods. In the enclosed
illustration, he explicitly applied a factorization method by representing a non-square integer as the
difference of two squares. This method is now known as Fermat's factorization method whereas Nryana
Pandit applied it much earlier than Fermat. Hence, this method must be named as Nryana Pandit's
factorization method.